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kkkU}0SMkM£t0A 


«K^^ v.v ■-."%' ^S^3^t^* ■?  '^  if^^^sl-'-^ -"    ^^  i*:"»^:f''''^''^*v*    '■■'      ":  V^i    ■^-  ; 


GENERAL   BIOGRAPHY; 


OR, 


LIVES 


or 


THE  MOST  EMINENT  PERSONS 


OF 


ALL  AGES,  COUNTRIES,  CONDITIONS,  and  PROFESSIONS, 


ARRANGED  ACCORDING  TO  ALPHABETICAL  ORDER. 


lUusttatcb  iaift)  ^oxtxaits* 


VOLUME 


LONDON : 
PRINTED  BY  G.  SMEETON,  17,  ST.  MARTIN'S  LANE,  CHARING  CROIS, 


1818. 


I      LIBRARY I 


\  o^ 

\e\8  ■  ANT  ( 

jyi  lo  ANTIMACO,  ]\Iark  Antony,  a  learned 
p  U'f-  Italian,  was  born  at  Mantua  about  the  year 
1473.  His  father,  who  was  also  a  man  of  leara- 
ing,  sent  him  at  an  early  age  to  Greece,  where 
he  passed  about  five  years  in  the  study  of  the 
Greek  language  under  John  Mosco,  a  Spartan. 
Returning  to  Italy,  he  opened  a  school  at  Man- 
tua for  the  study  of  Greek  and  polite  literature, 
which  became  famous.  He  afterwards  pursued 
the  same  employment  at  Ferrara,  at  which  city 
he  died  in  1552,  Antimaco  translated  variotre 
pieces  from  the  Greek,  which  were  printed  at 
Basil  in  1540,  together  with  an  oration  in  praise 
of  Grecian  literature.  He  also  wrote  Latin 
poems,  some  of  which  were  printed,  and  some 
left  in  MS.      Tirahoschi.  —  A. 

ANTINE,  a  Benedictine  monk,  born  at 
Gonireux,  in  the  diocese  of  Liege,  in  1688, 
was  the  editor  of  several  useful  historical  works. 
He  publi  hed,  in  1736,  the  five  first  volumes 
of  a  new  edition  of  "  Du  Cange's  Glossary," 
with  valuable  corrections  and  additions.  He  also 
bestowed  much  pains  upon  "  Bouquet's  Col- 
lection of  French  Historians,"  and  on  "  The 
Art  of  verifying  Dates,"  published  in  4to.  in 
1750,  a  very  useful  work,  reprinted,  \\ith  en- 
largements, in  1770.     Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

ANTIOCHUS  L  Soter,  the  son  of  Se- 
leucus  Nicanor,  by  Apame,  daughter  of  Arta- 
bazus,  a  Persian,  is  known  in  history  for  no- 
rhing  so  much  as  the  story  of  his  love  for  Srrato- 
nice,  his  mother-in-law.  Not  able  to  conquer 
a  passion  which  he  conceived  to  be  hopeless, 
and  dared  not  to  disclose,  he  fell  into  a  lingering 
disease,  which  brought  him  to  the  lowest  extie- 
.jTiity.  His  father,  who  had  a  great  affection  for 
him,  employed  the  celebrated  physician  Era- 
sistratus  to  discover  a  remedy  for  his  disorder. 
By  the  changes  in  his  pulse  and  countenance 
whenever  Stratonice  entered  the  chamber,  the 
physician  detected  the  cause  of  the  malady.  In 
■order  to  induce  his  father  to  consent  to  what 
alone  could  effect  a  cure,  Erasistratus  pretended 
that  the  prince  was  in  love  with  his  wife,  and 
lamented  that  the  case  was  incapable  of  relief. 
Seleucus  strongly  expostulated  with  him  against 
suffering  his  son  to  die,  when  -compliance  with 
his  wishes  would  save  him.  "  Would  you  do 
so  (said  Erasistratus),  provided  Stratonice  were 
the  object  of  his  aflections  ?"  "  Most  willing- 
ly!" replied  the  king.  "The  ctire,  then,  (re- 
turned the  physician)  is  in  your  own  power  ;" 
and  thereupon  disclosed  to  him  what  he  had 
discovered.  Seleucus  made  good  his  promise, 
and  resigned  the  beautiful  Stratonice  to  his  son, 
and  with  her  a  considerable  part  of  his  domi- 
voL.  1. 


297      ) 


UNiVEnciTi  ^.-j  California 

SANTA  BARBARA 
ANT' 


nions,  causing  tliem  to  be  crowned  king  and 
queen  of  Upper  Asia. 

After  the  death  of  his  father,  he  succeeded  to 
all  his  empire,  taking  up  his  own  residence  at 
Antioch.  An  expedition  of  one  of  his  generals 
against  the  Bithynians  proved  unsuccessful.  He 
made  great  preparations  for  dispossessing  Anti- 
gonus  Gonatus  of  Macedon,  but  at  length  re- 
signed his  pretensions  to  him,  on  his  marrying 
Phile,  the  daughter  of  Stratonice  by  Seleucus. 
He  afterwards  defeated  the  Gauls,  who  had  made 
a  settlement  in  Lesser  Asia,  whence  those  pro- 
vinces conferred  on  him  the  title  oi  Sotcr,  or  Sa- 
Z'iour.  He  was  himself  defeated  by  Eumenes, 
king  ofPergamus  ;  and  soon  after,  returning  to 
Antioch,  died  there,  B.  C.  261,  after  a  reign  of 
nineteen  years,     llnivcrs.  Hist. — A. 

ANTIOCHUS  II.THEos,thesonofthepre- 
cedingby Berenice.  Hissumameof 77?fw, orGod, 
was  conferred  on  him  by  the  flattery  of  the  people 
of  Miletus,  whom  he  delivered  from-  the  tv- 
ranny  of  Timarchus,  governor  of  Curia.  In 
the  third  year  of  his  reign  a  bloodv  war  broke 
out  between  him  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
king  of  Egypt,  on  occasion  of  an  insult  offered 
to  Apame,  sister  to  Antiochus,  and  widow  of 
Magas,  king  of  Cyrene.  Antiochus  Invaded 
the  dominions  of  Ptolemy  with  a  numerous 
army  collected  from  all  the  provinces  of  his  em- 
pire. While  he  was  engaged  in  this  war,  the 
events  of  which  are  little  known,  the  Parthians 
revolted  from  him  under  Arsaces,  who  fixed  his 
residence  at  Hecatorrrpolis,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Parthian  empire,  which  afterwards 
became  a  formidable  rival  to  tlie  Roman.  The 
governor  of  Bactria  likewise  set  up  for  himself; 
and  these  examples  were  followed  bv  tlie  neigh- 
bouring nations,  so  that  Antiochus  lost  all  his 
provinces  beyond  the  Euphrates.  These  events 
induced  him  to  make  a  peace  with  Ptolemy,  of 
which  one  of  the  conditions  was,  that  he  should 
divorce  his  wife  Laodice,  who  was  his  half- 
sister,  and  by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  and 
marry  Berenice  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy.  This 
was  effected ;  but  on  the  death  of  Ptolemy,  two 
years  afterwards,  Antiochus  recalled  Laodice 
with  her  children,  and  repudiated  Berenice. 
Laodice,  however,  fearing  lest  his  mind  should 
change  again,  resolved  to  employ  the  present 
opportunity  in  securing  the  succession  to  her 
son,  who,  by  the  treaty  with  Ptolemy,  had  been 
disinherited.  Slie  therefore  procured  her  hus- 
band to  be  poi?oned  ;  and  while  belay  expiring, 
caused  him  to  be  personatctl  by  a  man  who 
greatly  resembled  him,  and  wlio  recommended 
Laodi(.£  and  her  cliildren  to  tlie  nobles  and 
2  a 


ANT 


(     298     ) 


ANT 


people.  In  consequence,  hrr  oldest  son,  Seleu- 
lus  Callinicus,  asccmltd  the  throne  without 
ojniosition.  Antiochus  Tlieos  died,  B.  C.  246, 
after  a  reign  of  riftccn  years.  Laodicc  con- 
HHiimated  her  wicked  deed  bv  tlie  murder  of 
Berenice  and  her  infant  son.  Vniv.  Hist.  —  A. 

ANTIOCHUS  III.  THE  Great,  was  the 
second  son  of  Selcucus  Callinicus,  king  of  Sy- 
lia.  On  the  death  of  his  brother  Selcucus  Ce- 
raunus,  being  in  his  tiftcenth  year,  he  was  pro- 
claimed his  successor  bv  the  good  offices  ot  his 
uncle  Acha-us,  B.  C.  225.  The  tranquillity  of 
the  beginning  of  his  reign  was  interrupted  by 
the  revolt  of  two  of  his  general,  wliich  ended 
in  their  destruction.  Discontents  were  likewise 
occasioned  by  the  bad  practices  olhis  prime  mi- 
nister Hermias,  who  was  at  lene;th  put  to  death 
by  the  king's  orders.  In  his  fiftli  year  he  had 
two  ni'^re  dangerous  foes  to  contend  with  ; 
Achicus,  who  was  driven  into  rebellion  through 
the  artifices  of  some  of  his  foes  at  court,  and 
usurped  tlie  sovereignty  of  Asia  Minor ;  and 
Ptolemy  Philopator,  king  of  Egypt,  who  held 
from  him  Ccsle-Syria,  which  had  been  con- 
quered by  liis  predecessor.  Antiochus  first 
made  war  against  the  latter,  which,  after  various 
fortune,  was  terminated  by  a  great  defeat  he  re- 
ceived from  Ptolemy  at  Raphia,  B.  C.  217,  the 
consequence  of  which  was  a  treaty,  whereby 
Antiochus  yielded  to  him  Palestine  and  Ccelc- 
Syria.  Antiochus  then  marched  against  AcIikus, 
whom  he  shut  up  in  the  castle  of  Sardis,  where 
lie  was  treacherously  delivered  up  to  the  king, 
and  sacrificed  to  the  safety  of  the  state,  notwith- 
standing the  gratitude  that  pleaded  in  his  favour. 
Antiochus  then  made  an  expedition  into  Media 
and  Parthia,  and  obliged  Arsaccs  to  take  refuge 
in  Hyrcania,  whither  he  followed  him,  and  took 
the  capital  town.  But  at  length  he  found  it  ne- 
cessary to  make  peace,  and  leave  him  in  pos- 
session of  Parthia  and  Hyrcania,  on  conditions 
of  alliance.  Nearly  the  same  was  the  conclu- 
sion of  his  expedition  against  the  king  of  Bac- 
fi  ia.  He  afterwards  crossed  mount  Caucasus, 
and  entered  India  ;  and  such  success  attended 
his  attempts  to  enlarge  and  confirm  his  authori- 
ty in  those  eastern  regions,  that,  after  a  warfare 
of  seven  years,  he  brought  back  with  him  a 
high  reputation,  and  the  surname  of  Great.  But 
his  grcatnes.  had  not  yet  been  measured  with 
that  of  Rome. 

Ptolemy  Philopator  dying,  left  his  son  Pto- 
lemy Epiphanes,  a  child  five  years  old.  This 
minority  seemed  an  excellent  opportunity  to 
Antiochus,  not  only  for  recovering  liis  lost  pro- 
vinces, but   for   furtlier  aggrandisement.     He 


therefore  entered  into  a  treaty  witli  Plulip,  king 
of  Macedon,  for  making  a  compltte  division 
between  them  of  tlic  young  king's  dominions  ; 
and,  nuirching  into  Coele-Syriaand  Palestine,  he 
made  liimsclf  master  of  thi-m.  Meur.time  the 
Romans,  having  tiiumphantly  concluded  the 
second  Punic  war,  were  become  famous  over 
all  those  parts  of  the  world.  The  guardian  ^  of 
Ptolemy  were  therefore  induced  to  implore  the 
protection  of  the  republic,  which  was  granted, 
and  embassadors  were  sent  from  Rome  to  Phi- 
lip and  Antiochus,  enjoining  them  to  abstain 
from  hostilities  against  their  ally.  They  also 
appointed  Aristomenes  to  be  Ptolemy's  chief 
minister ;  who  hired  a  large  body  of  troops 
in  -^tolia,  under  Scopas,  for  the  defence  of  the 
Egyptian  dominions.  Scopas,  while  Antio- 
chus was  absent  in  an  expedition  against  Attalus 
king  of  Pcrgamus,  recovered  Palestine  and  part 
of  Cosle-Syria ;  but  on  the  return  of  Antio- 
clius  he  was  defeated  by  him,  and  obliged  to 
surrender  at  Sidon  with  all  his  remaining  forces. 
The  two  provinces  returned  to  the  dominion  of 
Antiochus  ;  the  Jews,  in  particular,  showing 
great  attachment  to  him,  and  receiving  from 
him  various  favours  and  privileges.  He  next, 
with  a  great  fleet  and  army,  invaded  Asia  Mi- 
nor, and  reduced  many  cities  to  submission,  ei- 
ther voluntarily  or  by  force,  amongst  tlie  rest 
Ephesus,  wliere  he  wintered.  The  free  Greek 
cities  in  Asia  now  took  the  alarm,  and  made 
application  for  assistance  to  the  Romans,  who 
at  length,  in  earnest,  re.olved  to  check  the  pro- 
gress of  Antiochus.  Meantime  he  liad  further 
encroached  by  crossing  the  Hellespont,  and 
seising  the  Thracian  Chersoncsus  from  his  for- 
mer ally  Philip,  now  at  peace  with  Rome.  An 
embassy  was  sent  from  Rome  to  Antiochus  to 
remonstrate  against  his  proceedings,  but  it  had 
no  other  effect  than  to  exasperate  both  parties. 
Soon  after,  B.  C.  195,  Hannibal  put  himself 
under  the  protection  of  Antioclius,  and  used  all 
his  influence  to  persuade  him  to  make  war  on 
the  Romans.  He  also  endeavoured,  but  with- 
out effect,  to  draw  Carthage  into  a  confederacy 
with  the  king.  Antiochus,  without  declaring 
his  intentions,  strengthened  himself  by  new  al- 
liances, marrying  his  daughter  Cleopatra  to 
Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  and  liis  daugliter  An- 
tiochis  to  Ariarathres,  king  of  Cappadocia. 
Fresh  embassies  passed  between  him  and  the 
Romans,  but  witliout  being  able  to  bring  mat- 
ters to  an  agreement ;  and  at  length  he  took  the 
fatal  resolution  of  going  to  war  with  the  repub- 
lic. It  was  carried  on  both  in  Thrace  and  Less- 
er  Asia  by  sea  and  laud,  for  some  time  with. 


ANT 


(     299     ) 


ANT 


dubious  success  ;  till  the  fleet  of  Antiochus  be- 
ing completely  defeated  on  the  coast  ot  Asia,  he 
in  haste  withdrew  his  forces  from  the  Hellespont, 
and  gave  the  two  Scipios,  Cornelius  and  Afri- 
canus,  a  free  passage  into  Asia.  As  they  ad- 
vanced, the  king,  struck  with  terror,  sent  pro- 
posals of  accommodation  very  advantageous  to 
the  Romans,  which  were  rejected.  He  aho 
restored,  without  ransom,  the  son  of  Africa - 
nus,  who  had  been  captured  in  an  action  ;  an 
act  of  generosity  wdiich  greatly  obliged  the  fa- 
ther, though  lie  could  no  otherwise  show  his 
c;ratitude,  than  by  advising  Antiochus  not  to  ha- 
zard a  battle  till  himselt  should  return  to  the  ar- 
my. Before  this  happened,  however,  the  Ro- 
man army,  commanded  by  the  consul  Scipio, 
and  attended  by  Attains  king  of  Pergamus,  and 
Eumenes,  his  brother,  met  Antiochus  with  his 
numerous  Asiatic  host  at  Magnesia  in  Lesser 
Asia,  where  a  decisive  and  easy  victory  was 
obtained  against  the  Syrian  monarch,  B.C.  190. 
Its  consequences  obliged  Antiochus  to  sue  un- 
conditionally for  peace.  The  terms  granted 
were  nearly  the  same  as  the  Romans  had  insist- 
ed upon  before  the  battle:  that  Antiochus 
should  quit  all  his  pretensions  in  Europe,  limit 
his  Asiatic  dominions  to  the  country  beyond 
mount  Taurus,  and  pay  the  expenses  of  the 
^var.  The  delivery  up  of  Hannibal  was  also 
stipulated,  but  he  withdrew  himself  in  time 
from  the  king's  territories. 

The  unfortunate  monarch  did  not  long  sur- 
vive his  humiliation.  The  story  of  his  death  is 
not  certain.  Jerom,  on  the  testimony  of  Stra- 
bo,  relates,  that,  having  plundered  the  treasures 
in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Belus,  in  the  district  of 
Elemais,  he  was  slain  in  an  insurrection  of  the 
exasperated  people.  Aurelius  Victor  says,  that, 
|;iving  himself  up  to  dissolute  pleasures,  he  was 
tilled  at  an  entertainment  by  a  guest  whom  he 
had  insulted.  He  died,  B.  C.  187,  in  the  hf- 
tv-second  year  of  his  age,  and  thirty-seventh  of 
his  reign.  He  is  allowed  to  have  possessed 
many  great  and  amiable  qualities,  and  is  cele- 
brated for  his  humanity,  clemency,  and  libera- 
lity. A  decree  he  is  said  to  have  promulgated, 
enjoining  his  subjects  not  to  obey  his  commands 
when  contrary  to  the  laws,  displays  a  just  sense 
of  what  a  monarch  ought  to  be,  though  such  an 
•injunction  must  be  nugatory  without  constitu- 
tional means  to  enforce  it.    Univers.  Hist. — A. 

ANTIOCHUS  IV.  Epiphanes,  younger 
son  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  succeeded  his  bro- 
ther Scleucus  I'hilopator,  B.C.  176.  On  the 
treaty  that  followed  the  battle  of  Magnesia,  he 
had  been  sent  to  Rome  by  his  father  as  a  hos- 
tage for  its  performance.     There  he  continued 


thirteen  years,  till  he  was  exchanged  for  his 
brother's  son  Demetrius  ;  and  he  was  on  his 
way  home,  when  Seleucus  was  poisoned  by 
Heliodorus,  who  usurped  the  crown.  By  the 
aid  of  the  kings  Eumenes  and  Attalus,  he  was 
seated  on  the  throne  of  Syria,  and  the  usurper 
expelled.  His  long  residence  in  Rome  seems  to 
have  given  him  a  taste  for  popular  manners, 
which,  in  an  absolute  sovereign,  when  not  un- 
der the  controul  of  judgment  and  sound  sense,  is 
apt  to  produce  incongruities  and  extravagancies. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  fond  of  rambling  about 
the  streets  of  Antloch,  and  frequenting  the 
shops  of  artists,  where  he  made  liimself  ridicu- 
lous by  pretensions  to  connoisseurship  ;  to  have 
mixed  with  the  lowest  of  the  people  at  their 
places  of  amusement ;  to  have  joined  dissolute 
young  men  in  their  frolics  and  debaucheries ;  to 
have  put  on  the  toga  and  acted  the  part  of  a 
Roman  magistrate ;  to  have  scattered  money 
am.ong  the  populace  in  his  fits  of  intoxication  ; 
and  sometimes  to  have  thrown  stones  at  those 
who  followed  him  ;  so  that  by  these  irregulari- 
ties and  violations  of  decorum,  he  obtained  the 
appellation  of  Epimanes,  or  the  Madmayi,  in- 
stead of  that  of  Epiphanes,  or  the  lUustrious, 
which  he  had  bestowed  upon  himself. 

Soon  after  his  accession,  preparations  were 
made  in  Egypt  for  the  recovery  of  Palestine 
and  Coele-Svria,  then  in  the  possession  of  the 
Syrian  king.  Antiochus  resolved  to  prevent 
their  effect  by  beginning  hostilities,  and  accord- 
ingly invaded  Egypt,  after  having  endeavoured 
to  conciliate  the  favour  of  Rome  by  a  splendid 
embassy.  In  a  second  campaign  he  reduced  the 
whole  country,  except  Alexandria;  and  the 
young  king,  Ptolemy  Philometor,  fell  into  his 
hands.  Antiochus  gained  as  much  by  his  cle- 
mency as  his  arms  ;  having  exerted  himself  in 
putting  a  stop  to  the  slaughter  of  the  Egyptians 
in  a  battle  in  which  he  could  have  destroyed 
them  all :  whence  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns 
voluntarily  submitted  to  him.  The  Alexan- 
drians, however,  placed  on  the  throne  Ptolemy 
Euergetes,  also  called  Physcon,  brother  of  Phi- 
lometor, and  made  attempts  to  recover  the  coun- 
try from  the  Syrians.  This  caused  Antiochus  a 
third  time  to  enter  Egypt,  and  lay  siege  to  Alex- 
andria. Ptolemy  Euergetes  and  his  sister  Cleo- 
patra now  sent  embassadors  to  Rome  to  lay 
their  case  before  the  senate,  and  implore  their 
protection.  I'hc  senate,  in  consequence  of  their 
rqjrcsentations,  resolved  to  interpose,  and,  by 
their  authority,  to  put  an  end  to  the  war.  Mean- 
time Antiochus,  to  avert  the  danger,  had  made 
an  agreement  with  his  prisoner  Philometor,  and 
employed  himself  in  restoring  him  to  the  pes- 


ANT 


(    300    ) 


A  N  T 


srssion  of  his  Jominions,  PcUisiiim  excepted. 
That  done,  he  returncil  to  Antioch.  During 
his  absence,  the  two  royal  brothers,  through 
the  mediation  of  their  sister  Cleopatra,  agreed 
to  reign  jointly,  and  shake  off  their  dependence 
on  Antiocluis.  Exaspenxted  at  this  turn  of  af- 
fairs, he  made  a  fourth  expedition  into  Egypt, 
and,  after  reducing  the  greater  part  of  tiie  coun- 
tiv,  was  in  full  march  for  Alexandria,  when  he 
was  met  by  the  three  deputies  of  Rome.  No 
circumstance  in  history  is  moie  demonstrative 
of  the  power  and  haugluy  dignity  of  that  repub- 
lic. Antiochus,  in  his  royal  robes,  at  the  head 
of  his  victorious  army,  advanced  towards  Popi- 
lius  l^a;nas  with  whom  lie  liad  been  intimately 
acquainted  at  Rome,  and  oflcred  him  the  hand 
of  friendship.  Popilius  told  him  that  he  could 
not  receive  it  till  he  had  first  read  to  him  the  de- 
cree of  the  senate,  by  his  submission  to  or  re- 
jection of  which  he  must  judge  him  a  friend  or 
an  enemy.  This  decree  commanded  the  con- 
tending parties  to  suspend  all  hostilities,  on  pain 
to  the  refuser  of  txing  declared  a  foe  to  the 
Roman  people.  Antiochus  desired  some  time 
to  consider  of  the  matter,  and  advise  with  his 
council.  Popilius,  with  a  rod  he  hud  in  his 
hand,  drew  a  circle  round  tlic  king,  and  told 
him  he  expected  a  peremptory  answer  before  he 
left  that  ring.  Antiochus,  after  a  short  hesita- 
tion, declared  himself  ready  to  comply  with  the 
requisition  of  the  republic.  The  tliree  deputies 
then  gave  him  their  hands;  and  Popilius  re- 
newed his  former  familiarity  with  him. 

Antiochus  left  Egvpt  probably  in  no  good  hu- 
mour ;  and  on  his  return  visited  Jerusalem, 
where  he  was  guilty  of  extreme  cruelties  in 
compelling  the  Jews  to  violate  the  principles  of 
their  religion,  and  worship  at  the  heathen  altars 
lie  had  caused  to  be  erected.  He  had  in  a  for- 
mer expedition  taken  Jerusalem  bv  storm,  plun- 
dered and  defiled  the  temple,  and  abolished  all 
the  pr.icticcs  of  the  Jewish  ritual.  These  vio- 
lences, which  arc  particularly  related  in  the 
hooks  of  the  Machabcts,  were  the  cause  of  the 
revolt  of  Mattathias  and  his  sons,  which  so 
long  filled  all  that  country  with  bloodshed,  and 
defied  tlte  whole  power  of  Syria. 

Further  to  ingratiate  him-elf  with  the  Ro- 
mans, on  the  occasion  of  their  subjugation  of 
the  kingdom  of  Maccdon  under  Pcrscs,  he 
caiscd  games  to  he  exhibited  at  Daphne,  near 
Antioch,  with  a  pomp  and  magnificence  which 
that  part  of  the  world,  luxurious  as  it  was, 
had  never  before  witnessed.  The  di^plav  of 
rich(S  on  this  occasion,  though  described  by  so 
weighty  a  historian  as  Polybius,  appears  scarce- 
ly credible  to  a  inodera  reader,  and  must  have 


been  the  product  of  many  plinidcrcd  cities  and 
provinces.  The  king's  own  behaviour  was  so 
full  of  indecent  levity  and  extravagance,  that 
Tiberius  Gracchus,  the  Roman  envoy  at  his 
court,  wrote  to  the  senate,  that  they  need  be 
under  no  apprehensions  from  any  designs  he 
could  form.  He  does  not  seem,  however,  to 
have  wanted  activity  ;  for,  on  a  revolt  of  Ar- 
menia and  Persia,  after  leaving  a  part  of  his 
arinv  with  Lysias  to  reduce  Judaea,  he  marched 
witli  tlie  rest  against  the  Armenian  king  Ar- 
taxias,  whoin  he  defeated  and  took  prisoner. 
He  then  made  an  attempt  on  the  city  of  Elemais^ 
in  Persia  ;  but  meeting  with  a  repulse,  he  with- 
drew to  Ecbatana.  Here,  receiving  news  of 
the  defeat  of  his  armies  in  Judsa,  he  hastened 
towards  Babylon  ;  and  his  rage  and  impatience 
together  threw  him  into  a  violent  disease,  ag- 
gravated by  a  fall  from  his  chariot,  ot  which  he 
died  at  Tabs,  on  the  confines  of  Persia  and 
Babylonia,  B.  C.  165,  in  the  twelfth  year  of 
his  reign,  and  thirty-ninth  of  his  life.  C/h/-» 
vers.  Hist. —  A. 

ANTIOCHUS  V.  EuPATOR,  the  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  only  nine  years  old  at  the 
death  of  his  father,  who  appointed  Philip,  his 
chief  minister,  for  his  guardian.  Lysias,  how- 
ever, had  prc-occupicd  the  post,  and  proclaimed 
the  young  king  ;  and  Philip,  unable  to  contend 
with  him,  retired  into  Egypt.  Lysias  engaged 
with  great  earnestness  in  the  war  with  the  Jews, 
which  Epiphanes  !>ad  begun,  and  led  a  large 
anny  into  tlie  country,  winch  was  defeated  by 
Judas  Machaheus.  \Vith  a  still  nwre  consi- 
derable one  he  again  entered  Judjea,  and  be- 
sieged Jerusalem  ;  whence  he  was  recalled  by 
the  intelligence  that  Philip  had  taken  possession 
of  Antioch,  and  seised  on  the  government.  Ly- 
sias made  peace  with  the  Jews,  and,  marching 
against  Pliilip,  defeated  and  put  him  to  death. 
Aleantime  tlie  Roinan  senate  had  assumed  the 
tutelage  of  the  young  king,  and  refused  to  suf- 
fer Demetrius,  the  son  of  Seleucus  Phllopator, 
who  had  tlie  preferable  right  to  the  crown,  to 
leave  Rome,  w  here  lie  had  been  brought  up  as 
a  hostage.  They  sent  a  cominission  of  guar- 
dianship into  Syria,  with  orders  to  bum  all  the 
decked  sliips,  and  disable  the  war-elephants. 
Octavius,  the  head  of  this  commission,  pro- 
ceeding with  great  arrogance  to  put  this  order 
into  execution,  was  killed  in  a  popular  tumult 
at  I^aodicca,  to  the  great  alarm  of  Lysias,  who 
buried  hiin  with  extraordinary  pomp,  and  sent 
embassadors  to  Rome  for  his  own  exculpation. 
Demetrius  at  length  made  his  escape  from 
RoiTie,  and,  arriving  in  Syria,  was  received  as 
lawful  sovereign   by   the  people  wherever  he 


ANT 


(    301     ) 


ANT 


came.  Lysias  and  his  innocent  ward,  Eupa- 
tor,  were  delivered  by  their  own  soldiers  to  De- 
metrius, vviio  ordered  them  both  to  be  put  to 
death,  B.  C.  162,  after  the  young  king,  by 
his  minister,  had  reigned  between  two  and  three 
years.      Univers.  Hist.  —  A. 

ANTIOCHUSVII.  SiDETEs,or///fi7a«?- 
er,  was  son  of  Demetrius  Soter.  On  the  de- 
sertion of  tlie  throne  of  Syria  by  his  brother 
Demetrius  Nicator,  he  was  invited  by  Cleo- 
patra, the  wife  of  Demetrius,  to  join  his  inter- 
est with  hers,  and  endeavour  to  recover  it 
from  Tryphon,  who  had  usurped  the  supreme 
authority.  He  complied ;  and  gaining  over 
Simon,  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  he  entered  Sy- 
ria with  an  army  of  mercenaries,  married  Cleo- 
patra, and  marched  against  Tryphon,  whom  at 
lengtli  he  drove  to  Apamsea,  where  he  was  kill- 
ed. Antiochus  then  took  peaceable  possession 
of  the  throne,  B.  C.  138,  and  reduced  all  the 
cities  of  Syria  which  had  rendered  themselves 
independent  during  the  intestine  troubles.  He 
then  made  war  on  the  Jews,  and  laid  siege  to 
Jerusalem,  which  he  pressed,  so  hard,  that  the 
high-priest,  John  Hyrcan,  who  had  succeeded 
his  father  Simon,  was  glad  to  purchase  a  peace 
on  the  condition  of  paying  tribute.  He  next 
turned  his  arms  against  Phraates,  king  of  Par- 
thia,  and  entered  the  country  with  a  vast  multi- 
tude, of  which  the  cooks,  singers,  women,  and 
other  ministers  of  luxury,  amounted  to  four 
times  the  number  of  the  soldiers.  He  was  at 
first,  however,  successful,  defeated  Phraates  in 
several  battles,  and  regained  the  provinces 
which  he  had  conquered  from  the  Syrian  em- 
pire. But  being  obliged  to  disperse  his  army 
into  distant  winter-quarters  for  the  sake  of  sub- 
sistence, the  oppressed  people,  joining  with  the 
Parthians,  conspired  to  attack  them  all  in  one 
«lay  ;  and  Antiochus,  marching  with  a  body 
of  troops  to  succour  the  quarters  nearest  him, 
was  overpowered,  and  cut  off,  with  every  man 
under  his  command.  Other  accounts  say,  that 
on  the  loss  of  a  battle  he  put  an  end  to  his  own 
life.  This  happened  in  the  ninth  year  of  his 
reign,  B.  C.  130.  He  w-as  a  prince  of  many 
good  qualities,  a  lover  of  justice,  and  inclined  to 
clemency,  but  too  much  addicted  to  intempe- 
rance and  amusement.  Phraates  is  said,  on 
yiewing  his  dead  body,  to  have  exclaimed, 
**  Your  wine,  Antiochus,  and  your  too  great 
confidence,  have  brought  you  to  this  untimely 
end.  You  thought  you  could  have  swallowed 
The  kingdom  of  Aisaccs  in  your  cups  !"  Uni- 
Vt-rs.  Hist.  —  A. 

ANTIOCHUS    VUI.    Grypus,   or    the 


Hook-nosed,  was  the  son  of  Demetrius  Nicator, 
by  Cleopatra.  This  detestable  woman,  having 
killed  her  eldest  son  Seleucus  with  her  own  hand, 
summoned  her  next  son  Antiochus,  then  under 
tv/enty,  from  Athens,  where  he  was  educated, 
and  proclaimed  him  king  of  Syria,  B.  C.  123, 
in  opposition  to  Alexander  Zebina,  who  had 
usurped  the  throne.  By  the  aid  of  Ptolemy 
Physcon,  king  of  Egypt,  Zebina  was  e.xpelled, 
and,  being  delivered  up  to  Grypus,  was  put  to 
death.  The  young  king,  thus  restored  to  his 
dominions,  began  to  show  an  inclination  for 
ruling  independently  of  his  mother,  who  had 
hitherto  kept  him  in  a  state  of  insignificance. 
Cleopatra,  in  order  to  preserve  her  power,  de- 
termined to  send  for  a  younger  son,  and  di- 
spatch this  by  poison.  She  prepared  a  bowl, 
and  offered  him  a  draught  one  day  as  he  re- 
turned hot  and  weary  from  the  chace.  Being 
forewarned  of  her  purpose,  he  desired  her,  on. 
pretence  of  respect,  to  drink  first.  On  her  re- 
fusal he  called  in  some  lords  of  the  court,  and 
in  their  presence  told  her  the  information  he  had 
received,  and  added,  that  the  only  way  to  clear 
herself  of  the  charge  was  to  drink  what  she  had 
offered  to  him.  Unable  to  evade  the  proposal,, 
she  drank,  and  presently  expired.  After  her 
death,  Antiochus  enjoyed  the  sovereignty  of  Sy- 
ria for  eight  years  in  tranquillity  ;  when  a  rival 
arose,  who  was  Antiochus  the  Cyzicene,  his 
half-brother,  son  of  Cleopatra  by  Antiochus 
Sidetes.  This  occasioned  a  civil  war,  in  which 
Cyzicenus  was  at  fir^t  defeated,,  and  obliged  to 
take  shelter  in  Antioch,  which  had  declared  for 
hrm.  He  escaped  thence  before  Grypus  reco- 
vered it ;  but  his  wife  Cleopatra,  the  daughter 
of  Ptolemy  Physcon,  remained  in  a  sanctuary 
there,  in  which  she  was  barbarously  murdered 
by  the  orders  of  her  own  sister,  Tryphasna,  the 
wife  of  Grypus.  Cyzicenus,  raising  a  new  ar.- 
my,  defeated  that  of  Grypus,  and  took  Tryphae- 
na  prisoner,  whom  he  sacrificed  to  the  manes  of 
his  wife.  The  brothers  then  agreed  to  a  divi- 
sion of  the  kingdom ;  and  afterwards  both 
abandoned  themselves  to  voluptuousness  and  de- 
bauchery, utterly  neglecting  their  affairs.  This 
gave  an  opportunity  to  John  Hyrcan  of  making 
conquests  upon  Syria  ;  and  a  new  war  breaking- 
out  between  the  brothers,  caused  their  domi- 
nions to  be  further  curtailed,  several  cities  mak- 
ing themselves  independent.  At  length,  Grypus 
was  assassinated  by  one  of  his  own  subjects  in 
the  forty-fifth  vearof  his  age,  B.  C.  97. 

Cyzicenus,  some  years  afterwards,  was  de- 
feated and  slain  by  his  nephew  Seleucus.  Uni~ 
vers.  Hist. 


A  N  r 


(   302    ) 


ANT 


Tl»cre  WL-rc  several  otliii  Syrian  kings  of  the 
name  ot  Aiitiocliui,  but  tlicir  lives  arc  not  worth 

rccoriling.  —  A. 

ANTIOCHUS,  a  monk  of  Seba,  in  Pales- 
tine, who  flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  sc- 
venih  century,  was  a  superstitious  writer,  the 
author  of  "  I'andcttes  Divinx  Scripture,"  in 
one  hundred  and  ninety  distinct  homilies.  In 
the  prelate  he  speaks  of  the  taking  of  Jerusa- 
lem by  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia,  and  describes 
the  ci  ucl  ticatment  sutK-rtd  by  the  monks  of  Pa- 
lestine. A  poem  is  annexed,  in  which  he  pi- 
teously  laments  the  loss  of  a  precious  fragment 
of  the  true  cross,  which  was  said  to  liavc  been 
carried  away  by  the  Persians  among  other 
spoils.  'Ihe  work  is  published  in  (ireek  and 
Latin,  in  the  additions  to  the  "  Bibliothcca 
I'atrum."  Faby'ic.  Eil'.Ci.  lib.  v.  c.  34.  §  3. 
Dupin.   Afofcti.   Aloshc-im.  —  E. 

ANTIOCHUS,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  a  dis- 
ciple of  Carneades,  was  a  native  of  Ascalon, 
and  flourished  about  one  hundred  years  before 
Christ.      Cicero    mentions  him   with   respect 
(in  Brut,  ct  Dc  Nat.  Dcor.  lib.  i.),  as  one  of 
his  preceptors,  and  as  the  author  of  an  inge- 
nious treatise  upon  the  academic  sect,  in  which 
he  showed  that  ttic  Peripatetics  and  Stoics  dif- 
fered more  in  words  than  in  real  opinion.     Plu- 
tarch   (in  Lucull.)    mentions  a  treatise  of  his 
"  On  the  Gods  ;"  and  Stephen  of  Byzantium 
says,  that  he  was  the  ornament  of  his  country, 
and  gives  him  the  appellation  of  the  S'xan.     He 
was  brought  to  Rome  by  LucuUus,  and  en- 
joyed the  friendship  of  many  illustrious  men  in 
that  city.     None  of  his  writings   are  extant. 
I'oss,  dc  Hist.  Gr.  lib.  iv.  c.  vii.    Morer'i. — E. 
ANTIPATER,  the  Jew,  was  a  native  of 
Jdumza,  where  his  father,  according  to  Jose- 
phus,  was   governor  ;   though    Eusebius  gives 
him  a  much  meaner  extraction.     Being  a  con- 
siderable person  by  his  wealth  and  influence  in 
the  Jewish  state,  hejoincd  the  Pharisees  against 
Aristobulus  the  high  priest,  and  took  the  part 
of  his  brotlicr  and  competitor,  Hyrcan.    By  his 
authority,  Arctas,  king  of  Arabia,  was  induced 
to  invade  Judxa,  where  he  defeated  Aristobu- 
lus, who  thereupon  applied  for  aid  to  the  Ro- 
mans.    Pompey  afterwards   gained  possession 
of  Jerusalem,  and  raised  Hyrcan  to  the  ponti- 
fical chair.     His  indolence  led  liim  to  commit 
the  management  of  afl'airs  to  Antipater ;  and 
this  artful  i)olitician  took  every  method  of  in- 
gratiating himself  w  ith  the  Romans,  in  order  to 
aggrandise  his  own  family.     He   successively 
^ave  assistance  to  Scaurus,  Gabinius,  and  Cas- 
.-lus,  who  cominaiidcd  in  thoic  countries ;  and 


\vas  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops,  which  ho 
had  levied  for  the  service  of  Julius  Casar,  at 
tlie  taking  of  Pelusium,  where  he  behaved  with 
great  valour.  Caesar,  in  return,  conferred  on 
him  the  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen,  and  gave 
him  the  administration  of  Judxa,  under  Hyr- 
can as  high-priest.  Antipater  supported  the 
Roman  authority  among  the  Jews,  and  urged 
them  to  unlimited  submission.  He  strengtlien- 
cd  his  own  power  by  making  one  son  governor 
of  Jerusalem,  and  another  (Herod,  afterwards 
kinff  of  Judxa)  governor  of  Galilee  and  com- 
mander of  tiie  army.  He  rebuilt  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  in  consequence  of  tlie  decree  of  Cee- 
sar.  In  the  civil  wars,  after  the  death  of  Ca;- 
sar,  he  sent  a  sum  of  money  to  Cassius  when  in 
Syria.  Thus  having  raised  himself  to  the  ef- 
fectual supremacy  in  Judsa,  he  excited  the  envy 
and  jealousy  of  the  natives,  who  could  ill  brook 
the  superiority  of  a  stranger.  One  Malichus, 
who  had  been  of  the  same  party  with  himself, 
and  had  even  been  indebted  to  him  for  his  life, 
bribed  the  servant  of  the  high  priest  to  give  An- 
tipater poison  in  a  cup  of  wine,  which  car- 
ried him  off,  B.  C.  43.    Uiuvcrs.  Hist.  —  A. 

ANTIPATER,  the  Macedonian,  friend  and 
minister  of  king  Philip  and  his  son  Alexander, 
vyas  one  of  the  most  illustrious  characters  of  his 
time.  He  was  nobly  descended,  and  well  edu- 
cated, and  was  first  the  pupil,  and  then  the  in- 
timate friend,  of  Aristotle.  He  was  learned 
himself,  and  a  lover  of  learning ;  plain  in  his 
dress  and  manners,  but  magnificent  in  his  ac- 
tions. MHien  it  was  observed  to  Alexander, 
that  all  his  great  officers  except  Antipater  wore 
purple;  "True,  (replied  he)  but  Antipater  is 
all  purple  within  !"  Philip,  in  few  words, 
gave  him  the  noblest  encomium  a  minister  could 
receive.  "  I  have  slept  soundly  this  morning," 
said  he,  as  he  came  late  one  day  to  the  levee, 
"  for  I  knew  Antipater  was  waking." 

When  Alexander  went  on  his  expedition  into 
Asia,  Antipater  was  left  to  govern  Macedon  ; 
a  task  of  no  small  difficulty  on  account  of  the 
high  spirit  of  Olympias,  who  was  desirous  of 
interfering  in  all  matters  of  state.  Many  dis- 
putes arose  between  them,  in  which  Alexander, 
notwithstanding  his  deference  for  his  mother, 
supported  his  minister.  Besides  the  care  of  Ma- 
cedon, he  had  the  charge  of  keeping  all  Greece 
in  tranquillity.  For  this  purpose  he  maintained 
a  large  fleet  at  sea,  and  a  powerful  and  well- 
disciplined  army  ;  and  when,  upon  the  rebellion 
of  Aleinnon,  governor  of  Thrace,  which  occu- 
pied the  attention  of  Antipater,  Agis  III.  king 
of  Sparta  had  united  several  of  the  Grecian 


ANT 


( 


) 


ANT 


states  against  tlie  Macedonian  dominion,  Anti- 
p.iter,  settling  affairs  in  Thrace,  speedily 
marched  against  Agis  with  a  superior  force, 
defeated  him,  and  at  one  blow  ended  the  w^ir. 

After  Alexander's  death,  at  the  general  coun- 
cil called  by  Perdiccas  for  the  distribution  of  go- 
vernments, that  of  all  the  European  provinces, 
with  the  command  of  the  army  there,  was  given 
to  Antipater.  He  was  soon  called  into  action 
by  a  war  which  broke  out  in  Greece  in  conse- 
quence of  an  edict  issued  bv  Alexander  just  be- 
fore his  death,  enjoining  all  the  states  to  permit 
the  return  of  their  exiles.  The  Athenians  took 
the  lead  in  this  war,  which  at  first  was  so  suc- 
cessful, that  Antipater  was  shut  up  in  Lamia, 
in  Thessaly,  and  closely  invested.  An  army 
from  Asia,  however,  ariiving  to  his  succour, 
the  siege  was  raised  ;  and  Craterus  afterwards 
joining  him,  the  confederate  Greeks  were  de- 
feated. Antipater  then  advanced  towards  Athens, 
which  was  compelled  to  submit  at  discretion. 
Antipater  abolished  the  popular  government 
there,  and  restored  that  of  Solon,  leaving  a  Ma- 
cedonian governor  in  the  place.  On  the  same 
plan  he  settled  the  other  Grecian  states,  showing 
great  moderation,  yet  eiFectuallv  securing  their 
peace  and  their  allegiance  to  the  Macedonian 
empire.  For  these  transactions  he  obtained  die 
title  of  the  father  and  protector  of  Gj  eece.  It 
is  to  the  credit  of  his  general  policy  that  Pho- 
cion,  the  true  patriot,  was  much  attached  to 
him,  and  had  great  influence  over  him. 

When  Perdiccas  afterwards  assumed  the  sove- 
reignty, Antipater,  with  Craterus,  marched  into 
Asia  against  his  general  Eumenes  ;  and  on  the 
death  of  Perdiccas,  Antipater  was  declared  sole 
protector  of  the  young  kings  and  kingdom,  with 
sovereign  power.  He  then  proceeded  to  make 
a  new  division  of  governments  among  the  prin- 
cipal captains;  and  returned  to  Macedon  with 
the  kings,  leaving  the  army  well  satisfied  with 
Ids  proceedings.  Not  long  after  his  return  he 
fell  into  a  dangerous  disease,  which,  added  to 
his  advanced  age,  soon  brought  him  to  extremi- 
ties. To  the  very  last  he  employed  his  cares 
for  the  public.  Passing  over  his  son  Cassander, 
he  bequeathed  his  great  offices  of  protector  and 
governor  of  Macedon  to  Polyspcrchon,  the  old- 
est of  Alexander's  captains  present.  To  liim 
he  gave  a  counsel,  suggested  by  the  experience 
of  his  life,  "  Never  on  anv  account  to  suffer  a 
woman  to  interfere  in  alVairs  of  state."  He 
died,  aged  eighty,  B.  C.  318.  Plutarch.  L'nl- 
vcrs.  Hist.  —  A. 

ANTIPATER,  bishop  of  Bostra,  a  church 
in  Arabia,  flourished  towards  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century.     He  wrote  a  refutation  of  Eusc- 


bius's  Apology  for  Origcn,  of  which  fragments 
are  preserved  in  the  Acts  of  the  second  Council 
of  Nice.  (Labbei  Act.  v.  torn.  7.  p.  367. 
Damasceni  Paral.  Sac.  torn.  2.  p.  764.)  Fa- 
bric. Bib.  Gricc.  lib.  v.  c.  34.  §  7.  Du- 
pin.  —  E. 

ANTIPATER,  L.illius  Ccelius,  a  Ro- 
man historian,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  the 
Gracchi,  (\'^aler.  Maxim,  lib.  i.  c.  7.)  was 
the  author  of  a  history  of  the  second  Punic 
War,  of  which  Brutus  wrote  an  abridgment. 
(Cic.  in  Oratore.  Ei)ist.  ad  Attic,  lib.  xiii. 
ep.  8.)  He  is  frequently  mentioned  by  Cicero. 
The  emperor  Adrian  preferred  Antipater  to 
Sallust,  probably  tor  the  same  reason  for  which 
he  preferred  Ennius  to  ^''irgil  (Spartianus  in 
Adr.),  because  he  was  an  admirer  of  the  ancient 
Roman  language.  Fragments  of  this  historian 
were  published  by  Riccoboni  in  1568  ;  and  they 
were  reprinted,  with  fragments  of  many  other 
historians,  bv  Antony  Augustin,  at  Antwerp, 
in  1595.  Foss.  ds  Hiit.  Lat.  lib.  i.  c.  8. 
Moreri.  —  E. 

ANTIPHON,  an  Athenian  orator,  born  at 
Rhamnus  in  Attica,  and  thence  called  the 
Rhamnusian,  flourished  above  430  years  be- 
fore Christ.  He  was  instructed  in  rhetoric  by 
his  father  Sophilus,  and  is  said  to  have  been  not 
hiferior  in  eloquence  to  Themistocles,  Aristides, 
Pericles,  or  Gorgias,  who  lived  just  before  him. 
(Plut.  Decern  Rhetor.)  He  was  pieceptor 
ill  this  art  to  Thucydides,  (Marcellini,  Vit. 
Thucyd.)  who,  in  his  history,  (lib.  viii.)  men- 
tions him  with  respect  as  an  eminent  orator. 
He  was  the  first  who  wrote  precepts  on  the  art 
of  oratory  (Quintil.  Instit.  lib.  iii.  c.  I.),  and 
he  first  introduced  the  practice  of  pleading  for 
hire  (Amm.  Marcell.  lib.  xxx.  c.  4.).  Plu- 
tarch, as  well  as  Thucydides,  bestows  lil)eral 
praise  upon  Antiphon  ;  he  speaks  of  him  as 
having  been  an  energetic  and  persuasive  orator, 
of  fertile  invention,  and  ingenious  and  adroit  in 
adapting  himself  to  the  prepossessions  and  in- 
terests of  his  auditors.  Philostratus  (DeSophis- 
tis,  lib.  i.)  describes  hi^n  as  possessing  a  won- 
derful power  of  soothing  the  minds  of  his  hear- 
ers, and  alleviating  the  pressure  of  grief.  Pla- 
to, on  the  contrary,  in  his  Menexenus,  treats  his 
talents  with  contempt,  and  makes  Socrates  em- 
ploy him  in  opposition  to  Aspasia :  but  it  is  to 
be  remembered,  that  Socrates  had  frequently 
been  attacked  and  insulted  by  the  sophist <.  and 
particularly  by  Antiphon,  Whatever  were  the 
talents  of  this  orator,  he  seems  to  have  made 
an  ill  use  of  them.  It  is  believed  that  he  con- 
tributed to  establish  the  tyranny  of  tlie  four 
hundred  in  Athens ;  and,  according  to  Plutarch, 


A  N  T 


(    304    ) 


ANT 


he  was  for  this  offence,  condemtieil  and  exe- 
cuted as  a  traitor,  and  his  body  was  thrown  out 
of  the  walls  of  the  city  :  this  is  said  to  have 
happened  in  the  lirst  year  of  the  ninety-second 
Olympiad,  or  41 1  years  before  Christ.  Other 
writers  give  a  different  account  of  the  manner 
of  his  death.  Formerly  sixty  orations  were 
extant  under  his  name,  of  which  Cxcilius,  the 
rhetorician,  affirmed  twenty-five  to  be  spurious. 
At  present  only  sixteen  remain.  The  stibjects 
of  these  arc  ci  iminatory,  for  murder,  or  iiian- 
slaughter,  or  defensive  in  similar  causes.  Some 
have  dcjuliteJ  thtir  authenticity  :  but  Fabricius 
and  otlier  great  critics  arc  of  opinion  that  they 
are  genuine.  They  have  been  edited,  with  tiic 
orations  of  i'Eschines,  Lysias,  &:c.  by  Aldus, 
in  folio,  at  Rome,  in  1513  ;  by  H.  Stephens,  in 
1575  ;  and,  in  8vo.  by  Miniatus,  at  Hanau,  in 
1619.  Plut.  Fit.  Aniif.  Fabric.  Bibl.  Gave. 
lib.  ii.  c.  26.  §  I. —  L. 

ANTISTHK.\P:S,    an    Athenian    philoso- 
pher, the  fatlwr  of  the  Cynic  sect,  was  born 
about   the  eighth  Olympiad,  or  423  years  be- 
fore Christ.  '  In  hii   youth  he  bore  arms,  and 
was  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Tanagra,  in  which 
he  gave  proofs  of  valour,  for  whicli  he  was  af- 
•terwards  applauded  by  Socrates.     Turning  his 
attention  from  the  contests  of  tlie  field  to  those 
of  the  schools,  he  learned  the  art  of  rhetoric 
under  the   celebrated  sophist   Gorgias.     From 
the  study  of  eloquence   under  this  master,  he 
proceeded   to  the  study  of  wisdom  under   So- 
crates ;  and  though  his  residence  was  at  the  Pi- 
rxum,  about  forty  stadia,  or  five  miles,  from 
Athens,  he  came  thither  daily  to  attend  his  ma- 
ster's lectures.     He  profited  so  much  by  his  in- 
structions, that  he  advised  his  former  fellow- 
.studcnts  to  become  the  disdples  of  this  excel- 
lent preceptor.     What   he  chiefly  admired  in 
Socrates,    was  the  iiidcpcndence  of  his  spirit, 
and  his  superiority  to  the  allurements  of  wealth 
and  splendor.      ^Vilile  he  was  a  disciple  in  this 
school,  he  indulged  himself,  even  beyond  the 
precepts  or  example  of  his  master,  in  the  con- 
tempt of  external  appearance,   and  often  came 
into  the  school  in  an  old  and  mgi;ed  cloak.   So- 
crates, observing  that  Antisthenes  took  pains  to 
expose,  instead  ofconcealing,  the  tattered  part  of 
his  dress,  said  to  him,  "  Why  so  ostentatious  ? 
Through  your  rags  iscc  your  vanity."  (^iilian. 
lib.  ix.  c.  36.) 

Upon  the  death  of  Socrates,  among  the  se- 
veral schools  which  were  instituted  at  Athens 
by  the  more  eminent  of  his  scholar';,  Anti- 
sihcncs  formed  one  upon  the  moral  principle, 
that  rigorous  discipline  and  hardy  self-com- 
maud  h,  the  ooly  true  wisdom.     He  chose  for 


his  school  a  gymnasium,  or  public   place   of 
exercise,  just  without  the  gates  of  the  city,  called 
The  Cynosarges,  or  The  Temple  of  the  White 
Dog :  a  name   derived,    according   to  Suidas, 
from  a  temple  erected  upon  this  spot  to   Her- 
cules, by  Didymus,  an  Atlienian,  whose  dog 
had  runaway  with  the  victim  from  a  sacrifice, 
and  laid  it  down  in  tliis  place.     Others  suppose, 
that  the  followers  of  Antisthenes  vvere  called 
Cynics,  from  the  snarling  humour  of  thtir  ma- 
ster.   His  school  resembled  that  of  Socrates,  in 
being  rather  an  institution  of  manners,  than  a 
field  of  disputation  on  theoretical  opinions.   His 
leading  object  appears  to  have  been,  the  coirec- 
tion  of  the  moral  disorders  of  luxury  and  ambi- 
tion, and  the  introduction  of  simplicity  of  man- 
ners ;  but  tiie  morosencss  of  his  temper  led  hiin 
into  an  absurd  extreme  of  austerity.     In  his 
discourses,  he  expressed  the  utmost  contempt  of 
pleasure,  and  said,  "  that  he  would  rather  be  mad, 
tiian  addicted  to  voluptuousness."     The  harsh 
severity  with  which  he  cennned  the  luxuries  of 
tlie times,  procured  him  the  appellation  ot  "The 
mere  Dog,"  {'krXw.'jwv).  His  dress  and  manner 
of  life  vvere  suited  to  his  doctrine.     He  wore  a 
long  beard  ;  wrapped  himself  in  a  large  mantle, 
which   was   his  onlv  garment;  bore  a  wallet 
upon  his  shoulders,  and  carried   a  staff  in  his 
hand.     He   lived   upon  the  most    simple  diet, 
and  refrained    from    every  kind  of  effeminate 
indulgence.     His  austerity  towards  the  close  of 
life  degenerated  into  pusillanimous  fretfulness. 
In  a  lingering  consumption,  which  terminated 
iiis  days,  he  grew  restless  aiid   impatient,  and 
cried  out,  "  Who  will  free  me  from  my  pair.  ?" 
Diogenes,   his  favourite    pupil,  presented  him 
with  a  dagger,  saying,  "  Let  thi.^  free  you." 
Antisthenes  replied,  "  Iwi^iied  to  be  freed  from 
pain,  not   from  life."     It  may  be  reasonably 
questioned,  wlicthcr  there  was  not  more  affec- 
tation and  vanity  than  true  magnanimity  in  the 
cliaracter  of  Antisthenes ;    and,  notwithstand- 
ing the  rigour  of  hir>  doctrine  and  manners,  wc 
may   doubt    the    propriety   of  the    derription 
given  of  him  by  Eusebius,   (Prep.  Ev.   lib.  xv. 
c.  xiii.)  that  he  was  "  a  man  of  an  Hf-culeaii 
mind,"   ( 'HcaxXj^'riCTf  ri;  avr^s  ro  fosvij/xe). 

The  sum  of  the  moral  doctrine  of  Antisthenes 
is  as  follows  :  Virtue  consists  not  in  words  but 
in  action.  Virtue,  with  bodily  strength,  is  sufn- 
cient  for  a  happy  life.  They  only  are  noble 
who  are  virtuous.  A  wise  man  will  live  rather 
according  to  the  precepts  of  virtue  tlian  the  laws' 
and  customs  of  his  country.  The  wise  man 
onlv  understands  how  to  love.  The  love  of 
pleasure  is  a  temporary  madness.  —  Among 
other  maxims  and  apophthegms  ascribed  10  this 


ANT 


(    305    ) 


ANT 


philosopher,  are  these  :  As  rust  consumes  iron, 
so  doth  envy  consume  the  heart  of  man.  That 
state  is  hastening  to  ruin,  in  which  no  clifFercnce 
is  made  between  good  and  bad  men.  Those 
■who  would  never  die  must  live  virtuously.  The 
union  of  brethren  is  a  stronger  defence  than  a 
wall  of  brass.  A  wise  man  converses  with  the 
wicked  as  a  physician  with  the  sick,  not  to 
catch  the  disease  but  to  cure  it.  The  most  ne- 
cessary part  of  learning  is  to  unlearn  our  er- 
rors. A  lone  man  gains  by  his  philosophy  one 
.thing  at  least,  the  power  of  conversing  with 
himself.  The  man  who  is  afraid  of  another  is, 
though  he  may  not  be  aware  of  it,  a  slave. — 
"  Let  the  children  of  my  enemy,"  said  Ajiti- 
sthcnes,  "live  luxuriously  !"  Being  told  that  a 
bad  man  had  been  praising  him,  lie  said,  "  What 
foolish  thing  have  I  been  doing.'"  On  his  ini- 
tiation into  the  Orphic  mysteries,  he  was  told 
by  tlie  priest  that  the  initiated  would  enjoy 
much  happiness  in  the  other  world  :  "  Why 
then  (said  he)  do  you  not  die  ?"  After  the 
death  of  Socrates,  meeting  with  certain  young 
men  who  came  from  Pontus  to  Atliens  to  at- 
tend upon  that  illustrious  philosopiier,  he  intro- 
duced them  to  Anytus,  one  of  his  accusers,  as- 
suring tliem  that  he  could  teach  them  wisdom 
much  better  than  Socrates  :  this  sarcasm  excited 
the  indignation  of  the  Athenians  against  the  au- 
thors of  the  disgrace  which  tlie  death  of  So- 
crates had  brought  upon  the  city  ;  and  hastened 
their  deserved  punishment.  Though  specula- 
tive philosophy  was  not  taught  in  the  school  of 
Antisthenes,  he  borrowed  from  his  master  So- 
crates sublime  notions  of  the  divine  nature.  Ci- 
cero, mentioning  his  book  of  physics,  cites  from 
it  this  memorable  sentence :  "  T/ic  Gods  of  the 
people  arc  many,  but  the  God  of  nature  is  one," 
[populares  dcos  multos,  naturalem  unum  esse.] 
(Nat.  Deor.  lib.  i.  c.  xiii.) 

A  long  list  of  books,  on  various  topics,  writ- 
ten by  Antisthenes,  is  given  in  Diogenes  Laer- 
tius:  but  nothing  remains  under  his  name  except 
two  declamations,  in  the  character  of  Ajax  and 
Ulysses,  publislied  in  the  Collection  of  ancient 
Orators,  by  Aldus,  in  1513  ;  by  H.  Stephens  in 
1575  ;  and  by  Canter,  with  a  Latin  version,  as 
an  appendix  to  his  edition  of  Aristides,  printed  in 
folio,  at  Basil,  in  1566.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
they  were  written  by  thisplillosopher,  who  does 
not  appear  to  jiave  been  a  dcciaimer.  Diog. 
La'irt.  Suidas.  Fabric.  Bibl.  Grac.  lib.  ii. 
c.  23.  §  32.      Stanley.     Bnicker. — E. 

ANTbNlANO,SYLvio,  cardinal,  a  leariv 
ed  man  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  born  at 
Rome  in  1540,  of  an  obscure  family,  originally 
from  Abruz'/.o.     He  rendered  !>imsclf  in  early 

VOL.     I. 


youth  very  remarkable  for  his  faculty  of  im- 
provisation, or  speaking  exteniporarv  verses. 
Being  made  known  to  cardinal  Trucses,  that 
prelate  took  him  into  his  house,  and  caused  him 
to  be  carefully  instructed  in  his  own  and  the 
learned  languages.  As  a  trial  of  his  abilities, 
the  cardinal,  at  a  solemn  banquet,  gave  him  a 
nosegay  to  present  to  the  person  in  company 
who  should  next  be  pope.  Sylvio  carried  it  to 
the  cardinal  de'  Medici,  afterwards  pope  Pius 
IV.  and  presented  it  with  a  very  elegant  com- 
pliment in  verse.  As  premeditation  might  be 
suspected  in  this  case,  tlie  company  tried  him 
on  various  casual  topics,  and  were  convinced  of 
his  extraordinary  powers.  Hercules  II.  duke  of 
Ferrara,  having  heard  him  with  great  admira- 
tion at  the  age  of  fifteen,  took  him  to  his  court, 
where  the  young  poet  made  acquaintance  with 
several  men  of  learning.  The  duke  assigiied 
him  a  pension  ;  and,  in  his  seventeenth  year, 
created  in  his  favour  an  extraordinary  profes- 
sorship of  belles  lettres,  on  which  occasion  he 
pronounced  some  orations,  afterwards  publish- 
ed. He  still  with  great  applause  continued  hrs 
practice  of  improvisation,  and  it  appears  that  he 
sang  the  verses  he  made  to  his  lyre  or  harp. 
Pius  IV.  on  his  accession,  called  him  to  Rome, 
and  made  him  Latin  master  and  secretary  to  his 
nephew  cardinal  Borromeo.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  to  the  professorship  of  humanity  in 
the  Roman  college,  where  he  read  lectures 
with  singular  reputation,  and  at  length  obtained 
the  rectorship  of  the  same  college.  On  the 
death  of  Pius  IV.  he  was  made  secretary  of  the 
sacred  college  by  Pius  V.  which  post  he  occu- 
pied for  twenty-five  years.  Clement  VIII. 
created  him  secretary  of  the  briefs,  and  the  elo- 
quence with  which  he  drew  up  the  pontifical 
letters  was  much  admired.  The  same  pope 
made  him  his  chamberlain,  and  finally  cardinal. 
The  intenseness  of  his  studies  did  not  permit  iiim 
long  to  enjoy  this  promotion ;  for  it  brought  on 
a  disease,  of  which  he  died  in  his  sixty-third 
year.  He  was  a  man  of  modest  and  regular 
manners,  and  is  said  never  to  have  violated  his 
chastity.  He  left  a  variety  of  works  in  verse 
and  prose.  The  principal  are,  "  De  Chris- 
tiana Puerorum  Educatione  ;  "  Dissertatio  de 
Obscuritale  Solis  in  MortcChristi ;"  "  De  Suc- 
cessione  Apostolica  ;"  "  De  Stylo  Ecclcsiasti- 
co,  sen  de  conscribenda  Ecclcsiastica  Historia  ;" 
"  De  Primatu  Sancti  Petri  ;"  "  Lucubrationes 
in  Rhetoricam  Aristotelis,  ct  in  Oiationes  Ci- 
ccronis."  This  cardinal  is  also  said  to  have 
have  had  a  share  in  the  catechism  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Trent.  Rnyle.  Tiraboschi. — A. 
.  ANTONIDES,  J.  Vander  Goes,  a  cc- 
3  R 


ANT 


(     sob     ) 


x\  N  T 


lfl>iatcd  Dutcli  poet,  was  born  in  ZcHland,  of 
anabaptist  parents,  in  an  humble  condition. 
He  liad  a  tolerable  education,  and  was  put  to 
ilic  business  ot"  an  apothecary ;  but  the  fame  of 
Vondel  and  other  poets  of  his  country  incited 
him  to  the  cultivation  of  a  natural  talent  for 
pi)ctrv.  He  began  witli  making  translations 
fruni  the  best  Latin  writers,  and  having  thus 
laid  a  foundation  of  good  taste,  he  launchtd  in- 
to original  composition.  He  wrote  a  tragedy 
upon  tlie  conquest  of  China  by  the  Tartars,  en- 
titled "  Travll ;"  which  was  i'.'Uowed  by  "  Bel- 
lona  in  Chains,"  a  piece  which  obtained  great 
applause  from  the  best  judges.  His  capital  work 
■was  a  discriptive  and  heroic  pocni,  entitled  the 
"  Y  Stroom,"  or  River  Y,  which  forms  the 
port  of  Amsterdam.  This  made  him  well 
known,  and  obtained  for  him  the  patronage  of 
M.  de  Uusero,  deputy  in  the  college  of  adiniral- 
U,  who  took  him  from  his  <-bscure  situation, 
and  procurc<l  him  a  secretary's  place  in  the  atlmi- 
ralty.  He  soon  after  married  a  clergyman's 
daughter,  who  also  had  a  talent  for  poetry.  He 
liimself  left  the  Muses  for  llie  duties  of  his  post ; 
and  died  of  a  consumption,  in  the  flower  of  his 
age,  in  1684.  He  had  promised  and  begun  a 
life  of  St.  Paul,  but  only  a  few  fragments  of  it 
ever  njipcared.  His  works  were  publised  in 
4t().  at  Amsterdam,  in  1714,  under  the  inspec- 
tion of  Mr.  Hoogstrarcn,  one  of  the  masters  of 
the  Latin  school.     Alorcri.  —  A. 

ANTONINUS  PIUS.  7hm  AurcHui  Ful- 
viiis  Boionius  yintoiiinus  was  born  at  Lanuvium 
inltaly,A.D.  86.  His  family  had  its  origin  from 
Nismes  in  Gaul,  and  had  long  flourished  in  vir- 
tue and  honour.  Both  his  grandfathers,  and  his 
father,  wore  consuls.  His  maternal  grandfather, 
Arrius  Antoniinss,  was  intimate  witli  Pliny  the 
younger,  and  distinguished  himself  by  the  sweet- 
ness of  his  disposition,  and  his  attachment  to 
letters.  It  was  in  his  house  that  the  young  Ti- 
tus finished  his  education  after  the  death  of  his 
f.ithcr.  On  arriving  at  inanhood,  his  character 
di^plavcd  itself  in  the  most  advantageous  man- 
mr.  To  a  happy  physiognomy  he  joined  a  cul- 
tivated understanding,  eloquence,  mildness  and 
dignity  of  manners,  and  all  the  virtues  of  the 
heart.  He  was  perfectly  free  from  aflfectation 
and  vain  glory,  simple  and  natural  in  his  tastes, 
and  guided  by  moderation  in  all  his  sentiments 
and  actions. 

In  the  course  of  public  honours  to  which 
liis  birth  and  conneetions  entitled  him,  he  rose  to 
the  consulate,  A.  D.  120,  and  was  afterwards 
chosen  by  Adrian  to  be  one  of  the  four  consu- 
lars  between  whom  the  supreme  magistracy  of 
Italy  was  divided.     Li  Ills  turn  he  became  pro- 


consul of  Asia,  ill  which  high  trust  he  acquired 
a  reputation,  even  surpassing  that  of  his  grand- 
father Arrius  in  the  same  post.  On  his  return 
from  Asia  he  was  much  in  the  council  and  con- 
fidence of  Adrian,  and  always  inclined  to  the 
most  lenient  measures.  He  married  Annia 
Taustina,  the  daughter  of  Annius  Vcrus,  a  la- 
dy who  e  conduct  was  far  from  irreproachable  ; 
but  he  avoided  public  scandal,  and  treated  with 
the  greatest  respect  his  aged  father-in-law,  who 
was  accustome<l  to  enter  the  senate  leaning  on 
his  arm.  By  tliis  marriage  he  had  two  sons 
and  two  daughters.  The  sons  died  young. 
I'he  eldest  daugliter,  married  to  Lamia  Sylva- 
nus,  died  when  Titus  depaited  for  his  Asiatic 
government.  The  other,  Faustina,  was  married 
to  Marcus  Aiirelius,  afterwards  emperor. 

When  Adrian,  after  the  death  of  Verus,  de- 
termined upon  the  adoption  of  Antoninus,  he 
found  some  difficidty  in  persuading  him  to  ac- 
cept of  the  succession  to  so  vast  a  charge  as  tlie 
Roinan  empire ;  liut  having  overcome  his  reluc- 
tance, he  declared  his  nomination  in  presence  of 
a  council  of  the  principal  senators  on  February 
25,  A.  D.  138,  and  instantly  made  him  his 
colleague  in  the  proconsular  and  tribunitial  au- 
thorities. He  next  caused  Antoninus  to  adopt 
the  son  of  Verus,  then  seven  years  of  age,  and 
"  Marcus  Annius,  afterwards  Aurclius,  a  kins- 
man of  Adrian,  and  nephew  to  his  own  wife, 
then  aged  about  seventeen.  The  excellent  con- 
duct of  Antoninus,  during  the  last  montlis  of 
Adrian's  life,  has  been  already  mentioned  under 
the  account  of  that  emperor.  He  succeeded  to 
the  throne  on  July  10,  138,  with  the  imiversai 
applause  of  the  senate  and  people,  who  foresaw, 
in  his  well-tried  virtues,  that  happiness  wiiich  a 
wise  and  good  sovereign  can  confer  on  his  subjects. 

Thetianquillity  enjoyed  by  the  Roman  world 
during  such  a  reign,  affords  not  many  topics 
for  history  ;  yet  it  may  be  regretted  that  tiic 
only  direct  information  we  have  concerning 
this  period  of  good  government  is  derived 
from  a  single  obscure  liistorirn,  Capitolinus. 
It  appears  that  the  senate  joyfully  conferred 
on  the  new  emperor  the  usual  honours  and 
titles,  10  which  they  added  the  surname  of 
Pius  ;  an  epithet  which  he  may  be  thought  in 
many  ways  to  liave  deserved;  but  which  was 
probably,  in  a  peculiar  inanner,  suggested  by  the 
zeal  he  showed  in  defending  and  honouring  the 
inemory  of  his  predecessor.  His  clemency  was 
signalised  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign 
on  the  occasion  of  one  or  more  conspiracies 
formed  against  him.  Though  he  could  not 
prevent  the  course  of  justice  against  the  princi- 
pals,  he  forbad  all  inquiry  after  their  accom- 


ANTONINVS    PIVS    IMP  ^ 


X  vr 


^^ 


ANT 


(    307    ) 


A  N  T 


pljccs,  and  took  under  his  special  protection  the 
son  of  Attilius,  one  of  the  chief  conspirators. 
Some  commotions  wluch  arose  in  various  parts 
of  tlie  empire  were  witliout  much  difficulty  ap- 
pea,sed  by  his  lieutenants.  In  Britain  the  incur- 
sions of  tlie  Brigantes  were  repressed  ;  and  the 
boundaries  of  the  Roman  province  were  ex- 
tended by  building  a  new  wall  to.  the  north  of 
that  of  Adrian,  from  the  moutli  of  the  Eslc  to 
that  of  the  Tweed.  On  the  whole,  the  reign 
of  Antoninus  was  uncommonly " pacific  ;  and 
he  made  good  a  saying  of  Scipio,  which  he 
frequently  repeated,  "  That  he  preferred  saving 
the  life  of  one  citizen  to  destroying^  a  thousand 
enemies." 

Hedevoted  his  whole  time  and  care  to  the 
good  government  .of  the  state  in  all  its  parts, 
extcndins  his  vinilance  to  t!ie  remotest  districts, 
and  every  where  protecting  the  people  from  op- 
pression, and  promoting  their  welfare.  He 
loved  to  lay  before  the  senate  the  motives  of  all 
his  actions  ;  and  in  his  mode  of  living  and 
conversing,  he  adopted  that  air  of  equality,  and 
those  popular  manners,  which  had  distinguished 
his  predecessors,  Trajan  and  Adrian.  The 
sweetness  of  his  temper  was  manifested  on  nu- 
merous occasions  of  indignity  offered  to  him- 
self; and  no  professed  philosopher  could  surpass 
liim  in  the  forgiveness  of  injuries.  Under  his 
reign  the  race  of  informers  was  absolutely  abo- 
lished ;  in  consequence,  never  were  condemna- 
tions and  confiscations  more  rare.  Various 
public  calamities  happened  in  his  time  ;  dearths, 
inundations,  fires,  and  earthquakes  ;  all  which 
he  relieved  with  the  utmost  beneficence.  He 
was  extremely  careful  of  laying  burthens  upon 
his  people  ;  and  this  was  a  reason  why  he  ne- 
ver made  progresses  through  his  dominions. 
This  way  of  thinking  rendeied  him  frugal  of 
the  public  revenues,  while  he  was  liberal  of  his 
own  patrimony ;  a  remarkable  instance  of  which 
he  gave,  in  paying  (contrary  to  the  remon- 
strances of  his  wife)  a  donative  which  he  had 
promised  the  people  on  his  adoption,  out  of  his 
private  fortune,  instead  of  the  public  treasury. 
His  economy  led  him  to  withdraw  several  pen- 
sions which  had  been  given  undeservedly,  "For 
.(said  he)  nothing  can  be  more  scandalous  and 
true],  tlian  to  suffer  the  commonwealth  to  be 
devoured  by  those  who  have  done  it  no  service." 
With  all  this,  he  was  entirely  free  from  avarice 
or  the  desire  of  hoarding  ;  and  he  readily  ex- 
pended considerable  sums  m  works  of  ornament 
and  utility,  and  even  on  the  pleasures  of  the 
people.  Of  his  buildings,  the  most  remarkable 
■  in  Rome  was  a  temple  in  honour  of  Adrian.  It 
is  probable  that  Nismes  was  indebted  to  him  for 


those  magnificent  decorations  which  still  distin- 
guish it,  the  amphitheatre  and  aqueduct. 

Tin"s  emperor,  like  his  predecessor,  interested 
himself  in  the  improvement  of  jurisprudence  ; 
and  he  issued  three  decrees,  which  dispkiv  a 
laudable  spirit  of  equity.  T!ie  first  was,  that 
no  one  should  be  again  prosecuted  on  a  charge 
of  which  he  had  been  once  acquitted  ; — tlie 
second,  that  the  children  of  a  person  becoine 
a  Roman  citizen,  \vho  were  not  so  them'-elves, 
should  not  (as  was  formerly  the  law)  forfeit 
their  inheritance  to  the  treasury; — the  third. 
that  a  woman,  prosecuted  for  adultery  by  her 
husband,  should  have  a  right  to  rccrimiuatc. 
He  also  issued  rescripts  in  favour  of  the  Chri';- 
tians,  to  protect  them  from  popular  rage  and 
legal  injustice.  One  of  these,  addressed  to  the 
people  of  Asia  Minor,  is  extant  in  Eusebius 
(Hist.  Eccles.  lib.  iv.),  and  bears  an  honourable 
testimony  to  their  character. 

It  is  not  wonderful  that  the  reputation  for  wis- 
dom and  justice  which  Antoninus  by  such  a 
conduct  acquired,  should  spread  through  all  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  Roman  empire;  and 
give  him  a  weight  and  authority  which  force 
could  not  have  bestowed.  Some  of  the  neigh- 
bouring kings  came  to  salute  him  ;  others  sent 
embassadors  to  him,  and  appointed  him  arbiter 
of  their  differences.  The  king  of  Parthia  was 
prevented  from  making  war  upon  the  Arme- 
nians by  a  simple  letter  from  him  ;  and  the 
Lazes,  a  people  of  Colchis,  elevated  Pacorus  to 
their  throne  on  his  recommendation. 

His  private  life  was  frugal  and  modest  ;  his 
table  decent ;  his  amusements  innocent ;  and 
scarcely  a  spot  can  be  discovered  to  tarnish  the 
purity  of  his  character.  Perhaps  he  was  too 
indulgent  towards  an  unworthy  wife,  who  cer- 
tainly did  not  deserve  those  divine  honours 
which  he  lavished  upon  her  memory.  His  mi- 
nute exactness  was  ridiculed  by  some  who  were 
not  aware  of  the  advantages  of  such  a  quality 
in  the  m.anagement  of  complicated  concerns. 

Soon  after  his  elevation  to  the  throne,  he  ma- 
nifested his  esteem  for  the  opening  virtues  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  by  marrying  him  to  his  daugh- 
ter Faustina,  and  declaring  him  Csesar.  In 
course  of  time  he  accumulated  all  sorts  of  ho- 
nours upon  him,  and  was  repaid  by  the  pro- 
foundest  submission  and  a  true  filial  attachment. 
Aurelius  never  left  him,  and  shared  with  him 
in  all  the  cares  of  government,  without  the 
least  umbrage  or  suspicion  on  either  part.  In 
this  state  of  domestic  and  public  tranquillitv  he 
reached  his  seventy -fourth  Near,  when,  in  the 
month  of  March,  A.  D.  161,  at  his  favourite 
country  seat  of  Lori,  he  fell  ill  of  a  fever,  the 


ANT 


(    308     ) 


ANT 


fatal  event  of  which  he  soon  foresaw.  Sum- 
moning the  great  officers  of  state,  lie  confirmed 
in  their  presence  his  choice  of  Aiinhus  as  a  suc- 
cessor, and  caused  the  imperial  ensigns  to  be 
carried  to  him.  In  a  delirium  which  soon  en- 
sued, all  his  thoughts  were  turned  on  the  com- 
monwealth, and  he  deprecated  the  anger  of  the 
kings  whom  he  supposed  hostile  to  it.  In  a  lu- 
cid interval  he  gave  as  a  watchword  to  the  prae- 
torian tribune,  Jiquanimilas,  and  then  placidly 
expired,  having  reigned  twenty-two  years,  se- 
ven months,  and  twenty-six  days.  His  ashes 
were  deposited  in  the  tomb  of  Adrian,  ami  di- 
vine honours  were  unanimously  decreed  by  the 
senate  to  his  memory.  The  death  of  the  father 
of  his  country,  though  at  so  mature  an  age,  was 
lamented  throughout  the  empire  as  a  public  ca- 
lamiiv,  and  IiTs  praises  were  universally  re- 
sounded. One  of  the  best  proofs  of  the  high 
veneration  in  which  his  name  was  held,  was, 
that  during  a  century,  all  succeeding  Roman 
emperors  chose  to  bear  the  name  of  Antoninus, 
as  the  most  popular  appellation  tlKy  could  as- 
sume. Marcus  Aurelius  and  the  senate  conse- 
crated to  his  memory  a  sculptured  pillar,  still 
subsisting  as  one  of  the  principal  ornaments  of 
Rome,  under  the  name  of  the  Jntcnhie  column. 
Univcrs.  Hist.     Crevier,  Hist,  da  Emp. — A. 

ANTONINUS,     Marcus    Aurelius. 
Marcus  Ann'iui  Aurel'tui  Antoninus,  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  of  the  Roman  emperors,  was 
born  in  the  year  of  Rome  872,  of  Christ  121, 
during   the   second   consulate   of  his   paternal 
great-grandfather,  M.  Annius  Vcrus.     His  fa- 
mily was  originally  from  Ucubis,  or  Succubis, 
in  Spain,  and  was  related  to  that  of  Adrian. 
This  emperor  was  liis    patron  and   protector 
from  early  youth ;  raised  him  to  the  rank  of 
knighthood  at  six  years  of  age,  associated  him 
to  the  college  of  Salian  priests,  and  finally,  by 
procuring  his  adoption  into  the  imperial  family, 
caused  his  succession  to  the  empire.     The  care 
of  his  education  devolved  on  his  paternal  grand- 
father, Annius  Verus,  a  patrician  ;  for  his  fa- 
ther, who  had  espoused  Domitia  Calvilla  Lu- 
^illa,  daughter  of  Calvisius  TuUus,  died  at  an 
early   age.     He  was  instructed  in  all  the  arts 
proper  to  form  the  body  and  mind  ;  but  among 
the  latter  he  had  little  taste  for  poetry  and  elo- 
quence :  whereas  philosophy  possessed  his  whole 
soul.     The  species  of  philosophy  to  which  he 
attached  himself,  was  that  most  connected  w'ith 
morals  and  the  regulation  of  life  and  conduct. 
Upon  the  solid  basis  of  this  his  whole  charac- 
ter was  formed  ;  and  so  early,  that  he  assumed 
the  philosophic  maptle  at  the  age  of  twelve. 
Thenceforth  he  bi-gan  to  practise  the  austerities 


of  this  profession ;  and  all  the  excesses  of  his. 
youth  were  excesses  of  study,  of  discipline,  and. 
of  self-denial.  The  natural  sweetness  of  his 
temper  prevented,  however,  this  strictness  from 
degenerating  into  moroseness  and  reserve  ;  nor 
had  he  any  of  that  stoical  pride  which  has  often 
attended  the  artificial  elevation  characteristic  of 
that  sect.  To  his  tutors  he  manifested  a  doci- 
lity and  gratitude  almost  unexampled,  regarding 
them  as  his  best  benefactors,  and  treating  them, 
both  living  and  dead,  wdth  every  mark  of  re- 
spect and  veneration.  The  most  celebrated 
among  them  were  Herodes  Atticus,  a  Greek 
orator;  Cornelius  Fronto,' a  Latin  orator  ;  and, 
above  all,  Junius  Rusticus,  a  man  of  family,  ad- 
dicted to  the  Stoic  philosophy. 

Soon  after  taking  the  manly  robe,  young 
Annius  was  nominated  to  the  honorary  prefec- 
ture of  Rome  during  the  Latin  festival.  About 
this  time  he  displayed  his  generosity  towards  his 
only  sister  Annia  Cornificia,  in  ceding  to  her  all 
the  property  of  their  father.  He  himself  was 
fully  satisfied  with  his  prospects  as  heir  to  his 
grandfather.  His  adoption  by  Antoninus  Pius 
into  the  Aurelian  family  took  place  in  his  se- 
venteenth year,  and  was  a  consequence  of  the 
high  esteem  which  Adrian  had  conceived  of 
his  virtues.  The  views  of  future  empire  made 
not  the  least  change  in  his  carriage  or  mode  of 
life.  He  continued  with  as  much  ardour  as  be- 
fore to  frequent  the  schools,  and  to  pursue  the 
studies  of  philosophy.  His  advancement  under 
Antoninus  to  the  dignity  ot  Caesar,  and  of  son- 
in-law  to  that  emperor,  is  mentioned  in  the  ac- 
count of  that  reign.  The  bride  wirii  whose 
hand  he  was  honoured,  the  younger  Faustina,  \^ 
has  rendered  her  name  too  celebrated  by  her 
gallantries,  to  give  a  high  idea  of  the  felicity 
enjoyed  by  her  domestic  partner  ;  yet  Aurelius 
himself  was  eitlier  insensible  or  indifferent  to 
the  errors  of  her  conduct;  and  always  expressed 
the  warmest  regard  and  affection  for  her. 

All  the  civic  honours  that  Antoninus  could 
accumulate  on  a  favouriie  and  designed  succes- 
sor, were  progressively  conferred  on  Aurelius. 
He  had  a  palace  assigned  him,  was  twice  consul, 
chief  of  one  of  the  centuries  of  Roman  knights, 
and  at  length  as  ociated  to  the  tribunitial  and 
proconsular  authorities.  He  was  admitted  to  all 
confidential  councils  ;  and  so  necessary  did  he 
render  himself  to  his  adopted  father,  that,  during 
the  space  of  nearly  twenty-three  years,  he  ne- 
ver but  twice  slept  apart  from  him  in  town  or 
country. 

The  first  act  of  Aurelius,  on  his  assumption 
of  the  sovereignty,  was  of  a  kind  whicli  pre- 
cludes all  surprise  at  subsetjueut  insL.iuces  of  liis 


Elix.Chtrcn  LJl.deUn. 


J.de  ia.  Croix  jculp.  i^ty. 


e 


'huistme jemme  d'cAnto/un 


Ai'e^  Prh'il.  ?u  Re: 


ANT 


(    309    ) 


ANT 


disinterestedness.  L.  Aurelius  Commodus,  the 
son  of  that  Verus  who  had  been  adopted  by- 
Adrian,  had  been  joined  with  Marcus  Aurelius 
in  the  adoption  of  Antoninus,  and  seemed 
equally  destined  to  the  succession.  But  Antoni- 
nus, displeased  with  the  defects  and  vices  of  the 
youth,  though  he  raised  him  to  the  dignities  of 
the  state,  had  yet  excluded  him  from  any  share 
in  the  sovereignty,  by  constituting  Aurelius  the 
sole  heir  to  the  throne ;  and  the  senate  had 
readily  confirmed  this  intention  of  the  deceased 
emperor.  But  Aurelius,  entirely  on  his  own 
motion,  procured  him  to  be  declared  his  col- 
league, at  the  same  time  promising  him  his 
daughter  Lucilla  in  marriage,  and  causing  him 
to  take  his  own  original  name  of  Verus,  by 
which  this  prince  was  afterwards  known.  The 
two  joint  emperors  then  proceeded  from  the  se- 
nate to  the  prcetorian  camp,  where  they  made 
the  accustomed  donative  to  the  soldiers  ;  and 
each  pronounced  an  oration  in  honour  of  An- 
toninus at  his  funeral.  Soon  after,  Faustina  was 
delivered  of  male  twins,  one  of  whom  died 
young,  the  other  was  Commodus,  his  father's 
successor. 

In  the  first  year  of  the  new  reign,  the  public 
tranquillity  was  broken  by  a  war  with  Volo- 
geses,  king  of  Parthia,  who  invaded  Armenia, 
and  at  the  same  time  made  an  irruption  into 
Syria.  The  success  he  first  met  with  caused 
Verus  to  proceed  to  the  east,  in  order  to  take 
the  supreme  command.  His  journey,  however, 
was  rather  a  tour  for  pleasure  ch.an  a  military 
expedition  ;  and,  in  fact,  he  never  came  within 
sight  of  the  enemy.  In  the  mean  time  the  Ro- 
man commanders  obtained  various  signal  suc^ 
cesses,  and,  in  particular,  Avidius  Cassius  gain- 
ed a  great  victory  over  the'Parthians,  near  Eu- 
ropus  in  Syria.  Martins  Verus  took  prisoner 
the  satrap  Tiridntes  in  Armenia,  and  the  Roman 
arms  were  carried  into  Media.  The  war  lasted 
four  years,  and  ended  in  a  treaty,  by  which 
Sohemus,  king  of  Armenia,  was  restored  to  his 
throne,  whence  the  Parthians  had  driven  him. 
Verus  acquired  nothing  but  contempt  from  the 
foreign  nations  to  whom  he  had  displayed  his 
indolent  and  luxurious  disposition,  yet  he  was 
decorated  by  the  army  with  the  title  of  Impera- 
lor,  and  various  pompous  appellations.  It  was 
during  the  course  of  this  war  that  he  married 
Lucilla.  On  the  return  of  Verus  to  Rome, 
both  emperors  triumphed  conjointly,  and  a  per- 
fect union  reigned  between  them. 

Nothing,  however,  could  be  more  different 
than  the  conduct  and  character  of  these  two 
partners.  Verus  brought  back  with  him  a  more 
confirmed  taste  for  extravagance  and  debauchee 


ry  ;  and,  in  every  thing  but  cruelty,  which  he 
was  restrained  from  exercising,  he  exhibited  all 
the  follies  and  vices  of  the  worst  of  his  predeces- 
sors. Aurelius,  on  the  contrary,  was  a  philo- 
sopher on  the  throne  ;  and  there  was  not  a  vir- 
tue, public  or  private,  of  which  he  did  not  af- 
ford a  model.  His  deference  for  the  senate  sur- 
passed, if  possible,  that  of  the  line  of  good  em- 
perors whom  he  succeeded.  He  performed  all 
the  duties  of  a  senator  with  the  utmost  exact- 
ness ;  and  took  a  pleasure  in  committing  to  the 
free  determination  of  that  body  affairs  of  public 
consequence.  He  would  not  touch  the  money 
in  the  treasury  without  their  express  permis- 
sion ;  "  for  (said  he)  all  belongs  to  the  senate 
and  people,  and  we  have  nothing  which  we  do 
not  hold  from  you."  His  attention  to  the  hap- 
piness of  his  people  was  unremitted.  He  in- 
dulged them  in  every  liberty  compatible  with 
good  government ;  and  such  of  their  vicious  ha- 
bits as  he  could  not  reform  by  gentle  means,  he 
patiently  endured.  "  We  cannot  (he  was  wont 
to  say)  make  men  as  we  wish  them  to  be  ;  we 
must  take  them  as  they  are,  and  do  the  best  with 
them  that  lies  in  our  power."  Thus  the  mo- 
deration of  his  character  influenced  him  even  in 
those  points  which  he  had  most  at  heart.  Like 
all  really  good  sovereigns,  he  was  careful  not 
to  oppress  his  subjects  by  exactions ;  and  there- 
fore resisted  with  firmness  all  demands  of  unrea- 
sonable largesses.  At  a  moment  of  victory,  he 
ventured  to  tell  his  expecting  soldiers,  "  All  that 
is  given  you  beyond  your  due  must  come  from 
the  blood  of  your  parents  and  relations."  In  a. 
time  of  public  distress,  rather  than  add  to  the 
burthen  of  the  provinces,  he  preferred  selling 
the  furniture  and  rarities  of  his  palace,  and 
even  his^  wife's  rich  wardrobe.  Though  him- 
self philosophically  indifferent  to  shows  and 
public  spectacles,  he  indulged  the  people  in  tlie 
pleasures  of  that  kind  to  which  they  were  in- 
curably addicted  ;  only  somewhat  reducing  the 
expense  of  theatrical  exhibitions.  He  softened 
likewise  the  cruelty  of  the  gladiatorian  com- 
bats, by  substituting  less  hurtful  arms  to  mortal 
ones.    , 

His  clemency  towards  criminals  was  carried 
to  a  mischievous  excess,  and  lenity  in  general 
may  be  considered  as  the  chief  foible  of  his  cha- 
racter. Yet  his  regard  to  justice  was  constant 
and  sincere  He  expedited  the  decision  of  pro- 
cesses, augmented  the  number  of  days  on  which 
tlie  courts  were  to  sit,  and  emulated  liis  prede- 
cessor in  passing  ordinances  for  the  improve- 
ment of  jurisprudence.  The  right  of  succes-- 
sion  of  children  to  their  mothers  was  by  him 
first  made  a  pari  of  the  Roman  law  ;  and  hs- 


ANT 


( 


) 


ANT 


appointcJ  a  particular  praetor  to  undertake  tlic 
guartiianship  of  minors.  Many  other  wise  and 
ustf'd  regulatioi:*  « ere  the  fruit  of  his  attention 
to  this  important  hrancli  of  iiis  duty. 

The  rcieu  of  Marcus  Antoninus  was  more 
eventful  tlian  that  of  Pips  had  been.  Tiic  fate 
of  Rome  was  n>-arerat  liand,  and  the  surround- 
ing iKirbarous  nations  became  less  and  less  capa- 
ble of  restraint.  Before  the  termination  of  the 
I'arthic  war,  the  Marcomaimi,  who  inhabited 
the  modern  Bohemia,  with  other  German  tribes, 
began  those  hostilities  which  di-^turbed  the  re- 
pose of  this  gootl  emperor  during  almost  the 
whole  of  the  remainder  of  his  life.  A  rapid 
glance  over  the  princi|)al  events  of  this  war  will 
suffice  for  our  purpose.  As  soon  as  peace  in  the 
cast  had  freed  the  empire  from  one  foe,  prepara- 
tions were  made  for  rq)elliiig  the  attacks  of  an- 
other ;  aiul  both  emperors  left  Rome  together, 
with  a  new-levied  armv,  in  1 66,  and  passed 
the  winter  at  Aquileia.  Before  tiieir  departure, 
Marcus  displayed  his  attachment  to  religion  by 
a  profusion  of  sacrifices  and  lustrations ;  and 
was  not  even  contented  widiout  calling  in  the 
aid  of  foreign  rites  to  render  all  tlie  deities  pro- 
pitious. It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  Stoic  phi- 
losophy, firmly  as  it  fortitied  tlie  mind  with  re- 
spect to  moral  duties,  left  it  very  weak  on  the 
side  of  religion,  to  the  sujierstitious  practices 
and  supernatural  pretensions  of  which  it  en- 
joined a  reverent  regard.  What  was  effected 
by  arms  and  negotiations  till  the  death  of  Verus, 
three  years  afterwards,  is  little  known,  and  ap- 
pears to  have  been  nothing  decisive.  That  un- 
worthy colleague  of  a  philosopher  died  of  an 
apoplexy  in  169,  and  relieved  the  empire  from 
an  useless  burthen,  and  Antoninus  from  an 
embarrassing  partner.  He  did  not  hesitate, 
hovvever,  to  prostitute  divine  honours  upon  such 
a  character  ;  and,  in  his  Memoirs,  he  speaks  of 
him  with  a  respect  which  he  did  not  merit,  and 
which  is  not  compatible  with  the  stigma  he  cast 
on  his  memory  in  an  address  to  the  senate.  He 
caused  his  widow  soon  after  to  marry  Pompei- 
anus,  a  man  of  merit,  but  of  moderate  rank. 
In  the  next  year  the  emjicror,  now  sole,  re- 
turned to  Pannonia,  and  pushed  the  war  with 
vigour  against  theMarcomanni,  who  had  gain- 
ed a  great  victory  over  Vindex,  the  pratorian 
prefect,  and  had  advanced  as  far  as  Aquileia. 

During  five  successive  years  he  remained  in 
those  countries,  without  returning  to  Rome, 
supporting  all  the  fatigues  and  hardships  incident 
to  a  militaiy  life  and  a  rigorous  climate,  with 
exemplary  patience,  and  practising  those  lessons 
which  it  had  been  the  great  business  of  his  early 
discipline  to  inculcate.     Few  of  the  particular 


actions  of  this  warfare  arc  recorded.  One  of  the 
most  singular  was  a  battle  gained  by  the  Romans 
over  t!ie  lazyges  u])on  the  frozen  Danube.  A 
more  celebrated  event  is  a  deliverance  from  im- 
minent dangei,  and  a  victors'  obtained  by  the 
emperor  in  person  over  the  Quadi,  the  conse- 
quence of  an  extraoidiiiary  storm  of  rain,  hail, 
and  ligluning,  wliicli  disconcerted  the  barba- 
rians, and  which  was  regarded  as  miraculous. 
Antoninus  and  tlie  Romans  attributed  this  in- 
terposition in  their  favour  to  Jupiter  and  Mer- 
cury ;  but  the  Christians  represented  it  to  be 
the  ttKcct  of  the  prayers  of  a  supposed  legion  of 
that  religion  serving  in  the  army  ;  and  tlie  churcli 
has  consecrated  the  miracle  under  the  title  of  tlie 
thundering  legion.  The  date  of  this  event  is 
iixed  by  Tillemont  to  A.  D.  174.  The  gene- 
ral issue  of  the  war  was,  that  the  barbarians 
were  repressed,  and  Pannonia  delivered  from 
their  incursions  ;  but  it  was  necessary  to  allow 
them  cslablishments  on  the  territories  of  the  em- 
pire, though  as  peaceful  colonists,  and  not  as  foes. 
The  subjugation  of  the  Marcomanni,  which 
Antoninus  had  much  at  heart,  was  prevented 
by  the  revolt  of  Avidius  Cassius,  who  assuined 
the  purple  in  Syria.  A  report  that  he  spread  of 
the  death  of  the  emperor  engaged  tne  Syrian  ar- 
my and  several  neighbouring  people  to  declare 
for  him.  But  this  rebellion,  which  at;  first  put 
on  a  threatening  aspect,  was  quelled  while  An- 
toninus was  preparing  to  march  against  the 
usurper,  by  a  conspiracy  among  the  officers  ot 
Cassius,  ill  which  he  and  his  son  were  killed. 
The  clemency  shown  by  the  emperor  towards 
the  family  of  this  guilty  subject  was  most  ex- 
emplary ;  and,  on  obtaining  possession  of  his 
papers,  he  committed  them  to  the  flames  with- 
out reading  them. 

Antoninus  made  a  progress  through  the  east 
after  the  suppression  of  this  revolt,  and  readily 
pardoned  all  the  places  which  had  declared  for 
Cassius,  with  the  exception  of  Antioch,  which 
he  deprived  for  a  time  of  its  amusements  and 
privileges,  but  restored  tlien\  on  its  repentance. 
Faustina  accompanied  him  on  this  journey,  and 
died  in  it  after  a  short  illness.  All  writers  agree 
with  respect  to  the  scaiidalous  indecency  of  her 
conduct,  in  which  she  rivalled  the  too  famous 
Messalina  ;  nor  did  the  stoical  insensibility  ot 
her  husband  on  this  head  escape  censure  and 
ridicule.  The  honours  he  paid  her  after  dcatli 
were  excessive,  and  might  have  been  dcemetl 
so  had  her  character  been  the  reverse  of  what 
it  was.  If  he  was  really  blind  to  her  conduct, 
he  must  be  supposed  extremely  defective  in  pe- 
netration ;  if  otiierwise,  his  dissimulation,  and 
the  ofFence  oflered  to  morals  and  decorum  by 


ANT 


(    311     ) 


ANT 


Jcifying  such  a  woman,  were  highly  reprehen- 
sible. 

Antoninus  was  as  little  fortunate  in  his  son  as 
in  his  wife.  Commodus  had  from  early  years 
shown  the  most  unhappy  propensities ;  and  all 
the  masters  whom  his  father  assiduously  col- 
lected as  proper  to  form  his  heart  and  under- 
standing, saw  their  labours  entirely  fruitless. 
He  was  indolent,  cruel,  and  debauclied,  and 
gave  decisive  tokens  of  unfitness  tor  the  high 
station  to  which  his  birth  destined  him.  His 
fath.er  was  not  wanting  in  efforts  to  reclaim 
him ;  but  finding  them  ineffectual,  he  was 
surely  biamable  in  the  indulgence  with  which 
he  treated  him,  and  the  prutusion  with  which 
he  heaped  all  sorts  of  honours  and  titles  upon 
him.  While  only  in  his  seventeenth  year,  he 
even  equalled  him  with  himself  in  the  imperial 
dignity,  and  caused  him  to  be  proclaimed  Au- 
gustus. It  is  no  wonder  that  this  premature 
elevation  operated  to  remove  all  restraints, 
and  give  full  scope  to  his  progress  in  vice. 
What  a  different  bequest  to  the  state  did  Mar- 
cus Aurelius  make,  from  that  of  Titus  Antoni- 
nus!' 

To  resume  the  thread  of  the  narration — 
the  emperor  in  176  visited  Syria,  Egypt,  and 
Greece,  and  was  initiated  at  Athens  in  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries.  He  granted  great  privi- 
leges to  this  seat  of  philosophy,  and  founded 
professorships  in  it.  On  his  return  to  Rome, 
after  an  absence  of  eight  years,  he  was  received 
with  great  joy,  and  had  a  triumph  over  the 
Marcomanni,  at  which  he  was  almost  prodigal 
of  largesses  to  the  people.  It  is  said,  too,  that 
he  remitted  all  dues  to  the  treasury,  from  the 
■whole  empire,  for  the  space  of  forty-six  years. 
These  must  certainly  have  heen  past  years. 

He  continued  about  two  years  in  Rome,  and 
then  set  out  on  a  return  to  the  banks  of  the  Da- 
nube, where  the  war  with  the  Marcomanni  was 
renewed.  He  took  with  him  his  son,  whom  he 
bad  just  married  to  Crispina,  daughter  of  Brut- 
tius  Prascns.  A  singular  circumstance  is  re- 
lated to  have  happened  before  his  departure, 
which  was  a  request  from  the  court  philoso- 
phers that  Antoninus  would  not  quit  them 
without  in.<;truciing  them  in  all  the  sublime  se- 
crets of  his  phil'jsophy  ;  in  consequence  of 
which  he  gave  public  lectures  for  three  days  — 
an  incident  that  announces  gross  flattery  on 
their  part,  and  weakness  on  his.  It  is  said,  too, 
that  he  had  before  given  similar  lectures  in  some 
of  the  provincial  capitals.  'We  know  little  of 
the  details  of  this  new  war,  except  that,  in  ge- 
neral, Antoninus  and  his  commanders  were  suc- 
cessful, and  he  was  for  the /f«///  time  decorated 
wlt/j  the  title  of  imperator.     After  two  years' 


absence  lie  fell  ill  at  Vindobona,  now  Vienna, 
in  Austria,  apparently  of  a  pestilential  disease 
which  prevailed  in  the  army,  and  died  on  the 
seventh  day,  on  March  17,  A.  D.  180,  A.  R. 
931,  aged  near  fifty-nine  years,  having  reigned 
somewhat  more  than  nineteen  years.  He  left 
behind  him  one  son,  Commodus,  the  survivor 
of  three;  and  several  daughters.  His  death  oc- 
casioned an  universal  mourning  through  the 
empire.  At  Rome,  the  senate  and  people  de- 
clared him  a  god  by  acclamation,  without  wait- 
ing for  the  decrees  usual  on  the  demise  of  an 
emperor.  It  was  a  more  solid  testimony  of  the 
public  veneration,  that  his  image  was  long  kept 
by  private  persons  among  their  household  dei- 
ties, and  that  some  of  the  best  of  the  succeeding 
emperors  made  him  a  principal  object  of  their 
religious  adoration. 

Marcus  Aurelius  was  no  friend  to  the  Chris- 
tians, who  underwent  persecution  during  most 
of  liis  reign.  TInis  may  be  attributed  to  his 
superstitious  attachment  to  his  own  religion, 
and  the  ill  offices  of  the  philosophers  by  whom 
he  was  surrounded.  Many  of  these  frequented 
his  court,  and  received  strong  marks  of  his  at- 
tachment ;  and  men  of  learning  of  other  de- 
scriptions flourished  in  his  reign.  The  emperor 
himself  was  a  writer  ;  and  his  "  Meditations," 
written  in  Greek,  have  reached  our  times. 
They  are  a  collection  of  maxims  and  thoughts, 
in  the  spirit  of  the  stoic  philosophy,  witliout 
much  connection  cr  skill  of  composition,  but 
breathing  the  purest  sentiments  of  pietv  and  be- 
nevolence. His  character  has  been  displayed 
in  the  preceding  account  of  his  life.  On  the 
whole,  goodness  of  heart  seems  to  have  been 
liis  distinguishing  quality,  not  accompanied 
with  equal  strength  of  understanding.  His  tem- 
per was  yielding  to  excess.  His  philosophy 
was  not  free  from  pedantry  and  ostentation. 
We  want  in  him  the  uKuily  sense  of  Trajan, 
and  the  simple  virtue  of  Antoninus  Pius  ;  yer 
he  will  ever  stand  high  among  the  friends  and 
benefactors  of  mankind,  and  will  afford  a  me- 
morable example  of  philosophy  strictly  main- 
tained upon  a  throne.  The  Meditations  of  An- 
toninus have  been  several  times  printed.  The 
most  valued  editions  arc  those  with  Gataker's 
notes,  particularly  that  of  Cambridge,  4to. 
1652,  of  London,  4to.  1697,  and  of  Utrecht, 
folio,  1698. 

The  principal  authorities  for  this  reign  are 
Capitolinus  and  Dio  Cassius,  with  Antoninus's 
own  Memoirs.  There  are  various  other  inci- 
dental sources  of  information,  which  have  been 
judiciously  collected  by  Cr(vicr  in  his  Hist,  des- 
Fmpctet'.rs.  i?ec  also  Univers.  Hist,  and  Gii- 
l/ofi. — A- 


ANT 


(    3^-^     ) 


ANT 


ANTONIO,  Nicholas,  born  at  Seville 
In  Spain,  in  the  year  1617,  was  the  author  of  a 
celebrated  work  on  Spanish  literature,  entitled 
*•  A  Catalogue  of  Spanish  Authors."  He  stu- 
died law  in  the  university  of  Salamanca,  and 
was  agcnt-gcncral  for  the  king  of  Spain  at 
Rome.  He  devoted  several  yeais  to  his  work 
in  the  royal  monastery  of  Benedictines  at  Sala- 
manca ;  and,  in  order  to  complete,  and  in  other 
respects  gratify  his  taste  for  letters,  he  purchas- 
ed thirty  thousand  volumcR.  He  completed  the 
work  in  four  volumes  folio,  two  of  which  were 
published  during  his  life  in  1672,  and  the  re- 
mainder after  his  death,  by  Marli,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  cardinal  d'Aguirro:  it  was  printed 
at  Rome  in  1696.  The  work  is  copious,  cor- 
rect, and  methodical ;  it  is  become  scarce.^  Tlie 
author  also  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  treatise  '"  On 
E.xile,"  which  was  publislied  at  Antwerp  in 
1659.  Nicholas  Antonio  died  in  the  year 
1684.      Bayle.     Jlforcii. — E. 

ANTONIUS  LiBERALis,  anancientGreek 
writer,  whose  age  is  uncertain,  is  only  known 
as  the  author  ot  "  JiUrau.opipuja-eujy'Zuva.yujyii," 
[A  Collection  of  Metamorphoses,  from  various 
Authors],  publislied,  in  8vo.  at  Basil,  by  Xy- 
landcr,  in  1568  ;  at  Leydcn,  in  I2mg.  by  Ber- 
kclius,  in  1674;  by  Munkcrus,  at  Ainsterdam, 
in  1676;  and  by  Gale  at  Paris,  1675,  8vo. 
This  writer  is  to  be  distinguished  from  another 
of  the  same  name,  a  Latin  rhetorician  men- 
tioned by  Jerom  Fabric.  Bibl.  Grac.  lib.  iii. 
c.  27.  ^  9. — E. 

ANTONIUS,  Marcus,   the   Orator,  the 
most  truly  illustrious  person  of  the  Antonian 
family,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  se- 
venth century  of  Roine.     When  appointed  to 
the  qucestorship  of  Asia,  he  was  told,  at  Briwi- 
dusium,  that  an  accusation  of  the  crime  of  in- 
cest v^as  preferred  against  him  at  Roriie  ;  and, 
though  the  praetor  at  that  time  was  distinguish- 
ed for  severity,  and  he  might  have  availed  him- 
self of  the  law  which  forbad  pursuing  a  charge 
against  a  man  absent  on  public  service,  he  re- 
turned to  Rome,  and  submitted  to  a  trial,  in 
which  he  was  honourably  acquitted.     AV'hen 
prxtor,  Sicily  fell  to  his  lot,  and  he  cleared  the 
sea  of  the  pirates  which  infested  that  island.   He 
was  consul  in  the  year  of  Rome  655,  B.  C.  99, 
and  vigorously  exerted  himself  in  repressing  the 
tumults  excited  by  the  tribune    Sextus  Titus. 
He  attcr\vards  governed  Cilicia  as  proconsul; 
and  by  his  actions  there  obtained  a  triuinph.  In 
order  to  cultivate  his  admirable  talent  for  elo- 
quence,   he   visited   Athens  and  Rhodes,  and 
placed  himself  imder  the  tuition  of  the  most  ce- 
lebrated masters  of  rhetoric  in  those  seats  of 
learning.     On  his  return  to  Rome  he  exercised 


the  charge  of  censor  with  great  reputation,  and 
afterwards  gained  a  cause  again.st  Duronius, 
who  had  accused  him  of  partiality  for  remov- 
ing him  from  the  senatorian  rank.  By  his 
worth  and  abilities  he  rendered  himself  dear  to 
the  most  illustrious  characters  in  Roine,  and 
was  the  objci;t  of  universal  admiration,  when 
he  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  bloody  and  execrable 
civil  confusions  excited  by  Marius  and  Cinna. 
Taking  refuge  at  the  house  of  a  friend  in  the 
country  from  their  proscription,  he  was  acci- 
dentally discovered,  and  betrayed  to  Marius, 
who  expressed  a  savage  joy  on  obtaining  so  il- 
lustrious a  victim.  He  immediately  sent  one  of 
his  assassins  with  a  band  of  soldiers  to  bring  the 
orator's  head.  The  soldiers,  going  first  into 
the  room,  were  so  affected  with  his  venerable 
appearance,  and  the  charms  of  his  eloquence 
while  begging  for  his  life,  that  they  melted  in 
tears,  and  could  not  touch  him.  Their  leader 
at  length  entered  in  a  fury,  and  dispatched  him 
with  his  own  hand.  The  head  was  brought 
to  Marius,  who,  after  making  it  the  .subject  of 
cruel  sport  among  his  guests,  ordered  it  to  be 
stuck  upon  a  pole  before  the  rostra  —  the  same 
treatment  which  the  worthless  grandson  of  An- 
tonius,  Marc  Antony,  bestowed  on  the  head  of 
Cicero  !  This  was  in  tlie  year  ot  Rome  667, 
B.  C.  87. 

M.  Antonius  was  indisputably  the  greatest 
Roman  orator  of  his  time ;  and  Cicero,  who 
often  heard  him  plead  (being  about  twenty-one 
years  old  at  his  death),  attributes  it  to  him  and 
Crassus  that  the  Latin  tongue  was  first  ren-t 
dered  able  to  rival  the  Greek  in  public  speak- 
ing. He  makes  him  one  of  the  principal  inter- 
locutors in  his  "  Dialogue  on  Oiatory,"  and  de- 
scribes at  length  his  character  as  a  speaker  in 
his  "Treatise  on  famous  Orators."  It  appears,  that 
force,  earnestness,  acuteness,  variety,  readiness, 
copiousness,  were  his  distinguishing  qualities, 
and  that  he  excelled  as  much  in  action  as  in 
language.  He  was  less  choice  in  his  expres- 
sions than  some  others,  and  affected  to  be  little 
indebted  to  learning.  Cicero  makes  him  say, 
that  he  was  but  superficially,  aiKl  late  in  life, 
imbued  with  Grecian  literature.  It  appears 
that  a  tract  of  his  on  oratory  had  got  abroad 
surreptitiously  ;  but  he  never  suffered  any  of 
his  pleadings  to  be  published,  giving  as  a  rea- 
son, that  if  he  had  ever  said  any  thing  that  he 
wished  to  deny,  it  might  not  be  proved  against 
him.  Cicero,  de  Oratore,  et  de  claris  Orator. 
Univers.  Hist. — A. 

ANTONY,  Mark.  Marcus  Antonius, 
the  triumvir,  was  grandson  of  the  celebrated  ora- 
tor of  that  name,  and  son  of  another  M.  Anto- 
■ius  surnamed  Crctensis.     His  motlicr  was  Ju- 


ANT 


( 


1  T  1 


) 


ANT 


I»a,  of  the  Caesarian  family,  a  lady  of  distin- 
guished merit.  He  was  born  B.  C.  86,  and 
educated  under  his  mother's  direction.  At  an 
early  age  lie  became  intimate  witli  Curio,  who 
initiated  him  in  all  kinds  of  debauchery,  and  in- 
volved him  deeply  in  debt.  He  afterwards  at- 
tached himself  to  the  profligate  Clodius ;  but, 
alarmed  by  the  temerity  of  his  measures,  An- 
tony withdrew  to  Greece,  where  he  studied  elo- 
quence and  the  military  art.  While  in  Greece, 
he  was  invited  by  the  proconsul  Gabinius  to 
make  a  campaign  witli  him  in  Syria,  and  had 
the  command  of  the  cavalry  conferred  upon 
him.  Here  he  displayed  his  courage  and  acti- 
vity against  Aristobuhis,  who  headed  a  revolt 
in  Judsa.  Antony  afterwards  accompanied 
Gabinius  in  an  expedition  into  Egypt  for  the 
purpose  of  restoring  Ptolemy  to  the  throne  ;  and 
here  also  he  signalised  his  valour  and  good  con- 
duct. His  humanity  was  shown  in  preventing 
Ptolemy  from  putting  to  death  the  citizens  of 
Pelusium.  He  greatly  ingratiated  himself  with 
the  soldiei  s,  by  an  affected  grossness  and  fami- 
liarity of  manners,  profuse  liberality,  and  free 
indulgence. 

On  his  return  to  Rome  he  warmly  joined 
with  Curio  in  the  party  of  Julius  Ca?sar,  and 
by  their  interest  was  created  augur  and  tribune 
of  the  people.  By  some  m.otions  which  he 
made  in  this  latter  capacity,  he  rendered  him- 
self so  obnoxious  to  the  senate,  that  he  thought 
proper,  with  Curio  and  Cassius  Longinus,  also 
trihunes,  to  leave  Rome  privately,  and  take 
shelter  in  the  camp  of  Cresar — a  measure  that 
was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  civil  war.  In 
the  succeeding  troubles,  Antony  was  entrusted 
by  Cffisar  with  the  supreme  command  in  Italy, 
in  which  station  he  made  himself  more  agreea- 
ble to  the  soldiers  than  to  the  people,  v\  hose  op- 
pressions he  was  too  indolent  and  corrupt  to 
avenge.  He  joined  Csesar  with  a  powerful 
supply  before  Dvrrachiuin,  and  commanded  the 
left  wing  of  his  army  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia. 
After  the  victory  he  returned  to  Rome,  with 
the  charge  of  master  of  the  horse,  and  governor 
of  Italy.  Here  he  engaged  in  a  quarrel  with 
Dolabella,  with  whose  party  he  had  a  battle  in 
the  forum  of  Rome  itself;  and  by  his  de- 
bauclicries  and  violences  he  so  much  injured 
his  character,  that  Cfesar  on  his  return  treated 
him  with  coldness.  About  this  time  he  mar- 
ried the  turbulent  Fulvia,  widow  of  Clodius, 
who  made  hira  feel  the  weight  of  her  authority. 
On  Cassar's  return  from  Spain,  Antony  reco- 
vered his  favour  by  the  most  shameless  adula- 
tion and  subserviency,  and  he  became  his  col- 
league ill  the  consulate,  B.  C.  44.     During  his 

VOL.  I. 


possession  of  this  high  ofEce  he  was  guilty  of 
an  act  of  baseness  which  hastened  the  fall  of  his 
patron.  At  the  festival  of  the  Lupercalia  he 
thrice  successively  offered  Caesar  a  regal  dia- 
dem, which  Cssar  thiice  refused  with  the 
loud  applauses  of  the  multitude,  who  were  not 
yet  so  degenerate  as  to  endure  the  title  of  roy- 
alty. As  it  seemed  probable  that  this  was  a 
concerted  scheme  to  try  the  inclinations  of  the 
people,  and  that  the  attempt  might  be  renewed, 
the  conspiracy  was  soon  after  formed'  which  de- 
prived Csesar  of  his  life.  Antony  would  have  suf- 
fered with  liim,  had  it  not  been  for  the  interposi- 
tion of  Brutus,  who  hoped  to  make  a  friend  of 
him ;  but  it  scon  appeared  thathisassocintcsjudgedr 
better  ;  for  by  his  management  and  eloquence 
Antony  procured  the  confirmation  of  Csesar's 
acts,  and  at  Ids  funeral  so  inflamed  the  people 
against  the  conspirators  as  to  oblige  them  to  fly 
from  Rome.  He  then  for  a  time  governed 
Rome  with  absolute  sway,  and  showed  a  de- 
sign of  succeeding  to  the  sovereign  power 
which  Csesar  had  possessed.  His  legal  supe- 
riority as  consul  gave  him  great  advantages 
in  the  pursuit  of  his  ambitious  plans.  In  the 
pride  of  consequence  he  treated  young  Octa- 
vianus,  the  heir  of  Cssar,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  throw  him  into  the  arms  of  the  senate.  Aware 
of  the  consequences  of  this  false  step,  he  at- 
tempted to  regain  him  ;  and  a  variety  of  politi- 
cal manoeuvres  were  practised  by  the  different 
parties.  At  length,  after  several  reconciliations 
and  breaches  with  Octavianus,  each  desirous  of 
being  at  the  liead  of  the  Cjesarian  faction,  An- 
tony levied  forces,  retired  to  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
the  government  of  which  had  been  decreed  him, 
and  laid  siege  to  Mutina,  now  Tvlodena,  held- 
against  him  by  Decimus  Brutus.  The  senate 
now  declared  him  a  public  enemy  ;  and  ttie 
new  consuls,  Hu'tlus  and  Pansa,  accompanied 
by  Octavianus,  were  sent  against  him.  A  bat- 
tle ensued,  which  ended  to  the  disadvantage  of 
Antony,  though  both  consuls  lost  their  lives. 
This  event  left  Octavianus  at  the  head  of  the 
whole  republican  army ;  and  it  was  the  dying 
advice  of  Pansa  to  him  to  efFect  a  reconciliation 
with  Antony.  After  his  defeat  Antony  was 
compelled  by  Decimus  Brutus  to  quit  Italy ; 
and  he  and  his  troops  sutfered  dreadful  hard- 
ships in  crossing  the  Alps,  which  he  endured 
with  great  fortitude  —  for  he  could  better  bear 
adversity  than  prosperity.  Arrived  in  Gaul, 
he  went  as  a  suppliant  to  the  camp  of  Lcjjidus^ 
tlicn  commanding  in  Piovence  ;  and  by  his  in- 
fluence over  the  soldiery  obliged  Lcpldus  to 
join  him,  though  with  the  loss  of  his  own  au- 
thority. Plancus  and  PoUio  likewise  came  over 
2  s 


ANT 


(    3U    ) 


ANT 


to  tlie  pirty  wiih  their  respcrtivc  troops.  Thus 
Antony  was  ciublcd  to  rc-cntcr  Italy  at  the  head 
of  a  large  ariny.  Octavianus,  wlio  had  long 
acted  af  the  friend  and  general  of  the  senate, 
now  took  olTthc  mask,  and  advancing  to  meet 
Antonv  and  Lepidus,  held  a  conference  with 
them  in  a  river-island  near  Bologi-a,  where 
ihcy  settled  t'le  partition  of  t!ic  Roman  world. 
Thcv  also  agreed  on  that  bloody  proscription 
which  will  ever  render  their  names  detestable. 
'I'he  life  of  Cicero  was  a  principal  sacrifice  in 
sistcd  upon  by  Antony,  who  bote  liiin  an  inve- 
terate hatred,  partly  hereditary,  on  account  of 
the  condemnation  of  Lciitulus  the  second  hus- 
band of  Antony's  mother,  and  partly  recent, 
from  the  famous  Philippics  that  orator  had  pro- 
nounced against  him.  As  a  price  for  Cicero, 
Antony  gave  up  his  own  uncle,  Lucius  C:csar. 
The  triumvirs  then  marched  to  Rome,  to  se- 
cure their  usurped  power,  and  put  their  san- 
guinary measures  into  execution.  ■  They  soon 
iillcd  the  capital  with  rapine  and  murder  in 
their  most  abominable  forms  ;  and  Antony  en- 
joyed the  base  satisfaction  of  fixing  the  head 
arid  right  hand  of  Cicero  \ipon  the  rostra 
which  nad  so  often  witnessed  the  triumphs  of 
his  eloquence. 

After  the  destruction  of  their  enemies  in 
Rome,  Antony  and  Octavianus  march':d  into 
Macedonia  against  Brutus  and  Cassius.  In  the 
first  battle  of  Philippi,  Antony  commanded  the 
division  which  opposed  Cassius,  and,  after  a  se- 
vere conflict,  broke  his  troops,  and  compelled 
him  in  despair  to  kill  himself  In  tlie  second 
battle,  it  was  principally  through  his  means  that 
Brutus  met  with  a  like  fate.  Besides  die  milita- 
ry talents  he  displayed  in  these  actions,  he  ex- 
hibited an  instance  of  generosity  which  ouglit 
to  be  recorded.  When  Luciiius,  who  had 
passed  himself  for  Brutus  on  the  Thracians,  to 
whom  he  surrendered  in  order  to  give  Brutus 
time  to  escape,  was  brought  before  Anto- 
ny, instead  of  being  angry  at  his  disappoint- 
ment, he  gave  Lucilius  great  applause  for  his 
fidelity,  and  embraced  him  as  a  friend.  He  like- 
wise showed  much  sensibility  on  viewing  the 
dead  bodv  of  Brutus,  threw  his  own  rich  mantle 
over  it,  and  ordered  it  an  honourable  funeral. 
Antony  next  proceeded  to  Greece,  and  made 
some  stay  at  Athens,  where  he  frequented  the 
public  schools  and  gymnasia,  and  endeavoured 
by  every  mark  of  liii  favour  and  regard  to  in- 
gratiate himself  with  that  renowned  city,  illus- 
trious in  its  decline.  Thence  he  proceeded  to 
Asia,  where  he  gave  fiill  scope  to  his  taste  for 
splendour  and  voluptuousness,  and  imitated 
Alexander  in  revelry  and  profusion.  He  showed 


great  lenity  to  tho>c  of  the  party  of  Brutus  win 
fell  into  his  hands  ;  but  he  severely  fleeced  soiHO 
of  t!ic  cities,  and  bestowed  wirhmit  scruple  tiie 
prop::rty  of  many  rich  and  peaceable  citizens  on 
his  parasites  and  buffoons. 

When  in  Cilicia,  he  suminoned  the  f.imo'js 
Cleopatra,  queen  of  Kgypt,  to  give  an  accouiit 
of  her  conduct,  which  had  been  displeasing  Ui 
the  triumvirs.  Her  presence  captivated  him  \:\ 
such  a  manner  that  he  could  never  afterward! 
break  the  enchantment ;  and  it  was,  in  fact,  tiie 
deciding  circumstance  of  his  future  tortuiic. 
He  accompanied  her  to  Alexandiia,  where  he 
lived  with  her  in  a  perpetual  round  of  dissipa- 
tion, utterly  forgetful  of  what  was  passing  in 
the  rest  of'  the  world.  Meanwhile  Fulvia,  in 
Rome,  disagreed  so  with  Octavianus,  that,  at 
length,  joined  by  Lucius  the  brother  of  Anto- 
ny, she  assembled  some  legions  at  Praencste, 
and,  appearing  at  their  head,  commenced  hosti- 
lities. A  short  war  succeeded,  which  terminated 
entirely  to  the  advantage  of  Octavianus,  before 
Antony,  at  length  roused  to  action,  could  reach 
Italy.  The  death  of  Fulvia,  who  had  advanced 
to  Sicyon  to  meet  her  husband,  and  who  seems 
to  have  been  the  cause  of  the  quarrel,  for  the 
purpose  of  detaching  Antony  from  Cleopatra, 
facilitated  a  reconciliation,  which  was  at  length 
completed  by  the  marriage  of  Antony  ^vith 
Octavia  the  beloved  sister  of  Octavianus,  a 
lady  of  the  most  amiable  and  estimable  charac- 
ter. The  two  great  leaders  now  made  a  new 
division  of  the  empire,  in  which  all  to  the  west 
of  Codropolis  in  lUyricum  was  allotted  to  Oc- 
tavianus, and  all  to  the  east,  to  Antony  ;  and 
Africa  was  left  to  the  insignificant  Lepidus. 

An  agreement  with  Sextus  Pompey.  who 
had  the  command  of  the  sea,  was  the  next  step 
towards  the  retoration  of  the  public  peace ;  after 
which  Antony  returned  to  Greece.  He  spent 
the  winter  in  festivity  at  Athens,  and  sent  his 
lieutenant  Ventidius  against  the  Parthians,  who 
had  tnade  a  great  progress  in  the  Roman  pro- 
vinces of  Asia.  Ventidius  met  with  a  success 
that  excited  the  jealousy  of  Antony  ;  so  that  the 
latter,  upon  joining  him  before  Samosata,  dis- 
missed hiin  to  the  honours  of  a  triumph  in 
Rome.  Antony  himself,  after  effecting  very  lit- 
tle, returned  to  Athens  ;  and  soon  afterwards 
sailed  to  Italy,  on  the  solicitation  of  Octavianus, 
vvho  was  hard  pressed  by  Sextus  Pompey.  Flere, 
through  the  mediation  of  Octavia,  a  perfect 
good  understanding  seemed  to  prevail  between 
the  two  triumvirs ;  but  Antony's  infatuation 
with  respect  to  Cleopatra  made  him  put  all  to 
the  hay.ard  by  a  new  interview  with  that  queen 
m  Syria,  on  liis  return  to  Asia  ;  and  he  no  less 


ANT 


(    315    ) 


ANT 


ofFciided  decorum  by  the  scandalous  life  he  led 
vitli  her,  than  injured  the  interests  of  the  em- 
pire bv  his  profuse  gifts  to  her  of  whole  kiug- 
doms  and  provinces,  and  the  injustices  he  com- 
jnitted  at  her  suggestion.  He  even  caused  lier 
foe,  Antigonus  ]<.ing  of  Judsta,  to  be  put  to 
death  hke  a  common  criiTTinah  He  then  made 
a  new  expedition  against  the  Parthians  with  a 
mighty  army,  but  after  great  losses  ot  men  and 
warlike  stores  he  was  compelled  to  a  disgrace- 
ful retreat.  He  concluded  the  campaign  with 
getting  possession  of  Artavasdcs,  king  of  Ar- 
xnciiia,  bv  treachery,  and  dragging  him  in  tri- 
umph to  Alexandria.  The  virtuous  Octavia, 
who  had  set  out  from  Rome  with  supplies  of 
men  and  necessaries  for  his  service,  was  not 
permitted  to  join  him,  but  was  ignominiously 
sent  back. 

Octavianus  was  not  backward  in  improving 
this  misconduct  of  Antony  to  his  own  advan- 
tage, and  in  inflaming  tlie  displeasure  of  the 
Romans  agawist  him.  A  war  between  the  two 
sharers  of  the  empire  became  inevitable,  and 
preparations  were  made  on  each  side  ;  but  An- 
tony, immersed  in  pleasure  and  dissipation,  acted 
little  like  a  man  who  had  such  an  interest  at 
stake.  The  isle  of  Samos,  which  he  appointed 
for  his  general  rendezvous,  was  crowded  with 
players,  muticians,  and  all  the  ministers  of  ri- 
otous luxury  ;  and  ,'erious  business  gave  way 
to  a  perpetual  round  of  entertainments,  in  which 
he  and  Cleopatra  vied  wtth  the  kings  and 
princes  attached  to  their  party.  In  order  to 
.show  his  resentment  against  his  rival,  he  so- 
lemnly divorced  Octavia,  and  turned  her  out  of 
his  house  in  Rome.  Such  was  the  impression 
that  this  conduct  made  upon  the  friends  of  An- 
tony, that  many  of  them  deserted  him,  to  which 
the  imperious  behaviour  of  Cleopatra  not  a  lit- 
tle contributed.  War  at  length  was  declared  at 
Rome  against  the  Egvptian  queen,  and  Antony 
was  deprived  of  his  consulate  and  government. 
Eacli  party  mustered  their  forces  bv  land  and 
sea,  and  the  Ambracian  gulf  became  the  theatre 
of  this  mighty  contest.  While  Antony  lay  at 
Actium,  a  presage  of  his  coming  ruin  caused 
several  persons  of  distinction  to  go  over  to  his 
rival.  Among  these  was  one  of  his  most  inti- 
mate friends,  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  whose 
desertion  struck  Antony  to  the  heart.  But  his 
behaviour  on  the  occasion  was  truly  generous, 
tor  he  sent  after  him  all  his  equipage  and  at- 
tendants ;  and  this  treatment  so  affected  Domi- 
tius, who  was  sick,  that  he  soon  after  died  of 
remorse.  The  fainons  battle  pf  Artium  en- 
.sued,  which  was  finichtjjl^£9j  contrary  to  the 


th roug,h  the  persjjasi_on_of .Cleo;atia.-3adia-Av:as 
piwIa^^^J^^own^lTsixaLfiiiXf •  Iri  the  midst  of 
the  action,  while  victory  was  y^eit,_suspefK]ed, 
Cleopatra  ^^■ith  her  .squa^roji_^of  hftx^aljey s  tQ.ok 
to" HTghTilani  jhe,  foicinated  Anjaoy^-ibllowing 
her  in  a_,5mpjl  ..vessel^  left  the  world  to  be  con- 
tended for  by  men  of  firmer  minds,  and  over- 
whelmed his  character  in  perpetual  ignominy. 
His  brave  sj)ldiers.fQiigIjt  long ,wkliojiit  their  ge- 
neral, but  at  length  were  entirely  broken."  His 
gallant  land  forces,  uiiabTe  to  believe  his  total 
desertion  of  them,  held  out,  though  surrounded 
by  the  enemy,  for  many  days ;  but  at  length, 
abandoned  by  all  their  principal  officers,  tliey 
surrendered  to.  .Qctavianus,  and  were  incorpo- 
rated in  his  legions.  Antony,  full  of  shame, 
and  indigiiaiit_agaij)sttl;i,e  author  of  his -ruin,  re- 
tired in  silcnce,and  for  some  time  refused  to 
speak  to  her.  At  length  they  were  reconciled, 
and  he  pursued  his  course  tq^  JLibya^  where  he 
had  left  a  considerable  body  of  troops  ;  but  on 
his  arrival  he  found  these  revolted  to  Octavi- 
anus. This  _di5iifipoiiiU.ufeUL  so  affected  him, 
that  he  was  with  difficukyjyeyented  from  stab- 
bjn^.hjmseir  He  returned  to  Egypt,  and  for 
some  time  lived  in  gloomy  sqlijude  ;  but  Cleo- 
patra by  her^Wonfed  arts  drew  him  to  her  pa- 
lace, and  he  resumed  his  former  voluptuous 
life.  Their  festivity  was  interrupted  by  the  in- 
vasion of  Octavianus,  who  rejected  all  the  pro- 
posals of  submission  made  by  them.  When  he 
arrived  before  Alexandria,  some  sparks  ot  An- 
tony's former  courage  broke  out,  and  he  sallied 
forth  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry,  and  defeated 
those  of  Octavianus.  But  afterwards,  aban- 
doned by  the  Egyptian  fleet  and  by  his  own 
land  forces,  and  having  reason  to  think  himself 
betrayed  by  Cleopatra  herself,  he  fell  into  utter 
despair.  He  first  rushed  to  Cleopatia's  palace, 
in  order  to  take  vengeance  on  her,  which  she 
eluded  by  flight.  Resolved  upon  death,  he  then 
called  upon  liis  fiud'ftj!  servant  Eros  to  perfortii 
his  promise  of  killing  him  wlicn  he  should  re- 
quire it.  Eros,  pretending  to  comply,  desired 
him  to  turn  away  his  face,  and  then  stabbed 
himself,  and  fell  dead  at  his  feet.  Animated  by 
this  example  of  affectionate  heroism,  Antony 
then  threw  himself  upon  his  sword.  The  wound 
was  not  immediately  mortal  ;  and,  on  desiring 
to  take  a  last  farewell  of  Cleopatra,  he  was 
carried  to  the  bottom  of  the  tower  w  here  that 
queen  had  taken  refuge  from  his  fury,  and  was 
drawn  up  to  her  by  ropes,  she  herself  assisting 
her  women  in  the  task.  Here,  after  many  ex- 
pressions of  tenderness,  and  much  kind  advice, 

_^ ^  he  expired  in  her  arms,  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  ot 

advice  of  AntODjTTcst  officers,  and  chiefly     his  age,  B.  C.  30.     His  body  was  most  magni- 


ANT 


(    316    ) 


ANT 


ficently  Interred  by  Cleopatra  ;  but  at  Rome  liis 
statues  were  all  thrown  tlowu,  and  his  memory 
declared  infamous. 

Antony  left  seven  children  bv  his  three  wives 
(for  he  had  lawfully  married  Cleopatra  after  his 
xiivorec  from  Octavin)  :  two  sons,  by  FuUia  ; 
two  daughters,  by  Octavia  ;  and  a  daughter 
and  two  sons,  by  Cleopatra.  Octavia  took  the 
most  generous  care  of  her  step-children,  and 
brought  up  with  her  his  dau^^hter  by  Cleopatra, 
■whom  she  married  to  Juba  king  of  Mauritania. 
Her  own  two  daughters,  by  their  alliances,  gave 
tiiree  emperors  to  Rome. 

The  romantic  cast  of  Antony's  character  and 
adventures  has  rendered  him  a  more  conspi- 
cuous object  in  the  records  of  fame,  than  his 
endowments  could  of  themselves  have  done. 
With  some  splendid  qualities,  he  had  neither 
strength  of  understanding  nor  vigour  of  mind 
sufficient  to  ranlc  him  among  great  men.  Still 
less  can  he  class  amojig  good  men ;  since,  be- 
side his  unbounded  love  of  pleasure,  he  was  al- 
ways unprincipled,  and  often  cruel  and  mean. 
Yet  few  men  havejieen  more  wannly  beloved 
•by  tficir  iJicnJs  and  partisans;  and  many  of 
Jiis  actions  displayed  a  generosity  of  disposition 
which  raised  him  mucli  above  his  inorc  prudent 
rival,  the  cold  and  crafty  Octavianus.  Plutarch's 
Life  of  Antony.   Univers.  Hist. — A. 

ANTONY  OF  Bourbon,  son  of  Charles  of 
Bourbon,  duke  ofVendome,  was  born  in  1527, 
and  married  in  1548  Joan  d'Albrct,  queen  of 
Navarre,  who  brought  him  in  dowry  the  prin- 
cipality of  Beam,  and  the  title  of  king  of  Na- 
varre. Feeble  and  inesolute  in  his  temper,  he 
was  not  able  to  make  good  tlie  claims  to  poli- 
litical  consequence  which  his  birth  gave  him  ; 
and  during  the  reign  of  Francis  II.  he  was  kept 
from  court  bv  the  artifices  of  Catharine  of  Me- 
dicis,  till  in  disgust  he  retired  to  Beam.  After 
the  death  of  that  king  he  claimed  the  regency, 
but  was  induced  to  cede  it,  and  accept  of  the 
charge  of  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom 
during  the  minority  of  Charles  IX.  He  left 
the  Calvinist  religion  and  party,  in  which  he 
had  been  bred,  conformed  to  popery,  and,  with 
the  duke  of  Guise  and  tiie  constable  Montino- 
renci,  constituted  what  the  Huguonots  called tlie 
Jnumvirale.  The  civil  war  breaking  out  be- 
tween the  parties  in  1562,  he  took  the  cominand 
of  the  armv,  and  made  himself  master  of  Blois, 
Tours,  and  Rouen.  At  tlie  siege  of  this  latter 
place  he  received  a  wound  in  his  shoulder, 
which,  rendered  dangerous  by  his  indulgences 
with  a  ladv  whom  Catharine  employed  to  keep 
him  under  her  influence,  carried  him  off  on  the 
iwenty-tourth  day,  in  November  1562.     He  is 


said  to  have  had  more  firmness  of  Iieart  than 
steadiness  of  principle.  He  cou'd  not  be  prevailed 
upon  to  divorce  his  wife,  though  she  remained 
a  Calvinist,  and  though  Jie  was  tempted  by  a 
proposed  union  with  Mary  queen  of  Scots.  In 
tlie  reign  of  Francis  it  had  been  determined  to 
take  him  off.  He  was  informed  of  the  design, 
yet  went  to  the  chamber  where  the  murder  was 
to  be  committed.  "  If  they  kill  me,"  said  he  to 
a  gentleman  in  iiis  service  "  take  my  bloody 
shirt  to  my  wife  and  son,  who  w  ill  read  in  my 
•blood  the  lesson  of  revenge."  I'his  son  was 
afterwards  Henry  IV.  Moieri,  Mod.  Uni- 
vers.  Hist. — A. 

ANTONY,  distinguished  by  the  appellation 
of  Saint,  and  celebrated  as  the  first  institutor  of 
monastic  life,  was  born  at  Coina,  a  village  in 
upper  Egypt,  not  far  from  the  ThebaVs,  in  the 
year  251.  His  parents,  though  rich,  did  not 
afford  him  the  advantage  of  a  liberal  education. 
Several  writers,  among  whom  arcEvagrius  and 
Augustine,  assert,  that  he  was  not  even  able  to 
read ;  but  it  is  probable,  from  the  account 
given  of  this  recluse  by  Athanasius,  that  he 
could  read  and  write  in  the  Coptic,  his  native 
tongue  ;  and  that,  when  he  is  said  to  have  been 
unacquainted  with  letters,  we  are  only  to  un- 
derstand that  he  was  a  stranger  to  Greek  learn- 
ing. At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was  left  in  pos- 
session of  a  large  estate  ;  but  a  fanatical  spiiit 
irresistibly  impelled  him  to  disencumber  himself 
of  all  secular  concerns,  by  selling  his  property 
and  distributing  the  money  arising  from  the  sale 
to  the  poor,  and  to  devote  himself  to  religion  in 
a  life  of  solitude  and  poverty.  The  place  which 
he  chose  for  his  first  retreat  was  a  cell  near  his 
village :  he  then  took  up  his  abode  in  a  sepul- 
chre ;  and,  after  passing  fifteen  years  in  this 
gloomy  retirement,  he  crossed  the  Nile,  and  ad- 
vanced three  days'  journey  eastward  into  the  de- 
sert. Here  he  found,  in  a  lonely  spot,  the  ruins 
of  an  old  castle,  which  he  made  his  stated  resi- 
dence for  nearly  twenty  years:  The  fame  of 
his  piety  and  sanctity  brought  him  many  fol- 
lowers, and  monasteries  began  to  rise  up  in  the 
desert.  During  the  persecution  of  Maximin,  in 
the  j'car  311,  he  left  his  solitude,  and  went  to 
AlexaiKlria  to  minister  spiritual  consolation  to 
such  as  weie  suffering  in  the  Christian  cause. 
\\'^hen  the  persecution  was  passed  he  returned 
to  his  monastery,  and  was  followed  by  multi- 
tudes who  hoped  to  share  the  benefit  of  his  re- 
puted power  of  performing  miraculous  cures. 
To  avoid  the  inconvenience  of  these  importu- 
nate crowds,  the  monk  made  a  farther  retreat 
into  the  mountainous  part  of  the  countrv,  and 
fixed  upon  a  new  station  on  mount  Cobzim, 


■■•u 


in  ujoirn  ceartis,  ar   c-^t^'/is    trumjz/te Kit's.  /uviiVnti't-u:   vit^  in  ef£m^jeLit- 


ANT 


(    3'7     ) 


ANT 


near  t!ie  Red  Sea.  Here  he  built  a  cell,  or 
small  monastery,  where  he  passed  che  remainder 
of  his  days  in  solitude  and  dc\otion,  not,  how- 
ever, witliout  making  occasional  visits  to  his 
former  disciples,  who  revered  him  as  a  father. 
During  this  latter  part  of  his  life  he  also,  in  the 
year  335,  took  a  journey  to  Alexandria,  at  the 
request  of  Athanasius  and  other  catholic  pre- 
lates, to  assist  them  in  defending  the  faith  against 
the  Avians,  and  here  "  supported  his  fame  with 
discretion  and  dignity."  He  received  an  invi- 
tation from  the  emperor  Constantine  to  visit 
Constantinople,  but  he  respectfully  declined  it 
and  returned  to  his  cell,  where  he  lived  to  the 
venerable  age  of  an  hundred  and  five  years.  He 
died  in  the  year  356,  leaving  behind  him  a  nu- 
merous train  of  spiritual  children,  who  had  been 
formed  by  his  example  and  precept  to  those  ha- 
bits of  monastic  seclusion  and  mortification 
which  ignorant  superstition  may  deem  merito- 
rious, but  which  an  enlightened  and  benevolent 
philosophy  must  pronounce  absurd  and  mis- 
chievous. What  honour  can  be  due  to  the 
memory  of  the  fanatic  who  laid  tiie  foundation 
of  an  institution  which  has  alienated  millions  of 
human  beings  from  the  first  duties  and  the  first 
enjoyments  of  society  ?  Antony  left  his  cloaik 
to  Athanasius,  and  his  hair-cloth  to  two  bre- 
thren who  were  with  him  at  his  death.  Seven 
letters,  written  originally  in  Egyptian,  and  trans- 
lated into  Latin,  in  which  there  is  more  piety 
than  eloquence,  with  some  other  pieces,  ascrib- 
ed to  this  proto-monk,  may  be  found  in  the 
"  Bibliotiicca  Patrum."  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  Du- 
pin.  Afoieri.   Gibbon's  Hist.  c.  7^1 . — E. 

ANTONY  OF  Lebrixa,  or  Jntonius  Ne- 
hrlssensis,  a  Spanish  writer,  born  at  Lebrixa, 
in  Andalusia,  in  the  year  1444,  contributed 
largely  to  the  revival  of  letters  in  Spain.  Hav- 
ing studied  at  Salamanca,  he  went  into  Italy, 
where,  in  the  university  of  Bologna,  he  ac- 
quired extensive  knowledge.  Besides  the  lan- 
guages and  polite  literature,  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  mathematics,  law,  medicine,  and 
theology,  so  that  he  might  justly  be  reckoned 
one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  age.  L^pon 
his  return  into  Spain,  he  taug'u  grammar  at 
Salainanca  about  twenty-eight  years.  He  then 
removed  to  the  university  of  Alcala,  where, 
under  the  patronage  of  cardinal  Ximenes,  he 
taught  until  his  deatii.  Here  he  emp'oved  him- 
self in  publishing  a  Polyglott  edition  of  the  bi- 
ble. He  was  historiographer  to  the  king,  and, 
-in  1509,  publislicd  tuo  decades  of  an  history  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  to  be  found  in  the  first 
volume  of  the  collection  of  Spanish  historians, 
entitled  *'  Hispania   illiistrata."     This  writer, 


who  was  an  eminent  master  of  various  lan- 
guages, furnished  the  public  with  a  dictionary 
of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  languages, 
printed  at  Grenada  in  1545.  He  also  wrote 
notes  upon  several  Latin  classics,  particularly 
Virgil,  Persius,  Juvenal,  Pliny,  Cicero,  and 
Quintilian,  and  a  commentary  upon  Aristotle's 
Rhetoric.  He  was,  moreover,  the  author  of  a 
Treatise  on  Weights  and  Measures  ;  a  Cosmo- 
graphy ;  a  Law-Dictionary  ;  a  Medical-Dic- 
tionary ;  Commentaries  on  the  Scriptures ; 
Poems,  &c.  This  learned  man  died  in  the 
year  1522.  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  Dupin.  More- 
ri.     Noitv.  Diet.  Hist.  —  E. 

ANTONY  oi-  Messina,  otherwise  called 
jintonello,  a  celebrated  painter,  was  a  native  of 
Messina,  and  flourished  about  1430.  Having 
seen  at  Naples  a  picture  which  king  Alphonso 
had  just  received  from  Flanders,  the  perform- 
ance of  John  Van  Eyck,  the  supposed  inventor 
of  oil-colours,  he  \yas  so  struck  with  its  beauty, 
that,  relinquishing  all  other  business,  he  went 
immediately  to  Bruges,  where  he  obtained  the 
secret.  On  his  return,  he  communicated  the 
knowlege  of  it  to  Bellini  at  Venice,  and  also 
to  Dominico,  a  scholar  of  his  own,  who  made 
it  known  at  Florence  ;  whence  the  Venetian 
and  Florentine  schools  veiy  early  adopted  the 
practice  of  painting  in  oil.  Antony  died  at  Ve- 
nice, where  his  epitaph  records  him  as  the  per- 
son who  first  introduced  this  new  art  into  Italy. 
De  Piles.     Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — A. 

ANTONY  OF  Padua,  a  monk  of  the  or- 
der of  St.  Francis,  was  born  at  Lisbon  in  1 195. 
In  hope  of  obtaining  the  crown  of  martyrdom, 
he  set  sail  for  Africa;  but  the  vessel  being  driven 
by  a  storm  upon  the  coast  of  Italy,  he  remained 
in  that  country,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  ot  theology,  and  became  an  eminent 
preacher.  Tlie  fraternity  of  Flagellants  are  said 
•to  have  owed  their  origin,  in  part,  to  his  ser- 
mons. Pope  Gregory  XI.  who  sometimes 
heard  him,  used  to  call  him  "the  ark  of  the  new 
covenant,  and  the  exact  depositary  of  sacred 
learning."  Father  Antony  taught  successively 
at  Montpelier,  1'oulouse,  and  Padua  ;  at  this 
last  phice  he  died  in  1231,  and  thence  took  his 
appellation.  His  works,  containing  sermons, 
commentaries,  and  a  moral  concordance  to  the 
bible,  were  published  at  the  Hague  in  1641. 
Moreri.     Nonv.  Did.  Hist. — E. 

ANTONY  OF  Pratovecchio,  in  Tus- 
cany, an  Italian  lawyer,  wlio  flourished  In  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  distinguished  by  his  at- 
tempts to  form  a  new  code  of  feudal  law.  He 
was  educated  at  Florence.  Ai  the  council  of 
Pisa,  in  1409,  his  talents  were  disjilayed  to  so 


A  N  V 


(    318    ) 


A  xN  V 


much  advantage,  that  the  Bolognese  entreated 
him  to  accept  a  chair  of  law  in  their  university. 
At  thccouncil  ol  Constance  heconvinced  the  em- 
peror t<igismonil  of  the  necessity  of  revising  and 
arranging,  in  a  new  digcM,  the  numerous  fcudal 
laws.  The  emperor,  cieating  Antony  count 
and  counsellor  of  the  empire,  charged  him  with 
the  execution  of  this  arduous  task.  Returning 
to  Bologna,  he  set  about  ilic  work,  and,  having 
coUcctell  the  laws  upon  fiefs  made  by  the  kings 
of  Lombaidy  and  the  emperors,  and  read  in- 
numerable commentaries  upon  tlie  subject,  ho 
at  last  produced  from  the  chaotic  mass  a  regu- 
lar "Course of  Feudal  Law,"  whicli  was  pub- 
lished in  the  year  1428.  Tliis  immense  labour, 
vhile  it  rommanditl  tlir  applause  of  the  lawycis, 
excited  their  envy  ;  and,  llirongli  tlieir  influence, 
the  emperor  refused  the  imperial  approbation  to 
this  nc\v  code.  What  Sigismond  denied  w.ts, 
however,  afterwards  granted  by  Frederic  III. 
'i'his  eminent  lawyer  also  wrote  "  Commen- 
taries on  the  Decree  of  Gratian  ;"  and  a  "Ge- 
neral Repertory,"  or  Lexicon  of  Jurisprudence. 
He  died  at  Bologna  about  the  year  1464.  Landi, 
Hist.  Litt.  d'ltal.  lib.  ix.  n.  102.  —  E. 

ANVARL  or  Anveri,  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  the  Persian  poets,  was  born  in  a  vil- 
lage of  Khorasan,  in  the  twelfth  century.  He 
studied  at  the  city  of  Tlious,  in  the  college  call- 
ed Mansuriah,  where  he  lived  as  a  poor  scho- 
lar. It  happened,  tliat,  as  the  equipages  of  the 
sultan  Sanjiar,  in  one  of  his  progresses,  passed 
before  the  college,  Anvari,  who  was  sitting  at 
the  door,  had  the  curiosity  to  inquire  the  name 
and  condition  of  a  person  who  rode  by  well 
dressed  and  mounted.  Being  told  he  was  one 
cf  the  sultan's  poets,  Anvari  immediately  be- 
came desirous  of  excelling  in  an  art  so  much 
honoured  and  encouraged;  and  that  very  night 
composed  a  piece  in  praise  of  the  sultan,  which 
he  presented  to  him  the  next  day.  The  prince, 
who  was  a  good  judge  of  verses,  found  in  it 
great  marks  of  genius,  and  thenceforth  attached 
the  author  to  his  person.  He  has  the  credit  of 
being  the  first  who  freed  Persian  poetry  from 
impurity  and  licentiousness  ;  and  he  acquired 
5uch  renown,  that  the  surname  of  the  king  of 
Khorasan  was  bestowed  upon  him.  A  singular 
poetical  contest  is  said  to  have  been  carried  on 
between  him  and  the  poet  Raschidi.  Thcv 
were  in  opposite  interests,  and  the  latter  was 
shut  up  in  a  fortress  besieged  by  sultan  Sanjiar. 
In  this  situation  they  made  war  upon  each  other 
by  means  of  missile  pieces  of  verse  fastened  to 
the  points  of  arrows.  Anvari  was  much  at- 
tached to  astrologi,-,  which  proved  a  source  of 
great  vexation  to  him ;  for,  having  concurred 


with  other  astronomers  in  predicting  a  terrible 
storm  on  the  day  of  the  conjunction  ot  the  seven 
planets,  which  took  place  in  the  year  1185,  it 
liappened  diat  it  turned  out  so  serene,  that  the 
lam[)s  on  the  tops  of  the  mosques  were  not  ex- 
tinguished. The  enemies  of  Anvari  took  this 
opportunity  of  turnin;?;  him  to  ridicule  ;  and  the 
sultan  himself  gave  him  a  reprimand.  Lfnable 
to  bear  this,  he  retired  first  to  Meru,  and  then  to 
Balk,  where,  in  a  poem,  he  nvade  a  public  re- 
nunciation of  astrology  and  its  predictions.  He 
died  at  Balk  about  1 200.     D  Hobclot.  —  A. 

ANVILLE,  Jeak-Baptiste  Bol'rgui- 
GNON  d',  first  geographer  to  the  king  of  France, 
member  of  the  academy  of  in  criptions  and 
belles-lettres,  of  the  antiquarian  society  of 
London,  and  adjoint-geographer  to  the  Parisian 
academy  of  sciences,  was  born  at  Paris  the  i  ith 
of  July  1697. 

It  i^  fortunate  for  society,  when  the  early  ex- 
ertions of  genius  are  strongly  directed  to  some 
particular  pursuit.  A  predilection  for  geography 
was  eminently  seen  in  the  first  labours  of  D'An- 
vllle.  His  time  was  employed  in  the  perusal  of 
ancient  authors  and  the  designation  of  charts,  in 
which  his  study  was  directed  to  fix  the  positions 
of  towns,  and  ascertain  the  locality  of  the  great 
events  recorded  in  history.  The  labours  of  a 
geographer  are  not  unfrequently  taken  to  consist 
in  the  simple  occupation  of  a  draftsman  ;  but 
a  very  slight  attention  to  the  results  of  these  la- 
bours will  show  that  this  department  of  science 
calls  for  the  united  powers  of  genius,  science, 
and  erudition.  If  we  were  in  possession  of  as- 
tronomical observations  to  determine  the  position 
of  the  chief  points  in  a  map ;  if  geodesial  ad- 
measurements were  upon  record  to  ascertain 
distances,  tiie  course  of  rivers,  t!ie  direction  of 
roads,  and  the  sinuosities  of  the  coasts,  little 
would  remain  for  the  geographer,  but  to  choose 
his  projection,  and  delineate  his  materials  wiili 
fidelity.  But  this  is  far  from  being  the  case. 
Among  the  various  methods  of  observing,  some 
are  accurate,  others  loose  and  slovenly.  Among 
travellers,  how  few  are  there  who  [lossess  the 
requisite  acquisitions  of  science,  and  fidelity  to 
observe  and  relate  their  observations  !  How 
many  rough  estimates  and  narratives  at  second- 
hand must  present  themselves  among  the  mate- 
rials which  the  geographer  must  use,  because 
better  cannot  be  had  !  \\'^hat  name  can  we  give 
to  that  mental  accomplishment  which  is  here 
demanded  over  and  above  tlie  perfect  knowledge 
of  the  methods  which  have  been,  or  may  be, 
used  by  the  travellers  and  historians  ?  To  select, 
to  compare,  to  establish  the  evidence  in  favour 
of  truth,  and  reject  the  deceptions  of  falsehood. 


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APE 


requires  the  application  of  science  and  aciUc- 
ness ;  but  it  is  a  science  for  which  no  precejjts 
are  to  be  found,  and  for  the  practice  of  wliich 
the  vigilance  and  animation  of  an  original  in- 
ventor are  continually  called  forth.  D'Anville 
was  peculiarly  qualified  to  perform  this  task. 
Indefatigable  in  liis  studies,  he  liad  read  and  di- 
gested every  thing  relating  to  the  geography  of 
the  ancients,  the  moderns  and  tlie  middle  ages. 
Geographers,  philosophers,  historians,  and  even 
poets,  contributed  to  supply  the  materials  of  his 
researches.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  be- 
gan to  publish  some  of  those  charts  which  have 
given  celebrity  to  his  name. 

When  D'Anvillc  published  a  chart  of  any 
importance,  he  always  gave  an  account  or  ana- 
lysis of  the  authorities  and  means  from  which 
lie  had  settled  the  most  essential  points.  In  these 
accounts  there  appears  nothing  of  ostentation, 
nor  any  of  that  little  artifice  by  which  the  value 
of  a  work  is  attempted  to  be  advanced.  To 
principles  superior  to  every  practice  of  this  kind, 
he  added  a  consciousness  that  the  extent  of  his 
inquiries,  the  incessant  continuation  of  his  la- 
hours,  and  the  sagacity  of  his  criticisms,  would  en- 
Sure  him  the  suffrage  to  which  he  was  entitled. 

When  the  question  of  the  oblate  figure  of  the 
earth  became  an  object  of  discussion  in  France, 
D'Anville  published  a  work,  entitled,  "  Mesure 
conjecturale  de  la  Terre  sous  I'Equateur,"  in 
which  he  endeavoured  to  establish,  from  seo- 
graplucal  data,  a  position  contrary  to  that  which 
is  obtained  from  astronomical  observations. 
This  circumstance  is  not  to  be  wondered  at, 
when  it  is  considered  that  the  quantity  by  which 
the  earth  differs  from  a  sphere  is  too  small  to  be 
ascertained  by  the  methods  he  used,  and  that  his 
knowledge  of  the  higher  branches  of  mathemati- 
cal and  astronomical  science  was  very  limited. 

In  the  year  1773,  the  academy  of  sciences 
appointed  him  adjoint-geographer;  and,  though 
then  near  eighty  years  of  age,  he  presented  seve- 
ral memoirs  to  that  learned  body-  His  peculiar 
talents  and  pursuits,  together  with  the  esteem  in 
which  "he  was  held  by  the  learned  of  all  Europe, 
enabled  him  to  collect  an  immense  and  match- 
less set  of  charts  of  every  description,  which 
v.as  purchased  by  the  late  king  of  France  a  few 
years  before  his  death.  The  labour  necessary 
to  arrange  and  dispose  this  collection  was  the 
last  effort  of  his  life.  When  this  task  wxis  over, 
every  motive  for  exertion  seemed  at  an  end.  He 
resigned  himself  to  the  effects  of  old  age  ;  his 
faculties  speedily  decayed,  and  after  an  interval 
of  two  years,  during  which  his  iiitirmitrcs 
gradually  increased,  he  died  on  the  28th  of  Ja- 
nuary 1782,  in  his  eighty-fifth  year. 


D'Anville  was  eminently  formed  to  occupy  with 
success  and  reputation  the  distinguished  place 
he  held  among  men  of  science  and  erudition. 
To  a  large  portion  of  natural  ability  he  added  a 
degree  of  industry  so  great,  that  for  fiity  years 
of  his  life  lie  is  said  to  have  ai)plicd  to  study 
fifteen  hours  every  day.  He  had  a  high  opinion 
of  the  importance  of  the  pursuit  to  which  he 
had  dedicated  his  talents  ;  and  though  his  man- 
ner was  chearful,  modest  and  unassuming, 
yet  his  decisions  on  the  objects  of  liis  study, 
were  thought  to  be  more  afErmative  than  con- 
sisted with  the  humility  which  the  h.abits  of 
conversation  required  every  individual  to  as- 
sume, whether  he  possessed  it  or  not.  But 
much  may  be  forgiven  to  men  of  learning,  if 
the  adulatory  regard  of  others  should  in  some 
respect  vitiate  their  habits  ;  and  still  more,  when 
the  confidence  of  superficial  reasoners  may 
lead  them  to  oppose  the  results  of  many  years'  la- 
bour with  the  crude  thoughts  of  the  moment. 
He  was  married  in  1730,  and  had  two  daugh- 
ters, both  of  whom  survived  him.  His  wife 
died  a  year  before  him,  at  a  time  when,  from 
the  state  of  liis  health  and  faculties,  he  was  not 
capable  of  feeling  any  sentiment  of  her  loss. 

The  works  of  D'Anville  are  loo  numerous 
to  admit  of  a  detailed  catalogue  in  this  place, 
the  principal  are,  "  Geographic  aiicienne  abie- 
gee,"  1768,  three  vols.  121110.  a  work  which, 
together  with  his  charts  of  the  ancient  world, 
affords  an  accurate  and  complete  course  of  an- 
cient geography.  "  Traite  des  Mesures  itinc^ 
raires  anciens  et  modernes,"  1769,  8vo.  a 
work  of  profound  inquiry  and  research.  "  Dis- 
sertation sur  I'Etendue  do  I'ancienne  Jerusa- 
lem," 1747,  8vo.  "  Memoire  sur  I'Egypte 
ancienne  et  moderne,  avcc  une  Description  da 
Golphe  Arabique,"  1766,  4to.  This  is  the 
most  profound  work  which  has  hitherto  ap- 
peared on  this  subject.  "  Etats  formes  en  Eu- 
rope apres  la  Chute  de  I'Empire  Romain  en 
Occident,"  1771,  4to.  ♦' Notice  de  I'ancienne 
Gaule,  tirce  des  Monumcus  Romains,"  1761, 
4to.  In  this  valuable  treatise  the  author  confines 
himself  to  the  lime  during  which  the  Romans 
held  dominion  over  Gaul,  widiout  carrying  his 
work  to  the  lower  and  middle  ages.  Various  me- 
moirs of  his  are  inserted  among  those  of  the  Aca- 
demy of  Inscriptions.  Histoire  de  P Acad.  Roy. 
dc  Paris,  1782.     Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — N. 

APELLES,  the  most  famous  painter  of  an- 
tiquity, was  a  native  of  the  island  of  Cos,  and 
flourished  in  the  fourth  century  B.  C.  contem- 
porary with  Alexander  the  Great.  His  master 
was  Pamphilus  of  Amphipolis,  whose  reputa- 
tation  was  so  high,  that  lie  taught  for  no  less 


m 


APE 


( 


!20 


) 


APE 


shop  very  ignorantly  concerning  the  art,  Apcllea 


fVin  a  talenf.     Apelles  first  (li.^tincruished  him-  — r  ■--.    o    ,      .,  -      ,        ,    ,"          ,                > 

df  bv  hi    dil  ecnce  ;  a.d  it  was  Ln  him  that  desired  him  to  be  s.lent,   est  the  boys  who  ground 

'the  p?ov    b  a  ose,  "  No  day  ^vithout  a  Hne."  his  colours  should  laugh  at  .h.rn.    Some  wr>te>^ 

'"^  P'"      .        .    '      .             •       •.„»„,!,„  i,«„-,.vpi-  iinnhe  to  conceive  of  such  a  freedom 


He  is  said  to  have- been  very  attentive  to  the 
opinions    even    of  the   vulgar    respecting   his 
works,  as  far  as   he  thought  them   adequate 
judges  ;  and  no  story  is  hetter  known  than  that 
of  his  reproof  to  the  shoe-maker,  who,  after 
censuring  a  defect  in  the  shoe  of  a  figure  Apelles 
had  painted,  was  proceeding  to  criticise  the  leg: 
"  Let  not  (said  Apelles,  showing  Irimself  from 
his  listening-place)  the  shoemaker  go  beyond 
the  shoe."     His  idea  of  excellence  went  so  far, 
that,  in  inscribing  his  name  under  his  pieces,  he 
was   used   to   write,    in    the    imperfect   tense, 
^•ipeUfs  itoisi.fadcbat,  noi-j:eT{Oir,its,fcc!t ;  a  nicety 
that  cannot  be  expressed  in  English.     Yet  he 
censured  Protogcnes  for  not  knowing  when  "  to 
take  hh   hand' from  his  work" — anotlier  ex- 
pression that  has  become  proverbial.     The  di- 
stinguishing characteristic  of  Apelles  wtxs grace. 
As  he  spoke  very  freely  of  his  own  merits,  as 
■well  as  of  those  of  others,  he  would  concede  the 
superiority  to  one  painter  in  disposition,  to  an- 
other in  svmmetry,  but  would  reserve  the  pre- 
eminence in  grace  or, beauty  to  ]\imselt.     His 
colouring  was  chaste  and  simple.     Pliny  says 
he  used  four  colours  only  ;  an  assertion  which 
has  given  much  trouble  to  artists  to  comprehend. 
He  covered  his  pictures  with  a  varnish  peculiar 
to  himself,  which  softened  and  harmonised  his 
tints.     The  general  style  of  purity  and  simpli- 
city in  his  colouring  is  attested  by  a  line  of  Pro- 
pertius,  where  he   compares  a  beautihil  face, 
not  indebted  to  foreign  ornaments,  to  the  pic- 
tures of  Apelles. 

Quails  Apclleis  est  color  in  tubulis. 

(Lib.  I.  eleg.  2.  v.  22.)  It  is  also  recorded, 
that  Apelles,  seeing  a  Helen  painted  by  one  of 
his  pupils  with  a  profusion  of  gold  and  jewels, 
said  jestingly  to  him,  "  Not  knowing  how  to 
make  her  handsome,  you  have  made  her  rich." 

This  great  artist  was  a  particular  favourite  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  frequently  came  to 
his  work-shop,  and  would  suffer  no  other  painter 
to  take  his  portrait.  Many  stories  are  told  of 
their  familiarity,  some,  probably,  the  invention 
of  anecdote  writers.  One  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary is  related  by  Pliny  —  that  Alexander, 
I'.aving  ordered  him  to  paint  the  most  beautiful 
anil  beloved  of  his  concubines,  Camj)aspe,  na- 
ked, on  finding  that  Apelles  had  fallen  despe- 
rately in  love  with  her,  generously  made  him  a 
present  of  her.  As  a  specimen  of  the  liberties 
taken  with  this  mighty  monarch  by  the  painter, 
i:  is  said,  tliat,  hearing  him  talk  one  day  in  his 


however,  unable  to  conceive  of  such  a  freedom 
taken  with  so  great  a  man,  make  Megabyzus, 
the  Persian  satrap,  the  subject  of  this  reproof. 
Of  the  many  pictures  which  Apelles  made  of 
Alexander,  the  most  famous  was  one  in  the  tem- 
ple of  Ephesus,  in  which  he  w^as  represented 
in  the  character  of  the  thundering  Jove.     The 
hand  holding  the  thunder-bolt  seemed  to  come 
out  of  the  tablet,  and  struck  the  beholders  with 
a  kind  of  horror.    He  painted  several  equestrian 
figures  of  warriors,   and  was  thought  peculiarly- 
excellent  in  his  horses.    But  the  most  celebrated 
of  all  his  pieces  was  tiie  Feiius  /Inadyomcne,  or 
rising  from  the  sea,  pressing  her  wet  locks  with 
her  hands.     This  admired  picture  remained  at 
Cos,  till  Augustus,  obtaining  it  of  the  citizens 
by  a  remission  of  tribute,  dedicated  it  in  the  tem- 
ple of  ]ulius  Caesar.     No  one  ventured  to  re- 
pair the  lower  part  of  it,  which  was  injured  by 
time.     Apelles  began  another  Venus  at  Cos,  of 
which  lie  lived  only  to  finish  the  head  and  neck ; 
but  in  this  state  it  was  an  object  of  the  highest 
admiration.     Various  of  his  other  works,  re- 
presenting gods,  heroes,  Graces,  &c.  were  the 
chief  ornaments  of  the  temples  and  public  edi- 
fices   in   which    they   were   placed.     He    also 
served  the  art  by  writing  several  volumes  upon 
it,  inscribed  tooneof  his  scholars,  of  which  no- 
thing is  extant. 

Apelles  was  agreeable  in  conversation,  fond 
of  society,  addicted  to  pleasure,  and  particularly 
to  the  fair  sex.  He  is  said  to  have  initiated  tlie 
famous  courtesan  La'i's  into  her  profession. 
When  or  wliere  he  died  is  unknow'n.  Baylc. 
Dati,  Fit.  cW  Phtor.ant. —  A. 

APELLES,  probably  an  Asiatic  by  birth, 
of  the  Christian  sect  of  the  Marcionites,  flou- 
rished about  tlie  year  160.  He  at  first  adhered 
strictly  to  tlie  doctrine  of  Marcion,  but  after- 
wards listening  to  the  reveries  of  a  fanatical 
virgin  Philumena,  who  pretended  to  prophetic 
illuminations,  he  embraced  and  taught  new  te- 
nets. Tertullian  (De  Pres.  Hser.  c.  6.)  and 
others  impute  this  secession  to  a  criminal  in- 
trigue with  the  prophetess ;  but  Rhodon  in  Eu- 
sebius  (Hist.  ecc.  lib.  v.  c.  13.),  Jerom,  (Ad 
Ctes.  tom.  iv.  p.  477.  ed.  Bencd.)  and  several 
other  writers  who  speak  of  Apelles  and  Philu- 
meiKi,  bring  no  such  charge  against  them  ;  and 
Rhodon,  in  particular,  speaks  of  him  as  a  man 
venerable  for  his  abstemious  course  of  life. 
Eeausobre  and  Lardner  are  of  opinion  that  the 
story  is  false.  However  this  be,  Apelles  was 
separated  fromlus  master,  and  differed  from  liim 


APE 


(     J2I     ) 


APE 


in  several  points.  His  doctrine  concerning  the 
Divine  Nature  was,  that  there  is  one  principle 
perfectly  good,  of  power  ineffable,  who  is  over 
all.  He  taught  that  this  holy  and  good  God 
made  another  God,  inferior  and  subject  to 
him ;  and  that  tliis  second  deity,  whose  essence 
was  fiery,  made  the  world,  and  was  the  angel 
and  God  of  the  Jews.  (Epiphan.  Hnsr.  44.) 
Concerning  Jesus  Christ,  he  taught,  that  he 
was  the  son  of  the  good  God,  and  his  Holy 
Spirit,  and  that  he  had  a  real  body,  which  he 
did  not  derive  from  the  Virgin  Mary,  but  col- 
lected out  of  the  four  elements,  as  he  descended 
from  the  super-celestial  places,  and  which  he 
dispersed  to  the  elements  when  he  returned  to 
heaven.  (Epiphan.  Har.  44.  Tertul.  de  Carne 
Chr.  c.  6.)  Concerning  human  nature,  his 
doctrine  was,  that  the  fiery  angel  brings  souls 
into  bodies  ;  that  these  souls  differ  in  sex  ,  and 
that  human  bodies  will  not  be  raised  from  the 
dead.  (Tertul.  de  Anim.  c.  23,  36.)  After 
Marcion,  he  condemned  marriage.  He  re- 
jected the  divine  authority  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, wrote  against  the  books  of  Moses,  and 
maintained  that  the  prophets  were  full  of  con- 
trarieties, and  confuted  themselves,  and  that 
Jesus  was  the  only  person  who  ever  came  from 
God.  His  writings  against  the  Old  Testament 
were  voluminous.  Ambrose  (De  Paradis.  c.  5. 
torn.  ii.  p.  155.)  refers  to  the  thirty-eighth  book 
of  his  Questions  on  this  subject ;  and  Eusebius 
(loc.  cit.)  says  :  "  Apelles  wrote  innumerable 
impious  tracts  against  the  law  of  Moses,  revil- 
ing the  divine  scriptures,  and  taking  great  pains 
to  confute,  and,  as  he  thought,  to  overturn 
them."  He  denied  the  miiaculous  conception 
of  Christ,  and  consequently  rejected  at  least  the 
beginning  of  the  gospels  of  Matthew  and  Luke. 
How  far  he  received  the  gospels,  is  uncertain  ; 
but,  notwithstanding  the  assertion  of  the  author 
of  the  additions  to  TertuUian's  book  of  Pre- 
«:cri])tions,  that  "  Apelles  received  the  apostle 
Paid  only,  and  him  not  entire,"  it  is  probable, 
that  he  paid  some  respect  to  the  authority  of 
the  evangelists ;  for  he  argued,  absurdly  enough 
indeed,  against  the  nativity  of  Christ  from  liis 
words,  "  Who  is  my  mother  ?  and  who  are 
my  brethren  ?"  and  his  opponents  appeal  to  the 
books  cf  the  New  Testament,  as  admitted  au- 
thorities. Oiigen  (Ep.  tom.  i.  p.  6.),  however, 
censures  Apelles  for  altering  the  gospels  and 
epistles;  Tertidlian  (Pr.  Ha:r.  c.  37.)  charges 
Inm  with  removing  the  ancient  bounds  ;  and 
Epiphanius  (Haer.  44.)  accuses  him  of  taking 
or  leaving  what  he  liked  ;  "  which,"  says  he, 
"  is  acting  like  a  judge,  not  like  an  interpreter, 
of  scripture."     A  conference  between  Apelles 

VOL.  I. 


and  Rhodon  is  related  by  Eusebius  (Hist.  Ec. 
lib.  V.  c.  13.),  in  v.'hich  the  former  maintained 
that  the  first  principle  of  things  was  one  and 
underived ;  and  when  called  upon  by  his  anta- 
gonist to  explain  and  prove  his  doctrine,  ho- 
nestly confessed,  that,  tliough  he  believed  the 
first  principle  to  be  one,  he  could  not  explain- 
the  subject ;  upon  which  Rhodon  broke  up  the 
conference  with  laughter,  that  he,  who  professed 
himself  a  teacher,  was  unable  to  support  his 
doctrine.  None  of  the  numerous  writings  of 
Apelles  have  been  preserved  ;  otherwise  we 
might  have  been  better  able  to  judge  how  far 
he  merited  contempt.  Lardncrs  Hhtory  of 
Heretics,  b.  ii.  c.  12.      Cav.  Hist.  Lit. — E. 

APELLICON,  a  peripatetic,  was  a  native  of 
Tecs,  and  lived  at  Athens  about  ninety  years 
before  Christ.  He  was  very  rich,  and  spared 
no  cost  in  purchasing  books.  His  name  is 
worth  recording,  only  on  account  of  the  share 
which  he  had  in  rescuing  the  works  of  Aristotle 
from  oblivion.  That  eminent  philosopher  left 
his  writings  and  other  books,  together  with  his 
school,  to  his  disciple  Theophrastus.  From 
Theophrastus  they  passed,  by  bequest,  into  the 
hands  of  Neleus  of  Scepsis.  Neleus  left  his 
library  to  his  heirs,  who,  being  ignorant  and  il- 
literate, at  first  took  no  other  care  of  it  than  to 
keep  it  locked  up.  Being  afterwards  informed 
that  the  king  of  Pergamus,  under  whose  juris- 
diction the  town  of  Scepsis  was,  eagerly  sought 
after  books,  they  buried  the  library  underground, 
in  a  cavern,  where  they  lay  upwards  of  a  hun- 
dred years,  and  suffered  much  damage.  Apelli- 
con  at  length  discovered  this  concealed  treasure, 
and  purchased  it  at  a  vast  price.  Conveying  the 
library  to  Athens,  he  diere  caused  the  writings 
of  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus  to  be  copied; 
but  the  transcribers  ill  supplied  those  passages 
which  the  worms  had  eaten  or  the  damps  ef- 
faced, and  the  books  were  published  with  innu- 
merable faults.  After  Apellicon's  death  the  li- 
brary was  seised  by  Sylla  and  carried  to  Rome, 
where  other  copies  were  taken  of  these  writings 
by  ignorant  transcribers.  (See  the  articles  An- 
DRoNicus  Rhodius  and  Tyrannio.)  Apel- 
licon  seems  to  have  taken  more  pains  to  obtain 
possession  of  the  writings  of  philosophers  than 
to  understand  them.  Strabo  calls  him  a  lover 
of  books,  rather  than  a  lover  of  wisdom  : — 
ftXo^i^Xo;  i^aXXov  i;  (^1X00-0(^0;.  Strabo,  lib.  xiii. 
Bayk.  —  E. 

APER,  Marcus,  a  Roman  orator,  in  the 
first  century,  a  native  of  Gaul,  distinguished 
himself  by  his  genius  and  eloquence,  and  occu- 
pied several  important  posts  in  the  empire.  He 
was,  probably,  the  audior  of  the  dialogue  "  Oa 
2  X 


AP  I 


i  322  ) 


A  P  I 


tlie  Corruption  of  Eloquence,"  sometimes 
ascribed  to  'I'acitus,  or  Quintilian,  and  placed 
at  the  end  of  their  works.  A  per  died  at  Rome 
ahout  the  vcar  85.     A/oreri. — E. 

APHThONlUS,  of  Amioch,  a  rhetorician 
of  the  third  century,  wrote  a  work  entitled 
♦'  Progvmnasmata  Rlietorica"  [Rhetorical  Ex- 
ercises J,  tirst  published  in  Greek  by  Aldus,  at 
Venice,  in  1508;  afterwards,  with  Hermr). 
genes  and  Longinus,  in  Svo.  at  Geneva,  in  1569  ; 
and,  with  a  translation  and  notes,  at  Upsal,  in 
1670,  bySchertlr.  Other  editions  have  appeared 
for  the  use  of  schools.  To  the  same  author  are  a- 
srribcd  fables,  printed  with  those  of  ^sop  at 
Fiancfort  in  1610     Fabric.  Bib.  Grac.  lib.  iv. 


c.  31.  §  13.     SuiJiis. — E 


APIAN,  Peter,  called  in  Germany  Biene- 
\\  itz,  an  astronomer  and  mathematician,  was 
born  at  Lausznif  h  in  Mi;;nia  in  1495.  He  taught 
mathematics  with  high  distinction  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Ingolstadt,  wrote  many  valuable  ma- 
thematical and  astronomical  treatises,  and  en- 
riched astronomy  with  many  instruments  and 
observations.  His  tirst  publication  was  a  trea- 
tise on  "  Cosmography,"  or  Geographical  In- 
struction, published  about  the  year  1530.  In 
1533  he  made  a  curious  instrument,  which 
from  its  figure  he  called  "  Folium  Populi,"  which 
showed,  by  the  sun's  rays,  the  hour  in  all  parts 
of  the  earth.  His  "  Inscriptioncs  Orbis"  ap- 
peared in  1534.  His  principal  work,  entitled 
"  Astronomicum  Caesareum,"  was  published  in 
folio,  at  Ingolstadt,  in  154O;  it  contains  many 
valuable  astronomical  observations,  with  de- 
scriptions and  divisions  of  instruments,  calcula- 
tions of  eclipses,  and  figirres  of  them  con- 
structed in  piano.  In  the  second  part  of  the 
work,  entitled  "  Meteoroscopium  planum," 
the  author  gives  a  description  of  an  accurate 
astronomical  quadrant  and  its  uses.  In  this 
work  arc  contained  observations  of  five  different 
comets,  namely,  those  seen  in  the  years  1531, 
1532.  IS33'  i's3S>/ir!d  1539;  in  the  course  of 
which  the  author  first  shows,  that  the  tails  of 
comets  are  always  projected  in  a  direction  from 
the  sun.  Apian  was  the  author  of  many  other 
works,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  his 
*'  Instrumentum  Sinicum,  sive  Primum  Mobile" 
(J.  Baptista  Benedetti  accuses  Apian  of  having 
borrowed  his  "  Primum  Mobile,"  with  other 
propositions,  from  Boiaumont.  Btiyle.)  ;  "  On 
Shadows  ;"  "  Arithmetical  Centilogues  ;" 
"  The  Rule  of  Coss  (or  Algebra)  demon- 
strated ;"  "  On  Guaging ;"  "  On  Conjunc- 
tions;" "  Books  of  Eclipses ;"  "  A  new  As- 
tronomical Radius,  with  various  Uses  of  Sir.es 
and  Chords;"    "  An  universal  Map  of  the 


World;"  "An  Astrolabe  of  Numbers;"  and 
the  "  Ephemerides,"  from  the  year  1534  to 
1570.  One  of  the  comets  observed  by  Apian, 
that  of  1532,  had  its  elements  nearly  the  same 
as  one  observed  1281  years  afterwards,  in  1661, 
bv  Hevclius  and  other  astronomers  :  it  was  ac- 
i;ordingly  expected  in  1789  ;  but  through  some 
eiror  in  the  observations  of  Ajjian,  or  from 
some  odier  cause,  astronomers  were  disappoint- 
ed. Apian  was  treated  with  the  respect  due  to 
his  singular  merit  by  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
who  published  his  principal  works  at  his  own 
expense,  conferred  upon  him  the  honour  of 
nobility,  and  presented  him  with  three  tliousand 
crovvns  of  gold.  This  philosopher,  after  hav- 
ing rendered  important  services  to  mathematical 
and  astronomical  science,  diod  in  the  year  1552, 
and  left  a  son,  who  taught  mathematics  at  In- 
golstadt, and  at  Tubingen.  Tycho  has  pre- 
served his  letter  to  the  Landcrrave  of  Hesse,  in 
which  he  gives  an  opnnon  on  the  new  star  m 
Cassiopeia,  of  the  year  1572.  Fossius  de 
Scieiit.   Math.      Huttcus  Alathtm.  Diet. — E. 

APICIUS,  a  name  celebrated  in  tire  annals  of 
gluttony,  was  that  of  two  or  three  Romans,  of 
whom  the  most  famous  lived  in  and  after  the 
reign  of  Tiberius,  and  is  mentioned  by  several 
authors  of  tlie  time  as  an  example  of  extrava- 
gance in  the  pleasures  of  the  palate.  He  in- 
vented a  variety  of  new  sauces  and  delicacies, 
and  kept,  as  it  were,  open  school  for  good 
cheer  in  Rome.  He  is  said  to  have  spent  on 
this  object  nearly  I20,000l.  ;  and  when  he  was 
obliged,  on  account  ot  his  debts,  to  examine  his 
affairs,  and  found  that  he  sliould  have  remain- 
ing about  a  tenth  part  of  this  sum,  he  poisoned 
himself  through  fear  of  starving.  Seneca  and 
Martial  relate  this  anecdote ;  and  Pliny  refers 
to  some  of  die  dishes  of  his  invention,  and  calls 
him  "  the  deepest  whiilpool  of  all  spendthrifts," 
nepolum  omnium  aUnsimus  gio'gcs. 

Adienajus  mentions  an  earlier  Apicius,  wlio 
lived  in  the  time  of  the  republic  ;  and  a  later, 
in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  famous  for  a  receipt  for 
preserving  oysters.  A  work,  "  De  Re  culi- 
naria,"  is  extant,  under  the  name  of  Cslius  or 
Caecilius  Apicius,  which  Is  supposed  by  critics 
to  be  of  later  composition  than  that  of  any  of 
the  persons  above-mentioned.  Bayk,  Diet., 
-A. 

APION,  probably  so  called  from  the  Egyp- 
tian tk'itv  Apis,  born  at  Oasis  in  Egypt  about 
the  commencement  of  the  Christian  oera,  was  a 
learned  grammarian  and  historian.  He  had  the 
honorary  surname  of  nAfij-rovixo;  [The  fre- 
quent Conqueror]  ;  but  from  what  circumstance 
is   not   known.      On   account  of  his    indefa- 


A  P  I 


( 


3^-3 


) 


A  P  O 


tigabFe  inJijsrry  he  was  also  called  ISUx'^^S 
[Toil]  ;  and,  from  the  account  which  lennaiiis 
of  the  labour  which,  he  spent  upon  matters  of 
great  dilEculty  and  little  importance,  the  appel- 
lation was  properly  bestowed.  After  the  ex- 
ample of  his,  master  ]3idymus,  who  wrote  trea- 
tises on  the  place  of  Homer's  birth,  and  on  the 
true  mother  of  ^ncas,  (Senec.  Epist.  88.) 
Apion  took  infinite  pains  to  trace  the  country 
and  family  of  Homer :  in  order  to  discover 
them,  lie  even  had  recourse  to  magic.  "  Let 
whoever  pleases,"  says  Pliny,  "  inquire  after  the 
deceptions  of  the  ancient  magicians,  when  in 
our  time  Apion,  the  giammarian,  pretended, 
that  the  dog-head  plant  {cynocephalia  lierha), 
called  in  Egypt  csyrites,  has  a  divine  virtue  even 
against  all  kmds  of  sorcery,  but  that,  if  it  were 
wlioUyrooted  up,  the  person  who  pulled  it  out  of 
the  ground  would  instantly  die  ;  and  that  he  had 
summoned  the  shades  to  inquire  of  Homer 
where  he  was  born,  and  who  were  his  parents, 
but  that  h,e  did  not  dare  to  reveal  the  answer  he 
had  received."  (Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  xxx.  c.  2.) 
This  circumstance  may  account  for  the  popularity 
which  he  acquired  in  travelling  through  Greece. 
"  Apion,  the  grammarian,"  says  Seneca,  (ibid.) 
^'  in  the  time  of  Caius  Caesar,  passed  through  all 
Greece,  afld  was  adopted  in  every  city  in  the  name 
of  Homer"  [in  nomen  Homer])  —  that  is,  proba^ 
bly,  was  honoured  on  ace  ount  of  his  commentaries 
en  that  poet,  mentioned  by  Eustathiusand  He- 
sychius.  (Fabr.  Bib.  Gr.  lib.  ii.  c.  5.  §.  13.) 
High  pretensions  to  magical  powers,  and  skill 
jn  tlie  secrets  of  nature,  united  to  an  ostenta- 
tious display  of  learning,  could  not  but  captivate 
the  ignorant  and  superstitious.  Seneca  adds 
another  ludicrous  proof  of  the  propensity  of 
tliis  pedant  to  exercise  his  ingenuity  on  trifles, 
"  He  asserted,  that  Homer,  after  having  finished 
both  his  poems,  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  prefixed 
the  first  lines  to  that  work  which  comprehended 
the  Trojan  war;  and  in  proof  of  this  observed, 
that  the  poet  has  designedly  placed  two  letters 
in  the  first  veise,  which  denote  the  number  of 
the  hooks."  He  thought  he  made  a  wonder- 
ful discovery  when  he  found  that  the  two  first 
letters  of  the  Iliad,  considered  numerically, 
amounted  to  forty-eight ;  and  he  concluded 
from  this  circumstance  that  the  opening  of  the 
first  poem  was  last  written.  The  ostentatious 
character  of  this  critic  is  attested  by  Pliny,  who 
writes  (Prsef.  in  Hist.  Nat.)  :  "  A  certain 
grammaiian,  namctl  Apion,  he  whom  Tiberius 
C;ssar  called  the  Cymbal  of  the  World,  but 
who  might  more  properly  be  styled  the  Drum 
ot  public  Fame,  boasted  that  he  conferred  im- 
rnortality  on  those  to  whom  he  dedicated  any  ot 


his  writings :  an  arrogant  boast,  which  time  has 
refuted  ;  for  all  the  works  of  Apion  are  lost, 
and  his  name  only  lives  in  the  wricines  of 
others."  To  the  same  purpose  Aulus  Gelliii.<-,, 
who  gives  him  the  credit  of  various  learning 
and  an  extensive  acquaintance  with  the  affairs  of 
Greece,  and  who  speaks  ot  his  books  as  particu- 
larly valuable  for  the  curious  information  which 
they  contained  concerning  Egypt,  describes  him 
as  a  man  ready  and  f(jrward  in  speech — (fa- 
cili  atque  alacri  facundia  fuit),  and  says, 
(Noct.  Att.  lib.  V.  c.  14.  vi.  7.)  "  In  relating 
what  he  has  seen  or  heard,  he  is  chargeable 
with  ostentatious  loquacity  ;  he  exhibits  his  no- 
tions with  the  pufSng  parade  of  a  vender  of 
goods." 

A])ion,  who  was  admitted  to  the  privileges  of 
citizenship  in  Alexandria,  and  was  thence  called 
Alexandrinus,  was  appointed,  by  tlie  people  of 
that  city  chief  of  the  embassy  which  they  sent 
to  Caligula  with  complaints  against  the  Jews 
who  resided  among  them.  The  Jews,  on  their 
part,  sent  Philo,  with  several  other  deputies,  to 
justify  their  conduct  to  the  emperor.  Apion 
appears  to  have  been  exceedingly  hostile  to  the 
Jews,  and  to  have  executed  his  embassy  very 
unfairly.  Instead  of  contesting  before  Caligula 
the  claims  of  the  Jews  to  certain  privileges  in 
the  city  of  Alexandria,  which  was  the  mairj 
subject  of  dispute,  he  artfully  brought  against 
them  such  charges  as  were  most  likely  to  exas- 
perate the  emperor  ;  he  accused  them  of  refus- 
ing to  consecrate  images  to  him,  and  to  swear 
by  his  nam.e.  With  the  settled  enmity  of  an 
Egyptian  against  the  Jewish  nation,  he  wrote 
a  work  for  the  express  purpose  of  loading  them 
with  reproach  (Justin  INIartyr,  mentioning  the 
wo)k  of  Apion  against  the  Jews,  says,  that 
Apion  therein  refers  the  age  of  Moses  to  the 
time  of  Ogyges  and  Inachus.  Cohort,  ad  Gras- 
cos),  which  josephus  refuted  in  a  direct  reply 
"  Against  Apion,"  intended  also  as  an  apology 
for  his  Jewish  Antiquities.  Apion  wrote,  be- 
sides, a  "learned  treatise  "  On  the  Antiquities  of 
Egypt,"  in  five  books,  from  the  fourth  of 
which  Tatlan  (Orat.  ad  Gentes)  makes  some 
extracts.  It  was,  doubtless,  in  this  work  that 
he  treated  so  largely  on  the  pyramids,  that  Pliny 
(Hist.  Nat.  lib.  xxxvi.  c.  12.)  mentions  him  as 
a  principal  authority  on  that  subject.  He  wrote 
besides,  "  On  the  Luxury  of  Apicius;"  "  Oa 
the  Roman  Tongue ;"  "  On  the  Knowledge 
of  Metals  ;"  and  "  An  Universal  History/' 
Voii.  etc  Hist.  Grarc.  lib.  ii.  c.  7.  Bayle. — E. 

APOLLINARIS,  Claudius,  bishop  of 
Hierapolis  in  Phrygia,  who  ilourished  about  the 
year  171,  wrote  "  An  Apology  for  the  Christian 


A  P  O 


(     324    ) 


A  P  O 


Rfli-ion,"  which  was  addvcssc J  to  Marcus  Au- 
rchus.  Several  oilier  trc.-iti<;e.s  of  this  writer  are 
mentioned  bv  Eusebius  and  Jerom,  from  which 
it  appears,  that  his  labour  was  principally  di- 
rected to  the  refutation  of  heresy,  and  particu- 
larly ajjainst  the  sect  of  the  Montanists.  Jerom 
places  him,  together  with  Ireiiaeus,  among  the 
more  eminent  Christian  writers,  who  had  shown 
in  their  works  the  origin  of  the  several  heresies, 
and  from  what  sects  of  the  philosophers  they 
had  sprung.  (Euseb.  Hist.  Fed.  lib  iv.  c.  26. 
V.  5.  Hieron.  Vir.  111.  c.  26.  et  Ad  Magn.  ep. 
83.)  Theodorct  (Ha:r.  lib.  iii.  c.  2.)  speaks 
oi"  this  bisliop  as  a  man  worthy  of  jirai.se,  who 
united  profane  learning  witli  the  knowledge  of 
theology.  Photius  (Cod.  14.)  mentions  his 
writings,  and  commends  both  the  author  and 
the  stvlc.  In  some  one  of  his  works,  as  we 
learn  from  Eusebius,  Ajioliinaris  incntions  the 
victory  of  Marcus  Antoninus,  which  happened 
in  the  year  174,  and  which  is  by  some  ascribed 
to  the  prayers  of  a  legion  of  Christians  in  his 
army,  thence  called  the  Thundering  Legion. 
It  may  be  justly  regretted  that  we  have  no  re- 
mains of  his  writings,  unless  we  admit  as  such 
two  doubtful  fragments  ascribed  to  him  in  the 
preface  to  tlie  Pascal,  or  Alexandrian  Chroni- 
cle, published  at  Paris  in  1668.  Cav.  Hist. 
Lit.  Dubin.  Lordlier' sCted.  p.  ii.  ch.  28. — E. 
APOLLINARIUS  (The  name  is  thus  ter- 
minated by  the  Greeks  ;  the  Latins,  except  Je- 
rom, write  Apolliuaris.),  the  elder,  a  gramma- 
rian and  divine,  a  native  ot  Alexandria,  flou- 
rished about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century. 
Leaving  his  country,  he  became  a  grammatical 
preceptor  at  Bervtus,  and  afterwards  a  presby- 
ter at  Laodicea  in  Syria.  His  fondness  for 
classical  studies  he  communicated  to  his  son, 
and  they  formed  an  intimate  acquaintance  with 
Epiphanius,  a  learned  pagan  sophist.  i'his 
gave  great  offence  to  their  Christian  brethren, 
and  brought  upon  them  the  ecclesiastical  cen- 
sure of  'I'heodotus,  the  bishop  of  Laodicea : 
they  were  afterwards,  by  George,  successor  of 
Theodotiis,  expelled  froin  the  communion  of 
the  church,  on  the  same  pretence,  but  in  reality 
for  opposing  the  tenets  of  the  bishop.  Under 
the  reign  of  Julian,  when  the  Christians  were 
prohibited  the  use  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
classics  in  their  schools,  in  order  that  the  study 
of  the  Greek  language  might  be  neglected  by 
the  Christians,  ApoUinarius  the  elder  drew  up 
a  grammar  in  a  Christian  form,  and  wrote  many 
books  in  imitation  of  the  ancients.  He  trans- 
lated the  books  of  Moses  into  Greek  heroic 
vttrse,  and  wrote,  in  the  same  manner,  the  whole 
history  of  the  Hebrews  down  to  the  time  of 


Saul.  This  whok  v.'ork  he  divided,  in  imita- 
tion of  Homer,  into  twenty-four  ])arts,  prefix- 
ing to  the  books,  in  series,  the  letters  of  the  al- 
phabet. The  remaining  historical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  he  exliibited  partly  in  hexatne- 
ters,  and  partly  in  a  dramatic  or  lyric  form, 
imitating  the  tragedies  of  Euripides,  the  coine- 
dies  of  Menander,  and  the  odes  of  Pindar. 
"  Thus,"  adds  Sozomen  (Hist.  Ec.  lib.  vi. 
c.  15.  Socrat.  Hist.  Ec.  lib.  ii.  c.  36.),  the  his- 
torian, to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  pre- 
servation of  this  curious  fact,  "  works  weie 
produced  equal  in  number  and  merit  to  the  an- 
cient Greek  models."  What  pity  it  is  that  the 
ravages  of  time  have,  in  a  great  measure,  de- 
prived us  of  the  pleasure  of  judging  for  our- 
selves concerning  the  rectitude  of  bozomen's 
judgment  !  We  may,  however,  be  pretty  cer- 
tain, that,  had  the  poetical  writings  of  ApoUina- 
rius been  as  excellent  as  his  historian  represents, 
they  could  not  have  been  lost.  Some  idea  of 
the  talents  and  taste  of  the  Apollinarii, —  for  the 
son  shares  the  literary  honours  of  tlie  father, — 
may  be  formed  from  a  poem  still  extant,  en- 
titled "  ATetaphrasis  Psalmorum"  [A  Para- 
phrase of  the  Psalms,],  published  in  8vo.  at  Pa- 
ris, in  I  580 ;  and  in  Greek  and  Latin,  at  Heidel- 
berg, in  1596  ;  and  from  a  tragedy,  Ascribed  to 
ApoUinarius,  which  may  be  found  under  the 
name  of  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  among  his 
works.  Suidas.  Cav.  Hist.  Lit.  Jlforeri. — E. 
APOLLINARIUS,  the  younger,  the  son  of 
ApoUinarius  the  presbyter,  was  bishop  of  Lao- 
dicea in  the  reign  of  Julian.  He  studied  with 
his  father,  and  with  Epiphanius  the  sophist,  and 
is  said  by  Suidas  to  have  been  acquainted  with 
Libanius.  What  share  he  had  with  his  father 
in  the  production  of  the  imitations  of  the  classics, 
is  uncertain  ;  but  f]om  the  numerous  theologi- 
cal writings  which  bear  the  naine  of  this  bishop 
of  Laodicea,  it  seems  probable  that  the  poetical 
works  arc  chiefly  to  be  ascribed  to  the  father, 
the  presbyter.  I'he  younger  is  said  to  have  put 
the  gospels  and  the  apostolic  writings  into  dia- 
logues, after  the  manner  of  Plato.  He  wrote 
•'  Commentaries  on  the  Book  of  Psalins,  the 
Book  of  Ecclcsiastes,  the  Prophecy  of  Isaiah, 
Daniel  and  Hosea,"  and  other  parts  of  scrip- 
ture. (Hieron.  ad  Augustin.  ep.  74.  Prjef.  et 
Com.  in  Eccl.  Isa.  Dan.  Hos.)  He  was  the 
author  of  a  large  work,  in  thirty  books,  in  an- 
swer to  Porphyry,  which  is  spoken  of  vv'ith 
high  commendation  by  Jerom  and  others. 
(Hieron.  Ep.  ad  Pamin.  Suidas)  A  piece  "  On 
the  Truth,"  addressed  by  ApoUinarius  to  the 
einperor  and  tlic  CJreek  philosopher';,  to  prove, 
by  reason  alone,  without  alleging  tiiclitriptures, 


A  P  O 


(    5^5    ) 


A  P  O 


tfiat  the  pagans  did  not  think,  rightlv  of  the 
deity,  is  said  to  have  been  perused  by  Julian, 
who  remarked  upon  it,  laconically,  in  a  letter  to 
a  Christian  bishop,  "  I  have  read,  understood, 
and  condemned ;"  to  which  it  was  replied, 
"  You  have  read,  but  not  understood,  or  you 
would  not  have  condemned."  (Sozomen.  lib.  v. 
c.  1 8.)  ApoUinarius  employed  his  poetical  ta- 
lent in  writing  short  psalms  and  hymns  on  a 
great  variety  of  subjects,  which  were  some- 
times iised  in  the  religious  assemblies,  and 
which  the  men  sung  at  their  work  and  their 
entertainments,  and  the  women  at  their  spindle. 

In  the  early  part  of  his  life  ApoUinarius  ad- 
hered to  the  catholic  doctrine,  and  gave  offence 
to  George,  bishop  of  Laodicea,  who  favoured 
the  Arian  system,  by  defending  Athanasius. 
Afterwards,  however,  in  his  zeal  to  oppose  the 
notions  of  Arius  and  his  followers,  he  fell  into 
opinions  which  were  deemed  heretical,  and  thus 
became  the  founder  of  a  new  sect  called  Apol- 
linarians.  The  principal  point  in  which  this 
bishop  differed  from  his  orthodox  brethren  was, 
that  the  son  of  God,  when  he  became  in- 
carnate, took  a  human  body,  with  a  sensitive 
principle  of  animal  life,  but  without  a  mind  or 
intelligent  soul,  the  place  of  which  was  supplied 
by  the  Divinity,  or  God  the  Word  ;  herein  de- 
nying that  Jesus  Christ  was  perfect  man.  (The- 
odoret.  Ha^r.  Fab.  lib.  iv.  c.  8.  v.  ii.)  Ac- 
cording to  Gregory  Nazianzen  (Ep.  ad  Nectar. 
Or.  46.  Conf  Epiph.  Haer.  77.  Sozom.  lib.  vi 
c.  28.  Socr.  lib.  ii.  c.  46,  &c.)  he  also  held 
that  the  body  of  Christ  was  brought  from  hea- 
ven. Athanasius,  in  a  letter  to  Epictetus 
bishop  of  Corinth,  written  about  the  year  371, 
charges  him,  further,  with  holding  that  the 
body  of  Jesus  was  consubstantial  and  co-eternal 
with  his  deity.  As  a  natural  consequence  of 
the  notion  of  ApoUinarius  concerning  Christ, 
he  taught  that  the  divine  nature  suffered  and 
tiied  with  the  body.  Other  tenets  ascribed  to 
this  bishop  are,  the  personal  reign  of  Christ 
upon  earth  for  a  thousand  years;  and  the  pro- 
duction of  souls  from  souls,  as  of  bodies  from 
bodies.  On  tlie  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  ApoUi- 
narius innovated  little.  He  spoke  of  degrees  in 
the  Trinity,  saying,  that  the  Spirit  is  great,  the 
Son  greater,  and  the  Father  greatest  of  all ;  but 
he  held  the  consubstantiality  of  the  divine  na- 
ture, and  did  not  apply  the  term  created  to  the 
Son  or  Spirit.  His  doctrine  concerning  the  in- 
carnation was  condemned  in  a  council  of  Alex- 
andria, and  his  followers  were  pronounced  an 
heretical  sect.  ApoUinarius  died  under  the  reign 
ot  Theodosius,  about  the  vcar  382.  SuiJas. 
Lardner's  Crtd.  p.  ii.  c.  95.  Misham. — E. 


APOLLODORUS,  the  Athenian,  a  gram- 
marian, the  son  of  Asclepiades,  and  a  disciple 
of  Aristarchus  the  grammavian,  and  of  Panse- 
tius  and  Diogenes  the  Babylonian,  stoic  philoso- 
phers, flourished  about  the  158th  Olympiad,  or 
104  years  before  Christ,  under  Ptolemy  Fiiys- 
con.  He  wrote  many  w-orks,  wliich  are  men- 
tioned by  the  ancients ;  particularly,  "  A  His- 
torical Chronicle,"  a  treatise  "  On  Legisla- 
tors," and  "  An  Account  of  the  Sects  of  the 
Philosophers ;"  but  none  of  his  writings  remain, 
except  his  "  Bibliothcca,"  in  three  books  ;  in 
which  he  relates  the  fabulous  history  of  the 
Grecian  divinities  and  heroes,  down  to  the  time 
of  Theseus.  It  is  supposed  by  some,  but  denied 
by  others,  to  be  an  abridgment  of  a  larger  work, 
"  On  the  Origin  of  the  Gods."  Heraclides 
Ponticus,  in  his  "  Homeric  Allegories,"  speaks 
of  Apollodorus  as  a  writer  well  acquainted  with 
universal  history;  and  Scaliger  calls  his  "  Bi- 
bliothcca" a  most  ingenious  and  elegant  work, 
rather  fabulous  in  the  narrative  than  in  the  per- 
sons of  whom  he  writes,  and  adds,  that  the  whole 
may  be  easily  thrown  into  a  genealogical  form. 
Some  gems  of  historical  information  may, 
doubtless,  be  collected  out  of  this  rubbish  of 
fables.  The  heads  of  this  "  Bibliotheca"  arc 
introduced,  though  not  under  that  name,  in  Lu- 
cian's  dialogue  "  On  Dancing."  The  first  edi- 
tion of  this  work  was  published,  in  8vo.  by 
Spoletinus  at  Rome,  in  1555.  It  was  publish- 
ed, with  various  readings  and  corrections,  by 
Commelinus,  at  Heidelberg,  in  1599;  at  Lyons, 
in  1608;  and  at  Saumur,  by  Faber,  in  i2mo. 
in  1661  :  but  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Gale, 
among  The  ancient  Greek  Writers  of  fabulous 
History  ;  it  is  furnished  with  notes  and  a  genea- 
logical table.  Fabric.  Sib.  t5r.  lib.  iii.  c.  27. 
Pass,  de  Hist.  lib.  i.  c.  21.  §  I. — E. 

APOLLODORUS,  a  celebrated  Athenian 
painter,  flourished  about  B.  C.  408.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  who  endeavoured  to 
express  species  (specific  characters),  and  first 
conferred  glory  on  the  works  of  the  pencil.  He 
seems  to  have  been  sensible  of  liis  superiority ; 
for  he  is  related  by  Hesychius  to  have  worn  a 
sort  of  regal  tiara,  as  the  prince  of  his  art. 
■Zeuxis,  however,  surpassed  him,  and  !;e  lament- 
ed in  a  poem  that  this  rival  bore  away  the  art 
along  with  him.  Pliny  mentions  two  pictures 
of  Apollodorus  remaining  at  Pergamus  in  his 
time  —  a  priest  worshij)ping,  and  an  Ajax  struck 
witli  lightning;  and  adds,  that  no  picture  of  an 
earlier  master  deserved  to  fix  the  attentioa. 
Plimi  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  xxxv. — A. 

APOLLODORUS,  a  famous  architect,  a 
native  of  Damasciw,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Tra- 


A  P  O 


(    3'-6     ) 


A  P  O 


jan  and  AJrian.     He  was  buikicr  of  the  stone 
biklgc  thrown  over  the  Danube  by  Trajan,  one 
o»'  the  most  splendid  works  of  that  emperor.  He 
likewise  constructed  the  cdihcts  round  ihc  Forum 
I'rajanum  in  Rome,  among  which  was  a  trium- 
phal arch,  as  well  as  the  sculptured  column 
still  existing,  and  bearing  the  name  of  Trajan. 
Dion  attributes  to  this  architect  a  college  and 
theatre  for  music.     'I'hc  rudeness  with  which 
he  treated  Adrian  cost  him  dear.    That  prince, 
being  present  at  a  conversation  between  Trajan 
and  Apollodorus  on  some  plans  of  architecture, 
interfered  with  his  opinion,  on  which  Apollo- 
dorus bid  him  "  go  and  paint  gourds  (an  amuse- 
ment he  was  fond  of),  and  not  expose  his  igno- 
rance in  matters  he  did  not  understand."  Adrian 
never  forgot  the  atTront,  and  wh.en  he  became 
emperor  refused  to  employ  this  architect.     To 
show  him  that  he  did  not  want  his  services,  he 
sent  him  the  plan  of  a   sumptuous  temple  of 
Venus  he  was  building,  and  asked  him  what  he 
thought  of  it.    Apollodorus  made  some  just  cri- 
ticisms   upon    it,    which   only    aggravated   his 
fonner  ofleixe.   The  emperor,  who  was  mean- 
ly jealous  of  men  of  talents,  banished  him,  and, 
having  caused  him   to   be  accused   of  various 
crimes,    put   lii:n    to  death.     Bayte.    Fdibicn, 
rUs  lies  Aichit. — A. 

APOLLONIA,  a  female  Christian  martyr, 
at  a  very  advanced  age  fell  a  sacrifice  to  intole- 
rance, in  the  year  248,  at  Alexandria.  Her 
persecutors  struck  her  upon  the  face,  and  beat 
t>ut  her  teeth  ;  then  lighting  a  fire  without  the 
city,  they  threatened  to  burn  her  alive,  unless 
she  w  ould  join  with  them  in  pronouncing  cer- 
tain profane  words.  Begging  a  short  respite, 
and  being  set  free,  she  immediately  threw  her- 
self into  the  fire,  and  was  consumed.  Euieb. 
Hht.  Ecc.  lib.  vi.  p.  41.  Lardtur's  Tcsti- 
nnn'ies,  c.  xxx. — E. 

APOLLONIUS  of  Pcrga,  a  celebrated  ma- 
thematician of  Alexandria,  flourished  in  the 
reign  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  about  240  years 
before  Christ.  He  stullied  in  Alexandria  un- 
der the  disciples  of  Euclid,  wlio  lived  about 
sixty  years  before  him.  He  was  the  author  of 
various  geometrical  works,  which  obtained  him 
tlie  appellation  of  the  Great  Geometrician.  No 
other  treatise  of  Apollonius  is  extant  than  his 
books  of  Conic  Sections,  and  this  work  is  im- 
perfect. Heraclius,  the  author  of  a  Life  of  Ar- 
chimedes, charges  Apollonius  with  having  ap- 
propriated to  himself  the  discoveiies  and  writ- 
ings of  that  emine-.it  mathematician,  who  flou- 
rished about  thirty  years  before  him.  It  is 
probable  that  he  would  avail  himself  of  the  la- 
bours of  preceding  mathematicians ;  but  Euto- 


cius,  one  of  his  commentators,  exculpates  him 
from  any  dislioiiest  plagiarism,  and  .shows  that 
he  made  several  improvements  bovh  upon  Eu- 
clid and  Archimedes.      With  respect  to  the  Co- 
nic Seciions,  this   commentator  asserts,  that  it 
iiad  been  customary  for  the  writers  on  this  sub- 
ject, before  Apollonius,  to  derive  the  properties 
of  the   sections  from    three  different  sorts  of 
cones  ;  the  parabola  from  a  right-angled  cone, 
tlie  ellipse  from  an  acute  cone,  and  the  hyper- 
bola from  an  obtuse  cone  ;  because  they  sup- 
posed the  sections  made  by  a  plane  cutting  the 
cone    to    be   perpendicular  to   their  side  ;    but, 
that   Apollonius  derived  all  the  sections  from 
any  cone  by  varying  the  inclination  or  position 
of  tlic  cutting  plane.     In  contradiction,  how^ 
ever,  to  this  account,  it  is  maintained  by  Guida 
Ubaldus,    in    his  commentary  on  the    second 
book    of  Archimcdes's    "  yEquiponderantes," 
published  at  Pisa  in  1588,  that  Archimedes  was 
acquainted  with  the  method  of  deriving  all  the 
sections  from  any  single  cone. 

The  first  four  books  of  Apollonius's  Conies 
only  have  lieen  preserved  in  the  original  Greek ; 
the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  have  been  trans- 
mitted to  us  through  the  imperfect  medium  of 
an    Arabic   translation.     The    Arabic  version 
was  made  by  Abalphat,  a  Persian,  in  the  year 
of  the  Heglia  372,  or  of  Christ  994,  and  was 
translated  into  Latin  from  a  Florentine  MS.  by 
Ecbellensis,  professor  of  the  oriental  languages 
at  Rome,  and  edited  by  him  and  Borelli,  mathe- 
matical professor  at  Pisa,  with  the  commenta- 
ries of  tlie  latter,  together  witli  Archimcdes's. 
Lemmata,  at  Florence,  in  folio,  in  1661.     The 
first  four  books  were  published,  with  a  Latin 
translation,  by  Commandinus,  at  Bologna,  in 
1566;  they  were  also  printed,  in  i2mo.  by  H. 
Stephens,  at  Paris,  in  1626  ;  in  folio,  at  Ant- 
werp,  in  1655  ;    and  in  410.  at  London,    by 
Dr.  Barrow,  in  1675.      From  Apollonius's  de- 
dication of  his  work  to  Eudemus,  a  mathema- 
tician of  Pergamus,  it  appears  that  it  originally- 
consisted   of  eight   books.    The  eighth   book, 
however,  was  said  by  Golius  to  be  wanting  in 
the  Greek  copies  from  which  the  rest  were 
translated  by  tlie  Arabians,  and  it  was  consi- 
dered as  lost,  till  the  learned  Mersennus,  who 
published  A|iollonius's  Conies   in  his  Synopsis 
of  the  Matliematics,  found  an  Arabian  work 
of  Aben  Neden,  written  about  the  year   1020, 
in  which  mention  is  made  of  the  eighth  book 
of  Apollonius  ;  and  it  is   asserted  that   all   the 
books  were  extant  in  Arabic.     A  splendid  edi- 
tion of  all  the  eight  books  has  since  been  pub- 
lished, in  folio,  by  Dr.  Halley,  at  O.sford,  in 
17 10,  together  with  the  Lemmas  of  Pappus, 


A  P  O 


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A  P  O 


miJ  the  Commentaiies  of  Eutocius  ;  the  first 
four  books  in  Greek  and  Latin,  the  rest  in  La- 
tin onlv  ;  the  last  being  restored  bv  the  editor. 
An  octavo  edition  was  also  published  by  Dr. 
Hall.-y,  at  Oxford.  The  contents  of  Apollo-- 
nius's  other  works  are  mentioned  by  Pappus,  and 
many  lemmas  delivered  relative  to  them  :  from 
these,  various  restorations  of  these  works  have 
been  attempted  by  modern  mathematicians. 

The  doctrine  of  the  conic  sections,  as  deli- 
vered by  Apollonius,  is  acknowledged  by  mo- 
dern mathematicians  to  be  attended  with  diffi- 
culties which  Mvdorgius  and  others  have  in 
vain  attempted  to  remove.  All  the  ancients 
were  of  opinion,  that  the  properties  of  the  sec- 
tions are  best  derived  from  the  cone  ;  and  a  few 
of  the  moderns  have  followed  the  same  plan, 
particularly  l^r.  Hamilton,  \^ho,  in  his  valuable 
treatise,  by  first  considering  more  fully  than 
had  been  done  before,  the  properties  of  the  cone 
itself,  has  been  enabled  with  ease  and  elegance 
to  transfer  many  of  these  properties  to  all  the 
sections  jointly.  Others  have  more  operosely 
deduced  the  properties  of  each  section  sepa- 
rately from  definitions  of  the  sections,  drawn 
from  descriptions  on  a  plane  ;  and  a  late  very 
ingenious  attempt,  which  in  the  construction 
snd  demonstration  is  almost  wholly  original, 
has  been  made,  to  deduce  all  the  properties  of 
the  three  conic  sections  from  the  twenty-fourth 
proposition  of  sir  Isaac  Newton's  Universal 
Arithmetic,  in  Walker's  treatise  "  On  the 
Conic  Sections,"  the  first  book  of  which  was 
published  in  4to.  in  London,  in  1794.  Fabric. 
Bibl.  GriFc.  lib.  iii.  c.  22.  §  17.  Voss.  de  Scient. 
Math.    Huiton's  Afat/i.  Dict.—E. 

APOLLONIUS,  surnamcd  Dyscolus,  or 
the  Lean,  was  a  celebrated  grammarian  of 
Alexandria,  in  the  reigns  of  the  einperors 
Adrian  and  Antoninus  Pius.  His  appellation 
appears  to  have  been  derived  from  the  hardsiiips 
and  difficulties  of  his  condition.  It  is  re- 
lated of  him,  that  his  poverty  was  so  great, 
that,  not  being  able  to  buy  paper,  he  was  obliged 
to  write  upon  ovster-shells.  He  was  himself 
an  excellent  grammarian,  and  educated  a  son, 
Herodian,  who  was  as  eminent  in  this  branch 
of  learning  as  himself.  Priscian  prefers  these 
writers  to  all  jireceding  grammarians,  and  says, 
that  Apollonius  and  Herodian  corrected  the  er- 
rors of  all  their  predecessors  :  he  confessedly 
makes  Apollodorus  his  chief  guide  in  his  own 
labours.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  treatise  "On 
Syntax,"  or  the  arrangement  of  words  and 
construction  of  sentences,  which  Priscian  highly 
commends.  An  imperfect  folio  edition  of  this 
•work  was  sent  from  the  press  of  Aldus  at  Ve- 


nice, in  1495.  A  more  correct  edition,  with  a 
Latin  translation  and  notes,  was  published  in 
4to.  at  Francfort,  by  Svlburgius  in  1590.  Ano- 
ther work  ascribed  to  this  writer,  with  a  transla- 
tion by  Xylander,  under  the  title  of  'Itrropiai  5aa- 
(j-ccrixi,  [Wondeiful  Historical  Facts],  together 
with  similar  pieces  by  Antonius  Liberalis,  Phle- 
gon,  and  Antigonus,  and  the  works  of  RI.  Anto- 
ninus, was  published  in  8vo.  at  Basil  in  1568. 
A  better  edition  of  this  work  was  given,  in  410. 
at  Leyden,  in  1620,  by  Meursius,  who,  however, 
considers  it  only  as  a  fraginent.  Suidas.  Fabric. 
Bib.   Grac.   lib.  v.  c.  7. — E. 

APOLLONIUS  Rhofjius  was  a  native 
of  Alexandria,  though  Iiis  long  residence  at 
Rhodes  has  caused  him  to  be  designated  as  be- 
longing to  that  island.  He  flourished  in  the 
third  century  B.  C.  imder  Ptolemy  Euergetcs. 
Callimachus  was  his  master,  and  he  is  said  to 
have  treated  him  with  ingratitude,  and  in  conse- 
quence to  have  felt  the  effects  of  his  satire. 
Apollonius  is  mentioned  by  Suidas  as  the  suc- 
cessor of  Eratosthenes  in  the  care  of  the  Alex- 
andrian library.  He  composed  several  works, 
of  which  the  most  distinguished  is  a  poem,  in 
four  books,  on  the  Argonautic  expedition.  This, 
at  its  first  publication,  was  censured  as  a  crude 
and  trivial  composition  ;  and  it  was  the  shame 
of  this  mortification  that  drove  him  to  Rhodes, 
where  he  opened  a  school  of  rhetoric.  He 
had,  however,  the  good  sense  to  profit  by  cri- 
ticism ;  and  by  great  care  and  diligence  he  so 
much  corrected  and  improved  his  work,  that 
at  its  public  recital  in  Rhodes  it  obtained  uni- 
versal applause,  and  acquired  for  him  die  free- 
dom of  the  city.  Critics,  both  ancient  and  mo- 
dern, have,  notwithstanding,  differed  as  to  its 
merit  Quintilian  and  Loiiginus  give  it  the 
praise  of  a  sort  of  equal  and  moderate  elevation, 
but  deny  its  claim  to  real  genius  ;  and  others 
have  represented  it  as  rather  displaying  the 
rhetorician  than  the  poet.  Yet  it  is  judged  by 
some  to  possess  considerable  beauties  both  of 
the  sentiincntal  and  descriptive  kind  ;  and  Vir- 
gil has  given  a  testimony  to  its  value,  by  copy- 
ing several  incidents  from  the  relation  of  the 
loves  of  Medea  and  |ason  into  his  beautiful 
story  of  Dido  and  ^neas.  The  "  Argonautics" 
of  Apollonius  have  come  down  to  our  tiine, 
though  they  have  been  >-c!doni  edited,  and  are  not 
often  read.  The  best  editions  are  Apollon.  Rhod. 
impress,  in  liteiis  majusc.  Edit,  piinceps,  4to. 
Florent.  1496.  Ajiollon.  Rhod.  Gr.  edit.  ad.  8vo. 
ap.  Aid.  I  513.  Apoll.  Rhod.  Gr.  4to.  H.  Stcph. 
1574.  FcssJiis,  Pea.  Griec.  Baillct.  Mcreri. — A. 

APOLLONIUS,    a   Roman    senator,    and 
Chiistian  niaiivr,  of  the  second  crniurv,  lived 


A  P  O 


(     323     ) 


A  P  O 


in  the  rtrign  of  CommoJus,  and  probably  suf- 
feictl  death  about  the  year  186.  Bein^  accused 
before  Perciuiis,  prrefctt  of  the  prattonum,  that 
magistrate  desired  him  to  give  an  account  of 
hiuibxlf  before  the  senate,  which  he  did  in  an 
eloijucnt  ai>o!ogv  for  his  Christian  faith.  He 
was,  notwithstanding,  sentenced  to  be  beheaded, 
according  to  a  law  then  existing,  tliat,  it  any 
Chrii-tian  were  accused  in  a  court  of  justice,  he 
should  be  punished  unless  he  denied  himself  to 
be  a  Christian.  Euscbius  speaksof  him  with 
respect,  as  a  inan  celebrated  for  learning  and 
philosophy.  Eunb.  Hist.  Ecc.  lib.  v.  c.  21. 
Huron,  de  Fir.  J!l.  c.  42.  Lardner's  Cred. 
p.  ii.  c.  28. — E. 

Al'OLLONIUS,  a  sophist  and  grammarian, 
who  was  the  preceptor  of  Apion.  and  livetl  in 
the  time  of  Julius  and  Augustus  Ca-sar,  was  the 
author  of  a  Greek  Lexicon  to  tlie  Iliad  and 
Odvssey  of  Homer.  Thus  work,  till  of  late 
little  known,  was  for  the  first  time  edited,  with 
a  Latin  translation,  in  two  volumes  quarto,  by 
f.  B.i;:t.  de  Villoisin,  at  Paris,  in  1773,  under 
the  title  of  "  Apollonii  Sophistic  Lexicon  Gra-- 
cum  Iiiadis  et  Odvssese."  The  editor  has  ac- 
companied the  publication  with  numerous  notes 
and  observations,  and  prefixed  "Prolegomena," 
and  added  a  large  cx\grd\e<\  facsimile  of  the 
MS.  wiih  other  fragments  never  before  edited. 
Saxii  Otiomauicoii  /iurarium,  p.  i.  ylnatect. 
Ftihricii  Bill.  lib.  iii.  c.  21.  §  7.  vii.  50. 
Koiiv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

APOLLONiUS,a  stoic  philosopher,  a  native 
of  ChalcLs,  and  preceptor  to  the  emperor  Marcus 
Aurelius,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  When  the  emperor  Antoninus  Pius 
was  informed  of  his  arrival  in  Rome,  he  sent  to 
him,  informing  him  that  he  expected  him  with 
impatience.  ApoUonius,  wlio  united  the  rude- 
ness of  a  pedant  with  the  pride  of  a  stoic,  re- 
turned for  answer,  that  it  was  the  place  of  the 
scholar  to  come  to  the  master,  not  the  master 
to  the  scholar.  Antoninus  urbanely  replied, 
that  he  was  surprised  ApoUonius  sliould  find  it 
further  from  his  lodgings  to  the  palace  than  he 
had  found  it  from  Chalcis  to  Rome,  and  sent 
Marcus  Aurelius  to  the  proud  philosopher.  Ca- 
pito/irt.  in  Anton. — E. 

APOLLONIUS  Tyan.eus,  a  Pythago- 
rean philosopher,  and  a  celebrated  impostor, 
was  born  about  the  Christian  aera,  at  Tyana,  a 
town  of  Cappadocia.  His  father,  also  named 
ApoUonius,  a  wealthy  citizen,  sent  him  at  four- 
teen years  of  age  to  Tarsus,  to  be  instructed  in 
grammar  and  rhetoric  by  Euthydemus,  a  Phoe- 
nician. Soon  becoming  dissatisfied  with  the 
luxury  and  indolence  of  the  citizens,  he  ob. 


tained  permission  from  his  father  to  remove, 
with  his  preceptor,  io  Mg'x,  a  city  not  far  from 
Tarsus,  which  afforded  many  advantages  for 
education,  particularly  for  tlie  study  of  philoso- 
phy. Here  he  conversed  with  philosophers  of 
various  sects,  and  btcame  acquainted  with  their 
doctriiKS.  The  master  who  had  the  charge  of 
his  philosophical  studies  was  Euxenus  of  He- 
raclca  in  Pontus,  a  Pythagorean  by  profession, 
but  a  man  little  acquainted  with  the  genuine 
principles  of  that  sect,  and  less  disposed  to 
practise  the  austerities  of  the  Pythagorean  dis- 
cipline. The  pupil,  who  possessed  a  mind  of 
a  higher  order,  felt  an  irresistible  impulse  to  be- 
come a  disciple  of  Pythagoras  according  to  the 
strictest  rules  of  his  institution.  Having  pre- 
vailed upon  his  father  to  provide  Euxenus  a 
house  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city,  suited  to  his 
taste,  which  was  rather  Epicurean  than  Pytha- 
gorean, he  left  his  master,  and  entered  upon  the 
rigorous  discipline  of  his  sect.  (Philostrat 
Apoll.  Vit.  lib.  i.  c.  2,  3.) 

In  the  city  of  jEgsewas  a  temple  consecrated 
to  the  god  JEsculapius,  which  had  its  regular 
establishment  of  priests  and  ceremonies,  and 
which  was  famous  tlirough  all  the  country  for 
miraculous  cures  performed  upon  sick  persons 
by  the  god  of  health.  The  priests  even  found 
means  to  persuade  their  credulous  votaries,  that 
the  god  himself  sometimes  condescended  to  be- 
come visible  to  mortals.  In  this  temple  the 
young  ApoUonius,  after  parting  with  his  tutor, 
took  up  his  residence.  In  conformity  to  the  in- 
stitutions of  Pythagoras,  he  refrained  from  ani- 
mal food,  and  lived  entirely  upon  fruits  and 
herbs.  Wine  he  refused,  as  an  enemy  to  men- 
tal tranquillity.  He  wore  linen  garments,  and 
made  use  of  no  article  of  dress  which  was  made 
of  animal  substances.  He  walked  bare-footed, 
and  suffered  his  hair  to  grow  to  its  full  length. 
The  priests  of  the  temple  observed  in  him  ta- 
lents, and  a  disposition  worthy  of  cultivation  in 
their  school,  and  they  became  his  companions 
and  instructors.  He  was,  doubtless,  early  ini- 
tiated by  them  into  the  mysterie^  of  imposture; 
for  we  ar.'  told,  that  /Esculapius  himself  de- 
lighted to  have  ApoUonius  a  witness  of  his 
cures.  During  his  continuance  at  TEgJE  we  do 
not,  however,  find  that  he  attempted  any  thing 
miraculous,  but  merely  employed  the  authority 
of  the  god  in  enforcing  moral  lessons.  An  As- 
syrian youth,  who  had  brought  himself  into  a 
dropsy  by  intempsrance,  he  instructed,  that  the 
god  always  bestowed  health  upon  those  who 
were  willing  to  receive  it ;  and  by  persuading 
him  to  practise  abstinence,  he  cured  his  disease. 
A  wealthy  Cilician,  who  presented  costly  sacri- 


.)><•  t/u-   Jtvcri^/if/i  ./"TOKoii  iroiile   tuuu  je. 


A    S    C    V    L    A    p    i    V   s.       4. 


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(    329    ) 


A  P  O 


flees  and  ofFerings  in  the  temple  in  hopes  of  ob- 
taining the  restoration  of  an  eye,  uhich  he  had 
lost  in  punishment  of  conjugal  infidelity,  Apol- 
lonius  dismissed  as  unworthy  of  admission  into 
the  temple  ;  at  tlie  same  time  instructing  the 
people  who  flocked  thither,  that  he  who  comes 
to  the  temples  of  the  just,  wise,  and  all-know- 
ing gods,  should  pray,  "  Ye  gods,  grant  unto 
us  that  which  it  is  fit  we  should  receive  ;"  and 
that  the  wicked,  thougli  they  presented  to  the 
gods  the  wcakli  of  the  Indies,  would  be  rejected, 
because  they  make  their  olferings  not  to  honour 
the  deity,  but  to  purchase  exemption  from  de- 
served punishment.  Many  such  sentiments  of 
moral  wisdom  did  ApoUonius  deliver  while  he 
was  a  youth  at  ^gae.   (Id.  lib.  i.  c.  4 — 8.) 

Upon  the  death  of  his  father,  ApoUonius  vi- 
sited Tyana  to  bury  him.  In  dividing  with 
his  brotiier  the  estate  which  was  left,  he  re- 
served only  a  small  portion  for  himself.  A.t  the 
same  time  he  successfully  admonished  him  to 
reform  his  disorderly  life,  and  set  him  an  exam- 
ple of  perfect  chastity.  Returning  to  ^gae, 
where  he  had  acquired  a  high  reputation,  he 
erected  a  temple,  and  instituted  a  school  of  phi- 
losophy. But,  in  order  to  qualify  himself  com- 
pletely for  the  office  of  preceptor  in  the  Pytha- 
gorean doctrine,  he  determined  to  pass  tliroiigh 
the  long  probationary  discipline  of  five  years'  si- 
lence. During  this  noviciate,  he  visited  various 
cities  in  Pamphylia  and  Cilicia  without  speak- 
ing a  word,  yet,  by  his  looks  and  gestures,  con- 
veying to  the  people  instruction  and  admonition. 
At  Aspenda  he  quelled  a  tumult  occasioned  by 
an  artificial  famine,  and,  by  means  of  a  writing- 
table,  gave  the  covetous  engrossers  of  the  corn 
this  reproof:  "  The  earth,  the  common  mother 
of  all,  is  just ;  but  ye,  being  unjust,  would  make 
her  a  bountiful  mother  to  vou  alone  :  desist 
from  your  iniquitous  proceedings,  or  ye  shall 
no  longer  be  suffered  to  live."  The  terrified 
corn-merchants  opened  their  gianaries,  and  the 
people  were  relieved.  (Id.  c.  10,  11.)  Thus  did 
Apollonius's  Pythagoric  silence  accomplish  all 
that  eloquence  could  effect  from  the  lips  of  the 
wise  man  whom  the  poet  describes.  ( Virg.  ALn. 
lib.  i.  vcr.  156.) 

"  Turn  piclnte  gnivom  ac  meritH  si  forte  Tirum  qucm 
Consptxere,  siknl,  arreclisijui;  oiiiibui  .iclstjnt ; 
Illc  regit  dUtis  aniinoiac  pi-tlora  mulcct." 

If  lomc  grave  jirc  appears,  amid  llie  sirifo. 
In  morals  strict,  aiul  inuucunrc  of  life, 
All  Hand  altnilive  j   Mliile  the  <agc  c.inlruls 
Their  wralli,  and  calms  Iht  tuniuit  of  their  soijs. 

Pin. 

When  the  term  of  his  silence  was  expired, 

VOL.  I. 


ApoUonius  visited  Antioch,  Ephesus,  and  other 
cities,  declining  the  society  of  the  rude  and  dis- 
orderly, and  associating  chiefly  with  thepricsts. 
At  sun-rising  he  performed  certain  religious 
rites,  which  he  disclosed  only  to  those  who  had 
passed  througii  the  discipline  of  silence.  He 
then  discoursed  philosophicaliy  with  the  priests, 
and  endeavoured  to  correct  their  errors  and  im- 
prove their  discijjline.  He  next  gave  instruc- 
tions to  his  disciples,  and  encouraged  them  to 
ask  whatever  questions  they  pleased  la  the 
evening  he  held  a  public  assembly,  in  which  he 
addressed  the  multitude  at  large,  reproving  (hem 
for  their  vices.  His  style  was  neither  too  florid 
nor  too  refined,  but  truly  Attic.  He  neither  in- 
dulged hitnself  in  verbose  declamation,  nor  in 
ironical  raillery;  but  in  concise  and  expressive 
terms,  and  with  the  authoritative  tone  of  a  le- 
gislator, delivered  his  doctrine.  Being  asked 
why,  instead  of  dogmatically  asserting,  he  did  not 
still  continue  to  inquire,  his  answer  was,  "  I 
sought  for  truth  when  I  was  young;  it  is  now 
my  business  to  teach  what  I  have  found :  a  wise 
man  ought  to  speak  as  a  lawgiver,  and  make  the 
doctrines  which  he  embraces  injunctions  to  the 
people."    (Id.  c.  12,  13.) 

ApoUonius  now  resolved  to  travel  through 
Babylon  to  the  Indies,  that  he  might  converse 
with  the  Bramins.  He  communicated  his  pur- 
pose to  his  disciples,  who  were  seven  in  number, 
but  they  refused  to  accompany  hiin  :  upon 
which,  bidding  them  farewell,  he  said,  "  Since 
ye  are  too  effeminate  for  this  undertaking,  stay 
behind  and  study  philosophy  ;  for  my  part,  I 
must  go  where  wisdom  and  the  gods  conduct 
me."  He  left  Antioch  with  only  two  servants, 
with  whom  he  travelled  to  Ninths.  Here  he 
took  as  his  associate  Damis,  an  inhabitant  of 
that  city,  to  vi-hom  he  pretended  that  he  was 
skilled  in  all  languages  though  he  had  never 
learned  them,  and  that  he  understood  the  lan- 
guage of  animals,  and  could  even  read  the 
thoughts  of  men.  The  Assyrian  honoured 
him  as  a  divinity,  and,  becoming/his  compa- 
nion, took  minutes  of  all  that  passed  in  his  pre- 
sence during  the  journe)\   (Id.  c.  13.) 

On  his  way  to  Babylon,  ApoUonius,  seeing 
a  lioness  killed  by  huntsmen,  with  eight  whelps 
in  her  womb,  predicted  to  Damis,  that  the  time 
of  their  stay  with  the  king  of  Babylon  would  be 
a  vcar  and  eight  montlis.  At  Babylon  he  con- 
versed with  the  Magi ;  hut  to  these  conferences 
Damis  was  not  admitted.  On  his  entrance  into 
the  king's  palace,  he  showed  his  contempt  of 
grandeur  bv  conversing  with  Damis  as  If  lie 
were  travelling,  without  casting  his  eve  on  the 
magnificent  objects  around  him.  At  his  first 
2  u 


A  P  O 


( 


) 


A  P  O 


Interview  with  the  king,  in  whitli  lie  explained 
to  him  his  profession,  and  the  purport  of  his 
journey,  while  the  king  offered  in  sacrifice  to 
the  sun  a.  Nica-an  horse,  Apollonius  threw 
frankincense  into  the  fire,  saying,  "  O  sun, 
conduct  me  as  far  as  thou  plcasest,  and  grant 
me  to  know  onlv  virtuous  men."  'llie  king  was 
so  well  pleased  with  his  guest,  that  he  gave  him 
pcnnission  to  ask  twelve  hoons  ;  hut  the  philo- 
sopher, wanting  nothing  for  himself  hut  hread 
and  fruit,  only  requested  that  the  Eretrians,  set- 
tled at  Cissia,  whom  he  had  visited  on  his  jour- 
iicv,  might  enjoy  their  territory  secure  from  de- 
predation. During  an  illness  of  the  king,  Apol- 
loiiius  discoursed  so  excellently  concernijig  the 
soul,  that  the  sick  monarch  acknowledged  to  his 
attendants,  that  this  Greek  had  taught  him,  not 
only  to  despise  a  kingdom,  but  even  death  itself. 
Having  given  the  king  many  good  lessons  of  jus- 
tice, moderation  and  prudence,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  term  which  he  had  fixed  in  his  pre- 
diction, he  took  his  leave  of  Babylon,  furnished 
with  camels  and  provision  for  his  journey  over 
Caucasus.     (Id.  c.  i6,  20 — 24.) 

Pursuing  his  intended  route,  Apollonius  con- 
versed with  his  companion  on  the  nature  and 
history  of  animals  and  plants  which  they  saw, 
and  on  other  topics,  till  they  arrived  at  Taxella, 
tlie  residence  of  the  Indian  king.  Here,  in  a 
itmple  adorned  with  pictures,  the  philosopher 
discoursed,  in  the  Socratic  manner,  on  painting, 
as  an  imitative  art,  and  taught  Damis  that  an 
imitative  faculty  is  necessary  in  the  spectator 
as  well  as  in  the  artist ;  no  one  being  able  to 
judge  of  a  picture,  who  cannot  compare  it  with 
a  distinct  image,  drawn  on  his  mind,  of  the  origi- 
nalobject.  (Id.  lib.  ii.  c.  10.)  Being  invited  by 
the  king,  Phraotcs,  to  be  his  gticst  for  three 
days,  he  was  pleased  with  observing  his  mode- 
ration and  love  of  wisdom,  and  with  the  pro- 
vision which  was  made  in  this  country  for 
teaching  philosophy.  After  several  philoso- 
phical conferences,  the  king  dismissed  the 
philosopher  with  presents,  and  with  the  fol- 
lowing letter  of  recommendation  to  the  chief 
ot  the  Indian  phllosophcns,  or  g\  mnosophists, 
residing  between  the  Hyphasis  and  the  Gan- 
ges. 

"  King  Phractes  to  his  master  larchas,  and  to 
the  wise  men  -who  are  ivith  him.  Apollonius, 
a  very  wise  man,  believing  you  to  be  wiser  than 
himself,  visits  you  to  become  acquainted  with 
your  wisdom.  Freely  impart  to  him  whatever 
you  know,  and  be  assured  that  your  instructions 
will  not  be  lost.  He  is  tlie  most  eloquent  of 
men,  and  has  an  excellent  memory.  His  com- 
panions, too,  deserve  your  notice,  since  they 


have  the  mei  it  of  loving  such  a  man.  Farewell."*' 
(Id.  lib.  ii.  c.  14.) 

After  four  months'  residence  with  these  In- 
dian sages,  from  whom  he  learned  much  wis- 
dom, and  in  whose  country  lie  saw  many 
wonders,  Apollonius  returned  to  Babylon.  He 
passed  thence  into  Ionia,  and  visited  several  ci- 
ties. Such  was  the  fame  he  had  now  acquired, 
that,  when  he  entered  Ephesus,  even  the  artisans 
left  therr  work  to  follow  him.  In  i)ublic  dis- 
courses he  repioved  the  people  for  their  idleness 
and  efTeminacy,  and  recommended,  according 
to  the  Pythagorean  discipline,  a  community  of 
goods.  He  is  said  to  have  foretold  to  the  Ephe- 
sians  an  approaching  pestilence  ;  and  to  have 
predicted  earthquakes,  which  soon  afterwards 
happened  in  Ionia.  To  the  inhabitants  of 
Smyrna  he  recommended  a  greater  attention  to 
science  and  literature.  He  visited  Pergamu? 
and  the  ancient  seat  of  Troy,  and  passed  a 
night  by  himself  near  the  tomb  of  Achilles  ; 
and  he  afterwards  informed  his  companions, 
that,  by  the  power  of  an  incantation  which  he 
had  learned  in  India,  he  raised  that  hero  from 
his  tomb,  and  held  a  conversation  with  him. 
After  visiting  the  island  of  Lesbos,  where  he 
conversed  with  the  priests  of  Orpheus,  he  sail- 
ed for  Athens.  Happening  to  arrive  here  at  the 
time  when  the  sacred  mysteries  were  perform- 
ing, he  presented  himselt  for  initiation  ;  hut  the 
priest  refused  him  because  he  was  an  enchant- 
er :  a  few  years  afterwards,  however,  he  was 
admitted.  He  discoursed  to  the  Athenians  on 
sacrifices  and  prayers,  and  reproved  them  for 
their  effeminate  manners.  He  also  visited  La- 
cedcemon,  Olympia,  and  other  Grecian  cities, 
addressing  the  people  with  great  eloquence  to 
excite  them  to  reformation  of  manners,  and 
pretending  to  predict  future  events,  and  to  per- 
form miracles.  At  Athens  he  is  said  to  have 
cast  out  a  daemon,  who  at  his  departure  threw 
dovsrn  a  statue ;  at  the  Isthmus,  to  have  pre- 
dicted the  attempt  of  Nero  to  cut  a  passage 
through  this  neck  of  land ;  and  in  the  island  of 
Crete,  during  an  earthquake,  to  have  cried  out, 
"  The  sea  is  bringing  forth  land  !"  (Id.  lib.  iv. 
c.  I — 5.  7.  16 — 19.  34.)  when,  at  that  in- 
stant, an  island  was  rising  out  of  the  sea  be- 
tween Crete  and  Thera. 

From  Crete  Ai)ollonius  went  to  Rome.  Ne- 
ro had  just  before  issued  an  edict  to  banish  from 
tlie  city  all  who  practised  magic.  Apollonius 
knew  that  he  should  be  comprehended  in  this 
description  ;  yet  he  was  not  to  be  deterred  from 
his  purpose.  Under  the  protection  of  the  sacred 
habit,  he  obtained  adinission  into  the  city,  with 
eight  of  his  companions,  who  alone,  out  of, 


A  P  O 


(    331     ) 


A  P  O 


thirty-four  that  had  accompanied  him  to  Italy, 
liad   the  courage  to  remain  with  him.     The 
next  day  lie  was  conducted  to  the  consul  Tele- 
sinus,  who  granted  iiim  permission  to  visit  the 
temple<;,  and  converse  with  the  priests.     After 
a  short  stay,  in  which  an  obscure  prediction, 
and  a   pretended  miracle  of   raising  a  young 
woman    to   life,  increased  his    reputation,  the 
edict  of  Nero  banished  him  froni  Rome  ;  and 
lie  travelled  to   Sjiain,  where  he  remained  no 
longer  than  till  the  death  of  the  emperor.   (Id. 
Jib.  iv.  c.  35 — 47.)      He  then  returned  to  Italy 
on  his   way  to  Greece,  whence  he  passed  to 
Egypt,  where  \'e,spasian  was  endeavouring  to 
establish  his  power.     That  prince  knew  the 
value   of  such  an  auxiliary  as    Apollonius,  a 
man  well  practised  in  the  arts  of  popularity,  and 
attached  him  to  his  interest  by  consulting  liim 
as  a  sort  of  divine  oracle.     In  return,  tlic  phi- 
losopher  employed   his    influence    among   the 
people  in  favour  of  Vespasian.      During  his  re- 
sidence in  Egypt,  Apollonius  indulged  his  curio- 
sity by  taking  a  journey  into  Ethiopia,  where 
he  mc-t  with  adventures  among  the  gyumoso- 
phists,  similar  to  those  which  had  happened  in 
India.      (Id.  lib.  v.  vi.  c.  i — 28.)      On  his  re- 
turn he  was  favourably  received  by  Vespasian's 
successor  Titus,  who  consulted  him  on  matters 
of  government.     To  this  emperor  he  wrote  the 
tollowing  laconic  epistle  on  his  refusing  a  crown 
of  victory  upon  taking  Jerusalem  :  "  Apollonius 
to   Titus   emperor    of    the    Romans    sendeth 
greeting.     Since   you  refuse   to   be   applauded 
lor  bloodshed  and  victory  in  war,  I  send  you  the 
crown  ot  moderation.     You  know  for  what 
kind  of  merit  crowns  are  due."     (Id.  c.  29.) 
Upon  the  accession  of  Domitian,  he  was  con- 
cerned in  exciting  a  sedition  in  Egypt  against 
tliat  tyrant,    and   in    favour   of  Nerva.     The 
plot  being  discovered,  an  order  was  issued  tor 
.seising  Apollonius  and  bringing  him  to  Rome. 
lie  repaired  thither  of  his  own  accord,  and  was 
brought  to  trial  before  the  prstor  yElian,  who 
acquitted  him.   (Id.  lib.  vii.  c.i6,  17.  40.) 

Apollonius  now  passed  over  into  Greece, 
and  visited  the  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Olympia, 
the  cave  of  Trophonius  in  Arcadia,  and  other 
celebrated  seats  of  religion.  (Id.  lib.  viii.  c.  i — 
24.)  At  last  he  settled  at  Ephesus,  where  he 
established  a  Pythagorean  school,  and  had  many 
disciples.  It  is  said  (Dion.  Cass.  lib.  Ivii.  sub 
fin.  Philost.  lib.  viii.  c.  26.),  but  can  only  be  cre- 
dited ujion  the  suppositioTi  that  the  plot  against 
the  lilc  ol  the  emperor  had  been  concerted  with 
him,  that,  at  the  moment  when  tlie  tyrant  Do- 
mitian was  cut  ofFat  Rome,  Apollonius,  in  the 
midst  of  a  public  disputation,  made   a  sudden 


pause,  and,  clianging  his  tone,  cried,  "  Well 
done,  Stephen  !  take  courage ;  kill  the  tyrant, 
kill  him  !"  Then,  after  a  short  interval,  he  ex- 
claimed, "  The  tyrant  is  dead ;  he  is  killed 
this  very  hour." 

After  this  we  hear  nothing  concerning  Apol- 
lonius, except  that  Nerva  wrote  to  him  on  his 
accession  to  the  empire,  soliciting  the  aid  of  his 
counsels,  and  that  he  returned  the  following  enig- 
matical answer  :  "  O  emperor,  we  shall  live  to- 
gether during  a  very  long  period,  in  which  we 
shall  have  no  authority  over  others,  nor  shall 
others  have  any  authority  over  us  ;"  (Id.  lib.  viii. 
c.  27.)  intimating,  probably,  his  expectation 
that  they  would  soon  live  together  in  another 
world.  Concerning  the  time,  the  place,  and 
the  manner  of  his  death,  we  have  no  certain  in- 
formation. It  is  probable,  however,  that  he 
died  at  Ephesus,  from  the  mere  decay  of  nature, 
during  the  short  reign  of  Nerva,  or  about  the 
year  97,  having  nearly  reached  tlie  great  age  of 
an  hundred  years. 

The  sources  of  our  information  concerning 
this  extraordinary  man  are  uncertain.  Damis, 
who  became  his  companion  at  Babylon,  and 
who,  though  his  most  devoted  disciple,  appears 
to  have  been  extremely  ignorant  and  credulous, 
was  his  first  memorialist.  The  memoirs,  which 
he  left  in  the  hands  of  a  friend,  were  given  to 
the  empress  Julia,  the  wife  of  Severus,  who 
began  to  reign  in  the  year  194.  By  her  they 
were  communicated  to  Philostratus,  an  eloquent 
sophist  then  resident  at  Rome,  with  a  request 
that  he  would  transcribe  and  embellish  the  nar- 
rative. Philostratus  undertook  the  task,  and 
from  the  papers  of  Damis,  from  a  short  and 
imperfect  narrative  written  by  Maximus  of 
JEgse,  now  lost,  from  the  writings  of  the 
priests  with  whom  he  had  conversed,  from 
Apollonius's  epistles,  and  from  traditionary  ac- 
counts, wrote  a  large  narrative  ot  the  life  of 
this  philosopher,  the  only  contiimed  memorial 
of  him  which  remains.  (Philost.  lib.  i.  c.  2, 
3.)  It  is  virittcn  in  the  declamatory  style  of  a 
sophist  or  rhetorician  ;  and  is  loaded  with 
marvellous  tales  of  giants,  pigmies,  griffins, 
phoenixes,  dragons,  satyrs,  and  apparitions, 
which  very  much  weaken  the  credit  of  the 
work.  Some  glaring  inconsistencies  will  also 
be  found  in  this  narrative:  Apollonius,  for  cx- 
ain])le,  is  said  to  have  known  the  thoughts  of 
men,  and  vet  to  have  been  astonished  that  lar- 
chas,  the  Inilian  priest,  was  acquainted  witii 
his  story  ;  and  to  have  understood  all  languages, 
and  yet  to  have  made  use  of  larchas  as  his  in- 
terpreter to  the  king  of  the  country.  Neverthe- 
less, t!»c  luirrativc  of  Philostratus,  with  ;ill  its 


A  P  O 


( 


132 


) 


A  P  O 


fuuUs,  WIS,  about  a  century  after  lis  appear- 
ance, referred  to  in  preference  to  other  accounts 
of  ApoUonius  then  extant,  by  Hicrocles,  who 
first  endeavoured  to  draw  a  comparison  between 
Cluist  and  this  pliilosophcr  ;  and  Eusebius,  in 
refuting  this  attack  upon  Christianity,  admits, 
in  general,  the  accounts  of  Pliilostratus,  and 
shows  tiiat,  according  to  his  acconrit,  ApoUo- 
nius  does   not  deserve   to    be   compared  with 
Christ.     This  narrative  may  be  admitted,  in 
concurrence  with   other  collateral  evidence,  a 
sufficient  testimony,  not  only  that  such  a  man 
as  Apollonius  existed,  but  that  he  was  an  emi- 
iicnit  philosopher  of  the  Pythagorean  sect,  who 
travelled  through  almost  every  part  of  tlie  civi- 
lised world,  exhibiting,  in  his  own  character, 
an  example  of  strict  and  rigid  morality,  teach- 
ing lessons  of  moral  wisdom  and  doctrines  of 
speculative  philosophy,  and  attracting  popular 
attention  and  reverence  by  pretending  to  super- 
natural powers.     It  may  not  be  easy  to  separate 
the  impostures  of  Apollonius  from  the  fictions 
of  his  biographers  ;  but  there  is  little  room  to" 
doubt,  tliat,  lifter  the  example  of  his  master  Py- 
thagoras, he  practised  the  arts  of  delusion,  and 
tJiat,  though  with  wise  men  he  was  a  philoso- 
pher, among  the  vulgar  he  was   a  magician. 
The  stories  of  his  vanishing  away  at  his  trial 
before  Domitian,  and  being  conveyed  in  a  few 
hours  to  Puteoli   (Philost.  lib.  viii.  c.  4.);  of 
his  passing  in  an  Instant  from  Smvrna  to  Ephe- 
sus  (lib.  iv.  c.  10.) ;  of  his  driving  away  the 
plague  at  Ephcsus  (lib.  iv.  c  11.)  by  stoning  a 
drcmon  in  the  shape  of  an  old  man  ;  and  some 
others,  are  too  absurd  to  be  considered  in  any 
other  light  than  as  mere  fictions.     But  it  is  not 
improbable,  that  the  tales  of  his  healing  a  demo- 
niac, raising  a  young  woman  to  lite,  conversing 
with  the  shade  of  Achilles,  and  the  like,  may 
have  been  founded  on  real  attempts  to  impose 
upon  the  credulous.     That  he  did  in  fact  im- 
pose, not  merely  upon  the  vulgar,  but  upon 
the  more  enlightened,  may  be  learned  from  a 
passage  in  a   Life  of  Apollonius,  written  be- 
fore that  of  Philostratus  by  Mceragencs,  cited 
by  Origen  (Contra  Cels.  lib.  vi.  c.  41.)  :  "  He 
who   would    know   whether   magic    has    any 
power  over  philosophers,  may  read  the  memoirs 
of  Mceragencs,  who,  though  not  a  Christian, 
but  a  philosopher,  says,  that  some  and  no  in- 
considerable j'hilosophers  were  deceived  by  the 
magical  art  of  Apollonius,  and  came  to  han  as 
one  capable  of  predicting  future  events."  Lucian 
brings  his  famous  impostor  Alexander  from  the 
school  ot  Apollonius.   (Pseudomant.) 

The  great  celebrity  of  Apollonius   appears 
from  numerous  attestations.     In  lib  life-time 


he  was  called  a  god,  and  accepted  the  appella- 
tion, saying,  that  every  good  man  is  honouicd 
with  it.  (Philost.  lib.  viii.  c.  5.)  After  his  death, 
he  long  continued  to  be  ranked  among  the  divi- 
nities. The  inhabitants  of  Tyana  dedicated  a 
temple  to  his  name.  (Id.  lib.  i.  c.  4.)  The 
Ephcsians  consecrated  a  statue  to  him  under  the 
title  of  tlercules  Alexicacus,  in  commemora- 
tion of  his  having  delivered  them  from  the 
plague.  (Lactant.  Inst.  lib.  v.  c.  3.)  The  em- 
peror Adrian  collected  his  letters,  and  kept  thcnt 
in  his  palace  at  Antium,  with  a  book  written  by 
this  philosopher,  containing  answers  from  the 
oracle  of  Trophonius.  (Phil.  lib.  viii.  c.  20.) 
The  emperor  Scverus,  in  his  domestic  temple, 
kept  the  image  of  Apollonius,  with  those  of 
Abraham,  Orpheus,  and  Christ.  (Lamprid. 
in  Sev.  c.  xxix.)  Caracalla  dedicated  a  tem- 
ple to  him  as  to  a  divinity  among  men.  (Dion, 
lib.  Ixxvii.)  Aurelian  refrained  from  sacking 
Tyana  out  of  reverence  to  his  memory.  Vo- 
piscus  (Vopisc.  fn  Aurelian.  c.  xxiv.),  the  his- 
torian who  relates  this  last  circumstance,  ac- 
companies it  with  a  fabulous  story  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  Apollonius  to  Aurelian,  warning 
him  to  refrain  from  the  destruction  of  his  fel- 
lov^'-citizens,  and  adds  :  "  This  account  I  have 
heard  from  persons  of  credit,  and  have  read  in 
the  Uipian  library  ;  and  I  am  the  more  inclined 
to  believe  it,  on  account  of  tlic  dignity  of  Apol- 
lonius. For,  was  ever  any  man  more  holy,  ve- 
nerable, noble  and  divine  ?  He  restored  life  to  the 
dead  :  he  did  and  spoke  many  things  beyond 
himian  ability."  Eusebius,  in  his  refutation  of 
Hierocles  (Ad  Calc.  Dcm.  Evang.),  cites  him 
as  ascribing  to  Apollonius  a  divine  and  hidden 
wisdom,  by  whicli,  and  not  by  magical  art,  he 
had  performed  great  wonders,  and  as  relating 
these  extraordinary  works  from  the  beginning : 
Eusebius,  however,  has  not  given  the  detail. 
The  same  writer  says  (Ibid.)  that  in  his  time 
there  were  persons  who  pretended  to  perform 
magical  incantations  by  invoking  the  name  of 
Apollonius.  In  fine,  Ammianus  Marcellinus 
(lib.  xxi.  c.  14.)  ranks  this  philosopher  among 
those  eminent  men  v>'ho  have  been  assisted  by 
the  supernatural  aid  of  a  damon,  or  genius,  as 
Socrates  and  Numa.  And  Eunapius,  who  was, 
however,  a  credulous  and  fantastical  Platonist, 
speaks  of  him  as  something  between  a  god  and 
a  man,  and  adds,  that  Philostratus  ought  to 
haveentitlcdhis  history,  "The  Descent  of  a  God 
upon  Earth."  (Vit.  Phil.  Prsef.)  These  testimo- 
nies, though  they  by  no  means  amount  to  a  proof 
that  Apollonius  was  really  endowed  with  super- 
natural powers,  will  be  sufficient  to  show,  that  he 
possessed  a  distinguished  name  among  philoso- 


A  P  O 


(     333     ) 


A  P  P 


fihers.  Dr.  Lanlncr  has  fully  sliown,  iliat  Phi- 
ostratus  did  not  write  the  life  of"  Apolloniiis  with 
any  reference  to  the  life  of  Christ,  and  that  his 
design  was  to  exhibit  th.is  philosopher  as  a 
counterpart  to  Pythagoras.  As  such  lie  is, 
douhtlcss,  to  be  considered,  and  we  shall  not, 
perhaps,  pronounce  unfairly  concerning  Apol- 
lonius  Tyanaeus,  if  in  conclusion  we  assert, 
that  in  him  were  united  the  characters  ^f  the 
sage  and  the  impostor:  we  see  no  reason  for 
adding,  with  Mr.  Gibbon,  that  of  the  fanatic. 
Of  the  writings  of  Apoilonius  none  remain  ex- 
cept his  Apology  to  Domitian,  given  probably, 
at  most,  only  in  substance  hy  Philostratus  ;  and 
cighty-foiir  epistles,  chiefly  philosophical,  the 
doctrine  of  which  is  not  strictly  Pythagorean, 
but  partakes  of  the  Heraclitean  system  of  the 
unity  of  nature  ;  their  laconic  style  furnishes 
a  presumjition  in  favour  of  their  authenticity. 
They  were  edited  by  Commelin,  in  8vo.  in  i6oi ; 
and  by  Stephens,  in  "  E])istolia,"  &c.  1577. 
Pliilostrot.  Vit.  jpol.  Baylc.  Bntckcr.  Lnrd- 
ncr's  Heathen  Testim.  ch.  xxxix.  Dupin,  Hist, 
d'  Apoll.  Mosheim.  Diss,  de  Apoll.  ap.  Obs. 
Hist.  Crit.  &c.  — E.' 

APOLLOS,  a  Jew  by  descent,  a  native  of 
Alexandria,  and  a  Christian  convert  in  the  time 
of  the  apostles,  was  celelirated  for  his  eloquence. 
Coming  to  Ephcsus  during  the  absence  of  the 
apostle  Paul,  he  preached  the  gospel  in  the  syn- 
agogue. About  the  year  54,  he  went  to  Co- 
rinth, where  he  made  many  converts,  who 
considered  liim  as  their  leader,  in  opposition 
to  Paul  and  Peter.  Acts,  ch.  xviii.  i  Cor. 
i.  12.  —  E. 

APONO,  Peter  de,  a  celebrated  philoso- 
pher and  physician  in  a  dark  age,  was  born  at 
Apono,  now  Abano,  a  village  in  the  Paduan 
territory,  in  1250.  He  studied  in  the  universi- 
ty' of  Paris,  where  he  was  created  doctor  in  phi- 
losophy and  medicine,  and  then  settled  at  Bolo- 
gna as  professor  and  physician.  While  at  Paris, 
he  made  himself  celebrated  by  a  book  entitled, 
"  Conciliator  DitFcrentiarum  Philosophorum 
ct  prfficipue  Medicorum,"  in  which  he  attempt- 
ed to  connect  philosophy  with  medicine,  and  as- 
trology with  natural  magic  ;  and  he  obtained 
from  this  work  the  appellation  of  T/ie  Concilia- 
tor. Fie  became  so  famous  in  the  practice  of 
physic  that  he  refused  to  visit  a  patient  out 
of  Bologna  for  less  than  fifty  crowns  ;  and,  it 
is  said,  that,  on  being  called  to  pope  Honorius 
IV.  he  insisted  upon  a  stipend  of  four  hundred 
ducats  a  day  —  a  sum  almost  incredible  for  that 
period.  From  this  rapacious  disposition,  it  is 
probable  enough  that  he  gave  encouragement  to 
die  superstitious  notion  of  liis  being  taught  his 


art  by  evil  spirits,  as  well  as  being  conversant 
with  the  natural  magic  of  astrology,  in  \\  hich 
last  false  science  it  is  likely  that  he  was  himself 
a  believer.  However  that  were,  he  fell  at  length 
under  the  notice  of  th.e  inquisition  at  the  age  of 
sixty-six;  and  fortunately,  by  dying  during  the 
process,  escaped  the  flames  to  which  his  effigy 
was  committed  after  his  death.  His  body  would 
have  undergone  the  same  sentence,  had  not  his 
concubine  disinterred  it,  and  conveyed  it  to  a  se- 
cret grave.  His  memory,  however,  received  ho- 
nours wliich  amply  compensated  for  these  indig- 
nities. Frcc'.eiic  duke  of  Urbino  erected  a 
statue  to  him,  among  those  of  other  illustrious 
men  which  decorated  his  castle  ;  and  the  senate 
of  Padua  fixed  his  image  upon  the  gates  of  their 
public  hall  between  those  of  Livy,  Albertus, 
and  Julius  Paulus.  By  the  inscription  placed 
under  it,  ic  would  seem  that  he  was  acquitted  of 
the  crime  of  magic  laid  to  his  charge.  Perhaps 
the  burning  him  in  efEgy  was  the  act  of  some 
zealots  who  anticipated  his  final  sentence.  « 

Besides  the  "  Conciliator,"  abovementioned, 
which  was  printed  at  Padua  in  1490,  and  after- 
wards reprinted  at  Venice  and  F  lorence,  there 
have  been  printed  of  this  autlior's,  "De  Vene- 
nis,  eorumque  Remediis,"  Marpurg,  1517,  and 
Venice,  1550  ;  "  Supplcmentum  in  Mesucni," 
with  Mesue's  Works  ;  some  "  Expositions  of 
the  Problems  of  Aristotle ;"  and  "  Quasstiones  dc 
Febribus.  Bavle.  Vander  Linden  de  Script. 
Med.  — A. 

APOSTOLIUS,  Michael,  a  learned 
Greek,  a  native  of  Constantinople,  came  into 
Italy  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
He  was  at  first  hospitably  entertained  by  Bessa- 
rion  ;  but,  being  afterwards  deserted  by  him,  he 
retired  into  the  island  of  Crete,  and  employed 
himself  in  writing  books.  He  compiled  a  work 
entitled  liuvta..  or  the  Violet-bcd,  containing  sen- 
tences and  apophthegms  of  wise  men,  which  has 
never  been  published;  and  another,  "  De  l^ro- 
verbiis,"  a  collection  of  more  than  two  thou- 
sand proverbs.  An  epitome  of  this  work  was 
published  in  8vo.  at  Basil,  in  1538,  and  after- 
wards the  collection  at  large,  in  Greek  and  La- 
tin, illustrated  with  notes,  was  published  in  410. 
by  Pontinus,  at  Leyden,  in  1619.  His  son, 
Arsenius,  published  at  Rome  a  collection  of 
Apophthegms,  which  was  probably  taken  from 
the  lojvia  of  Apostolius.  Fabric.  Bib!.  Grac. 
lib.  iv.  c.  41.   §  8.  —  E. 

APPIAN,  a  Greek  historian,  was  a  native 
of  Alexandria,  and  lived  in  the  former  part  of 
the  second  century,  under  the  reigns  of  Trajan, 
Adrian,  and  Antoninus  Pius.  In  the  time  of 
Trajan,  he  left  his  native  city  to  reside  at  Rome, 


APR 


(     334     ) 


A  P  U 


in  the  capacity  of  an  advocate ;  and  he  acquired 
so  mucli  reputation  in  the  courts,  that  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  procurators  or  superintcn- 
dants  of  the  domestic  affairs  of  the  emperor.  In 
his  preface  to  his  History,  Appian  speaks  of  the 
Riiniaii  power  ashavini;  then  lasted  nine  Iiundred 
years  :  this  preface  must  therefore  have  been 
written  in,  or  after,  tlic  eleventh  year  of  Anto- 
ninus Fius,  or  the  year  of  Chriit  148.  Appian 
Avrote  u  comprehensive  hisforv  ot  Roman  af- 
fairs in  twenty-four  books.  The  work  is  drawn 
up,  not  in  chronological  order,  like  that  of  Dio- 
nysius  of  H  ilicarnassus,  or  of  Folybius  ;  nor 
in  the  biographical  method  of  Plutarch  ;  but  in 
the  order  of  the  countries  in  wliich  the  events 
which  he  relates  hap|>cncd,  namely,  Italy,  Gaul, 
Sicily,  Spain,  Africa,  Greece,  Syria,  Partliia, 
Egvpt,  and  Arabia. 

Of  the  first  nine  books  only  a  few  fragments 
remain,  which  will  be  I'ound  in  "  Excerpta  dc 
Legationibus,"  published  in  410.  in  Greek, 
with  the  notes  by  Ursinus,  at  Antwerp,  in 
1582,  and,  with  a  Latin  interpretation  by  ^'a- 
lesius,  in  "  Excerjita  Peircsciana,"  4to.  Pa- 
ris, 1634.  Of  the  fourth  book,  on  the  war  with 
the  Gauls,  only  an  epitome  remains.  The  sixtii 
and  seventh  books  on  the  affairs  of  Spain,  and 
the  war  with  Hannibal,  are  preserved,  and 
were  first  published  in  8vo.  by  Henry  Stephens, 
at  Paris,  in  1557.  The  eighth,  on  the  affairs  of 
Libya ;  the  eleventh  and  twelt'th,  on  those  of  Sy- 
ria and  Parthia  ;  five  books  on  the  civil  wars  ; 
and  fraginents  of  the  twenty-third,  on  the  af- 
fairs of  Illyria,  are  extant.  A  Latin  version  of 
several  parts  of  Appian,  by  Candidus,  was 
printed  at  Rome  in  1472.  An  edition  of  Ap- 
pian  was  published  in  Greek,  witlj  various 
readings,  in  folio,  at  Paris  in  1557.  Henry 
Stephens  published  another,  in  foho,  at  Geneva 
in  1592.  An  improved  edition,  by  ToUius,  in 
two  volumes  8vo.  appeared  at  Amsterdam  in 
1670.  Appian  appears  to  have  compiled  free- 
ly from  preceding  Iiistorians,  particularly  from 
Polybius  and  Plutarch,  the  latter  of  whom  he 
has  often  copied  with  servility.  He  dwells 
largely  upon  military  affairs.  His  partiality  to 
the  Romans  renders  it  necessary  to  read  his  his- 
tory with  caution.  His  style  is  concise  and  un- 
adorned. The  work  is  chiefly  valuable  as  a 
collection  of  historical  facts,  many  of  which 
are  gathered  from  authors  now  lost.  Appian. 
Hist.  Prafat.  Foss.  de  Gr^c.  Hist.  vol.  iii. 
p.  390.  Hank,  de  Rom.  Script,  p.  i.  c.  18. 
Fabr.  R:h.  Grac.  lib.  iv.  c.  12.  —  E. 

APRILS,  king  of  Egypt,  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther Psammis,  B.  C.  594.  He  was  a  warlike 
and  successful  prince,  and  obtained  tnany  ad- 


vantages over  the  neighbouring  states.  He  took 
Sidon  by  storm,  with  other  towns  in  Phoenicia, 
and  made  himself  master  of  the  isle  of  Cyprus. 
He  is  supposed  to  be  the  Pharaoh-Hophra  of  the 
Jewish  Scriptures,  who  marched  from  Egypt 
with  a  design  to  relieve  Jerusalem,  then  be- 
sieged by  Nebuchadnezzar,  but  being  afraid  to 
encounter  the  Babylonian  army,  which  ad- 
vanced to  meet  him,  returned  without  effect. 
Towfflds  tlie  close  of  his  reign,  the  Cyrcneans, 
a  Greek  colony  in  Africa,  invading  the  country 
of  the  Libyans,  the  king  of  this  people  applied 
for  aid  to  Apries,  who  sent  a  powerful  army  to 
his  succour.  This  was  defeated  with  great 
slaughter  by  tlie  Cyrcncans,  whicli  occasioned 
so  much  discontent  among  the  Egyptians,  that 
they  revolted  and  proclaimed  Amasis  king.  (See 
Amasis.)  a  civil  war  ensued,  which  termi- 
nated in  a  great  battle  near  A'leinphis,  in  which 
Apries  was  vanquished  and  made  prisoner. 
Apries  was  for  some  time  treated  with  lenity ; 
but  at  length  met  with  the  usual  fate  of  deposed 
princes,  and  was  strangled,  after  a  reign  of 
twenty-five  years  according  to  Herodotus,  and 
of  twenty-two  according  to  Diodorus.  Univers. 
Hist.  — A. 

APROSIO,  A:;gelico,  a  learned  ItaHaii 
monk  of  the  order  of  the  Augustines,  wax 
born  at  Vintimiglia,  in  the  territory  of  Genoa, 
in  the  year  1607.  He  taught  philosophy  at  Ge- 
noa for  five  years  ;  and  afterwards  settled  at  Ve- 
nice, where  he  lectured  in  polite  literature.  Ha 
published  a  "  Bibliotheque  of  the  Augustines  of 
Vintimiglia,"  which  proves  him  to  be  have  been 
well-read  in  the  literary  history  of  his  times. 
He  also  wrote,  "  Bibliotheca  Aprosiana," 
printed  at  Bologna,  in  i2mo.  in  1673,  contain- 
ing a  long  relation  of  his  own  life,  and  accounts 
of  various  authors.  He  frequently  wrote  sati- 
rical or  humourous  pieces  under  fictitious  names. 
He  died  about  the  year  loSo.      Bayle.  —  E. 

APSINES  THE  Phcekiciak,  a  rhetorician, 
born  at  Gadara  of  Plicenicia,  a  hearer  of  the 
rhetorician  Basilicus,  under  the  emperor  Maxi- 
min,  flourished  about  the  year  236.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Philostratus,  who  celebrates  his  me- 
mory, and  his  accuracy  as  a  writer,  in  his  last 
book  concerning  the  Sophists.  His  remains  are 
to  be  found  in  Manutius's  Collection  of  Rheto- 
ricians, published  in  folio  at  Venice  in  1608. 
Philost.  Sophist.  Fabricii  Bib/,  Gra-c.  lib.  iv. 
c.  31.  §  16.    Snidas.-^E. 

APULEIUS,  Lucius,  a  Platonic  philoso- 
pher, a  native  of  Aladaura,  an  African  city  on 
the  borders  of  Numidia  and  Gaetulia,  lived  in 
the  second  century,  under  the  Antonines,  as 
appears  from   his  speaking  of  several  persons- 


A  P  U 


(    335     ) 


A  P  U 


as  alive  when  he  wrote,  who  were  con- 
temporary with  those  emperors.  His  father 
Tlieseiis  was  a  thief  magistrate  in  Madaura  ; 
his  mother  a  descendant  from  the  family  of  Plu- 
tarch. The  first  part  of  his  education  he  re- 
ceived at  Carthage  ;  and  here  he  imbibed  his 
first  knowledge  of  the  Platonic  philosophy..  He 
then  removed  to  Athens,  where  he  prosecuted 
various  branches  of  study  ;  and  thence  to  Rome, 
Avhere  he  acquired  the  knov.  lodge  of  tlie  Latin 
tongue  without  the  assistance  of  a  master.  His 
accoimt  of  the  pi  ogress  of  his  studies  is  amus- 
ing, and  affords  acurious  speciinen  of  his  style. 
•'  Our  til  St  cup  of  knowledge,  which  we  receive 
from  the  hand  of  the  teacher  of  letters,  re- 
moves entire  ignorance :  the  second  furnishes 
us  with  the  learning  of  the  grammarian ;  the 
third  arms  us  with  the  eloquence  of  the  rhetori- 
cian ;  and  thus  much  is  drunk  by  most  persons: 
but  at  Athens  I  drank  other  cups  from  the  de- 
ceitful fountain  of  poetry,  from  the  clear  stream 
of  geometry,  from  the  sweet  waters  of  music, 
from  the  rough  current  of  dialectics,  and  from 
the  nectareous  and  never-satiating  deep  of  uni- 
versal philosophy."  Apuleius,  who  appears,  at 
least  in  the  early  part  of  life,  to  have  despised 
riches,  expended  his  moiety  of  a  large  fortune 
of  twenty  thousand  sesterces  (about  eight  thou- 
sand pounds)  which  had  been  left  in  equal 
shares  to  hiinself  and  his  brother,  in  acts  of  ge- 
nerosity, and  in  travelling  in  search  of  know- 
ledge. He  liberally  rewarded  the  labours  of 
those  who  had  been  his  instructors,  in  some 
cases  bestowing  portions  upon  their  daugh- 
ters ;  and  he  was  ready,  on  every  occa- 
sion, to  assist  his  friends  in  their  necessities. 
*'  I  should  not  have  hesitated  (says  he)  to  ex- 
pend my  wliole  patrimony  in  acquiring  ^^hat  is 
more  valuable,  a  contempt  of  patrimony."  In 
his  travels  it  appears  to  have  been  one  of  his 
principal  objects  to  gratify  his  curiosity  with 
respect  to  the  religious  oi)inions  and  ceremonies 
of  different  nations,  by  obtaining  admission  in- 
to their  sacred  mysteries.  In  Greece  hs  was 
initiated  into  several  sacred  rites:  in  Carthage 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  worship  of  ^sculapius, 
the  tutelary  divinitv;  and  possessed,  in  the  col- 
lege of  his  priests,  the  honourable  office  of  ati- 
tisies,  or  chief  conductor  of  the  ceremonies. 

Upon  his  return  to  Rome,  after  his  travels, 
Apuleius  found  his  patrimony  wholly  exhaust- 
ed. Being  cxceedinglv  desirous  of  entering  in- 
to tlic  fraternity  of  Osiris,  he  even  parted  with 
Jiis  cloaths  to  defray  the  necessary  expenses  of 
the  inaugural  ceremonies.  To  supply  himself 
■with  the  means  of  subsistence,  he  undertook  the 
profession  of  a  pleader,  and  made  considerable 


gain  by  the  causes  in  which  he  was  employcif. 
Having  by  this  time  acquired  a  greater  fondness 
for  the  gifts  of  fortune  than  in  his  younger  days, 
he  gladly  embraced  an  opportunity  which  otFer- 
ed  of  iinproving  his  condition  by  marriage. 
Pudcntilla,  a  rich  widow  of  QEa,  whose  prin- 
cipal attraction  consisted  in  her  wealth,  became 
his  wife,  j^milianus,  the  brotl;er  of  Puden- 
tilhi's  former  husband,  who  was  displeased  with 
the  match,  circulated  a  report  that  he  had  em- 
ployed magical  arts  to  obtain  her  love,  and  in- 
stituted a  law-suit  against  him  before  Claudius 
Maxiinus,  proconsul  of  Africa.  He,  however, 
found  no  difficulty  in  proving,  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  the  judges,  that  his  personal  attractions 
were  the  only  witchcraft  that  he  had  used.  The 
apology  which  he  delivered  upon  this  occasioa 
is  still  extant,  and  is  justly  admired  as  a  fine 
performance. 

Of  tlie  remainder  of  the  life  of  Apuleius  no- 
thing is  known.  Except  in  the  affair  just  re- 
lated, it  does  not  appear  that  he  was  charged 
with  practising  magical  arts :  yet,  after  his 
death,  miracles  were  ascribed  to  him,  which 
were  placed  in  competition  with  those  of  Jesus 
Christ.  Lactantius,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century  (Div.  Instit.  lib.  v.  c.  3.),  ex- 
presses his  surprise  that  the  author  whom  he 
confutes  had  not  joined  Apuleius  with  Anollo- 
nius  Tyansus,  and  says  that  many  wonders  are 
related  concerning  him  :  and  AugustiTi,  in  the 
fifth  century,  was  requested  "  to  exert  his  ut- 
most efforts  in  refuting  those  who  falsely  as- 
serted, that  Christ  did  nothing  more  than  was 
done  by  other  men,  and  who  produced  their 
Apollonius,  and  Apuleius-,  and  other  masters 
of  the  magical  art,  whase  miracles  thev  main- 
tained to  have  been  greater  than  his."  (^l.^rcel!. 
Kp.  ad  Aug.  et  Aug.  Epist.  xlix.)  .  Apuleius^ 
appears  to  have  obtained,  in  his  travels,  much 
information  concerning  religious  m.ysfcrics  and 
the  secret  arts  of  priests  ;  but,  except  the  idle  re- 
port above-mentioned,  nothing  occurs  in  the 
memoirs  of  his  life  which  could  have  laid  a 
foundation  for  the  oj)inion,  circulated  after  his 
decease,  concerning  his  miraculous  powers. 
Perhaps  this  opinion  originated  in  an  absurd 
misapprehension  of  his  fable  ot  the  "  Golden 
Ass"  for  true  history.  'I'he  work  is  a  satirical 
romance,  in  which  a  Milesian  fable,  on  the  me- 
tamorphosis of  Lucius  into  an  ass,  invented  by- 
Lucius  of  Patras,.  and  abridged  from  him  by 
Lucian,  is  enlarged  and  embellished.  This 
work  was  published  witli  large  notes  by  Beral- 
dus,  in  folio,  at  Venice,  in  1504  ;  reprinted,  in 
folio,  at  Paris,  in  15 10,  and  in  8vo.  m  1536. 
The  loves  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,  which  form  a 


A  P  U 


(    336    ) 


A  Q  U 


beautiful  episode  of  this  work,  liave  been  re- 
peatedly translated  into  various  languages.  The 
Apology,  or  "  Oratio  dc  Magia,"  was  pub- 
lished separately  by  Casaubon,  in  410.  in  1594, 
and  in  8vo.  at  Leyden,  in  1608;  and  by  Pri- 
cseus,  with  excellent  notes  and  illustrations 
from  ancient  monuments,  in  4to.  at  Paris,  in 
1615.  In  philosophy  Apuleius  wrote  a  piece 
"  Dc  Hahitiidine  Doctrinarum  ct  Nativitate 
Platonis  Philosophi,"  in  three  books,  the  first 
of  which  treats  on  the  sjieculativc  doctrines  ot 
Plato,  the  second  on  his  morals,  and  the  third 
on  his  logic.  The  two  former  books  were 
printed,  together  with  the  "  Florida,"  in  4to. 
at  Strasburg,  in  1516;  the  third  in  1588.  I'lie 
"  Florida,  or  Declamations  and  Orations  of 
Apuleius,"  were  printed  in  4to.  at  Strasburg  and 
at  Paris  in  1518.  Apuleius  has  left,  besides,  an 
oration  "  De  Deo  i5(x-ratis,"  which  discusses 
the  question  concerning  his  daemon,  published 
separately,  with  the  notes  of  Mercer,  at  Paris, 
in  i2mo.  in  1624;  and,  a  Latin  translation  of 
Aristotle's  treatise  "  De  Mundo,"  published  in 
8vo.  at  Leyden,  in  1591.  The  first  edition  of 
the  works  of  Apuleius  was  printed,  in  folio,  at 
Rome,  under  the  care  of  cardinal  Bessarion,  in 
1469.  They  have  since  passed  through  various 
editions,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  that 
of  Henry  Stephens,  in  8vo.  in  1585  ;  that  of 
Elmenhorst,  in  8vo.  at  Frankfort,  in  162 1  ; 
that  of  Scriverius,  in  i2mo.  at  Leyden,  in 
1624  ;  a  "  Variorum"  edition,  in  8vo.  printed 
at  Gouda  in  Holland,  in  1650  ;  and  "  in  Usum 
Delphini,"  two  volumes  4to.  at  Paris,  in 
1688. 

Apuleius  appears  from  his  writings  to  have 
been  a  man  of  great  learning  and  ingenuity, 
and  to  have  possessed  a  lively  fancy  ;  but  iiis 
writings  rather  class  him  among  the  wits  than 
the  pliilosopiiers  of  his  age.  His  View  of  the 
Doctrine  of  Plato  is,  indeed,  a  work  of  grave 
■speculation  ;  but  the  rest  of  his  writings  are  too 
florid  and  oratorical,  too  gay  and  sportive,  and, 
in  many  pans,  too  loose  and  wanton,  to  com- 
port with  the  gravity  of  philosophy.  Though 
there  is  no  sufficientproof  thathe  was,  like  Apol- 
lonius  Tyanseus,  a  pretender  to  miracles,  and 
certainly  no  foundation  for  bringing  him  into 
comparison  with  Jesus  Christ;  it  seems  not  im- 
probable that  he  meant,  in  some  passages  of  his 
fable  of  the  Golden  Ass,  to  ridicule  the  Ciiris- 
tians  ;  and  bishop  Wai  burton  was,  perhaps, 
right  in  his  conjecture,  founded  upon  a  passage 
in  the  Apology,  that  yEmilianus,  who  prose- 
cuted Apuleius  for  magic,  was  a  Christian. 
There  seems,  however,  to  be  no  ground  for  the 
ingenious  supposition  of  that  learned  critic,  that 


the  design  of  the  fable  of  the  Golden  Ass  was, 
"  to  recommend  the  pagan  religion  as  the  only 
cure  for  all  vice  in  general."  (Div.  Leg.  book  iv. 
§  4.)  The  true  character  of  this  work  is  pro- 
bably that  which  is  given  by  Barthius  and 
adopted  by  Bayle,  "  tliat  it  is  a  perpetual  satire  on 
magical  delusions,  the  tricks  of  priests,  and  the 
crimes  of  adulterers,  thieves,  and  robbers,  com- 
mitted witli  impunity."  ^pule'tl  jipol.  Metam, 
ct  Florid.  Fabric.  Bill.  Lat.  lib.  iii.  c.  2. 
Bayle.  Lardncr^s  Heathen  Testimonies,  c.  xvi; 
xxxix.  —  E. 

AQUAVIVA,  Claude,  son  of  Andrew 
Aquaviva,  duke  of  Atri,  was  born  in  the  year 
1542.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  entered 
among  the  Jesuit;,  and  was  soon  advanced  to 
the  cliargc  of  the  province  of  Naples,  then  to 
that  of  Rome,  and,  in  1581,  to  the  office  of  ge- 
neral of  the  fraternity.  He  was  celebrated  for 
the  prudence  and  inildncss  of  his  government. 
He  drew  up  an  order  under  the  title  of"  Ratio 
Studiorum,'*  printed  in  8vo.  at  Rome  in  1586, 
which  was  suppressed  by  the  Inquisition,  and 
gave  offence  to  the  Jesuits  :  it  was  reprinted,  in 
a  mutilated  state,  in  1591.  This  ecclesiastic 
has  left  "  Letters,"  in  French ;  and,  in  Latin, 
"  Meditations  on  the  Psalms  ;"  and  a  treatise  on 
the  cure  of  mental  diseases,  entitled  "  Industria 
ad  curandos  Animae  Morbos,"  printed  in  i2mo. 
in  1606.      Adoreri.      Neuv.  Diet.  Hist.  —  E. 

AQUILA  OF  SiNOPE  in  Pontus,  called  by 
Jerom  a  Jew,  author  of  a  Greek  translation  of 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  flourished  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second  century,  under  the  emperor 
Adrian.  He  is  said  to  liavc  been  employed  by 
that  emperor  as  supcrintendant  of  the  public 
buildings,  and  to  have  been  appointed  to  rebuild 
the  city  of  Jerusalem,  which  Titus  had  destroy- 
ed, and  to  v\hich  Adrian  gave  the  new  name 
of  -^lia.  Here  Aquila  became  acquainted  with 
the  Christian  religion,  and  submitted  to  baptism. 
The  fondness  which  he  discovered  for  astrology 
gave  great  offence  to  the  Christians  ;  and  they 
expelled  him  from  their  communion.  Upon 
this  he  went  over  to  the  Jews,  and  became  a 
disciple  of  Akibha.  Having  learned  Hebrew, 
he  undertook  at  their  request  a  new  Greek  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament,  more  exactly  agi;ee- 
ing  v,ith  the  Hebrew  text  than  the  Septuagint. 
7'his  translation,  vihich  he  made  word  for  word 
with  scrupulous  accuracy  from  the  Hebrew  text, 
was  completed  about  the  year  129.  It  was  very 
acceptable  to  the  dispersed  Jews,'  and  was  read  in 
their  synagogues.  Some  of  the  Christian  fa- 
thers, as  well  as  later  writers,  have  accused 
Aquila  of  perverting  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew 
text,  in  his  interpretation,  in  order  to  render  it 


A  Q  U 


(    337     ) 


A  Q  U 


less  favourable  to  theCiiristians.  It  is  certainly 
a  very  equivocal  ])roof  of  tiiis  charge,  which  is 
adduced  by  Cave,  tliat,  in  interpreting  Isaiah 
ix.  8,  wlierc  the  Seventy  had  used  Koyo;,  Acjui- 
la  substituted  fy;(/.a.  It  is  more  probable,  on  the 
contrary,  that  this  version  was  universally  es- 
teemed accurate  and  faithful,  since  it  was  not 
only  adoptedby  the  Jews  in  their  synagogues,  and 
spoken  of  with  very  great  approbation  by  many 
Cliristian  writers,  but  was  frequently  referred 
to  by  the  Christian  fathers,  themselves  instead  of 
the  Hebrew  text,  (Euscb.  Dem.  Ev.  lib.  vii. 
c.  I.)  which  few  of  them  were  capable  of  read- 
ing. Aquila  issued  a  second  edition  of  his  ver- 
sion still  more  correct  than  the  former,  the 
public  use  of  which  has  been  supposed  to  be 
prohibited  in  Justinian's  novella  146,  under 
the  title  of  Sivrepujinv  ;  but  it  is  more  pro- 
bable that  this  refers  to  a  distinct  work,  which 
Aquila  had  framed  from  the  instructions  of  his 
master  Akibha,  containing  the  traditionary  in- 
stitutions of  the  Jews.  Of  Aquila's  version  on- 
ly a  few  fragments  remain.  Epiphan.  de  Pond. 
c.  xiv.  Huron.  Epist.  ad  Pammach.  ct  Ep.  ad 
J\farcell.  Origcn.  Rcspons.  ad  Afr'ic.  hen. 
Har.  lib.  iii.  c.  24.  Etiseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  v. 
c.  8.  Fabrie.  Bill.  Grac.  lib.  iii.  c.  12.  §  8. 
Cav.  Hist.  Lit.  vol.  i.  p.  54.  —  E. 

AQUILANO,  Serafino,  who  derived  his 
name  from  being  a  native  of  Aquila  in  Abruzzo, 
was  born  in  1406.  He  obtained  great  fame  as 
an  improvisatore,  or  extemporaneous  maker  of 
verses,  which  he  recited  with  enthusiasm,  and 
accompanied  with  the  strains  of  his  lute.  This 
faculty  caused  him  to  be  patronised  by  manv  Ita- 
lian princes,  who  successively  entertained  him 
at  their  courts,  and  treated  him  with  great  di- 
stinction ;  and  his  success  gave  rise  to  a  multitude 
of  imitators.  He  not  only  pleased  in  these  ex- 
hibitions, but  his  written  poems  gained  consi- 
derable applause.  A  collection  of  them  was 
published  at  Rome  in  1503,  consisting  of  son- 
uets,  eclogues,  epistles,  &:c.  Of  tliese,  the 
sonnets  arc  judged  to  have  the  most  merit,  and 
thev  have  by  some  been  preferred  even  to  those 
of  Petrarch ;  but  his  works  seem  at  present  to 
have  sunk  into  oblivion.  He  died  at  Rome  in 
1500.    Tnahoschi.  Paniaso  Italian,  t.  vi. — A. 

AQUINAS,  Thomas,  or  THOMAS  of 
Aquino,  a  telebrated  scholastic  divine,  de- 
scended of  an  illustrious  family  in  Campania, 
in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  was  born  in  the  year 
1224.  His  fatlttr  sent  him,  at  five  years  of 
age,  to  the  school  at  Mount  Cassino,  where  he 
acquired  the  rudiments  of  learning.  He  was 
early  removed  from  this  school  to  the  university 
at  Naples,  where  his  preceptor  m  the  languages 

VOL.   I. 


'  was  Martinus,  and,  in  dialectics,  Peter  Hibcrnus. 
When  he  was  only  seventeen  years  old,  his 
fondness  for  retirement  and  study  induced  him 
to  enter  himself,  without  the  consent  of  iiis  pa- 
rents, in  a  convent  of  Dominicans  at  Naples. 
His  mother  was  very  desirous  to  prevent  his  de- 
voiinghimselftoa  monastic  life,  and  emleavoured 
to  obtain  an  interview  with  him  ;  but  the  monks, 
who  wished  to  secure  so  honourable  an  addition 
to  their  fraternity,  and  who,  while  he  was  with 
them,  found  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  keep 
him  from  her  sight,  determined  to  send  him  out 
of  the  kingdom  to  Paris.  On  his  way,  as  he 
was  resting  himself  near  a  fountain,  he  was 
seised  by  his  two  brothers,  who  conveyed  him 
back,  and  shut  him  up  in  a  castle  belonging  to 
his  father,  where  he  remained  two  years.  In 
this  confinement  Acjuinas  devoted  himself  to 
study  ;  and  neither  entreaties,  nor  allurements, 
nor  threats,  could  prevail  upon  him  to  alter  his 
resolution.  At  last  he  found  means  to  let 
himself  down  through  a  window  of  his  pri- 
son by  night,  and  escaped  to  Naples.  In  the 
year  1244  he  was  conducted  by  John,  master  of 
the  Teutonic  order,  to  Paris.  After  a  short 
time  he  went  to  Cologne,  where  he  became  a 
student  under  Albert,  an  eminent  teacher,  of 
philosophy.  The  young  Dominican  having  by 
profound  study  acquired  a  habit  of  taciriirnity, 
his  companions  thought  him  stupid,  and  gave 
him  the  contemptuous  appellation  of  the  Dumb 
Ox  :  but  Albert,  who  perceived  his  pupil's  su- 
perior genius,  said  to  them,  "  This  ox,  when 

.  he  begins  to  bellow,  will  fill  the  whole  world 
with  his  roaring."  In  1246  Albert  visited  Pa- 
ris, and  was  accompanied  by  Aquinas,  who  re- 
mained as  a  student  in  that  university  till  1248. 
His  master  returning  to  Cologne,  Aquinas,  at 
the  age  of  twenty -four,  became  a  preceptor  in 
dialectics,  philosophy,  and  theology,  and  ac 
quired  high  reputation:  but  the  quarrels  between 
thtf  seculars  and  regulars  retarded  his  honours, 
so  that  he  did  not  obtain  the  degree  of  doctor  in 
divinity  till  the  year  1255.  Aquinas  was.  held  in 
high  estimation  by  princes  and  popes.  Louis  IX. 
of  France,  called  St.  Louis,  invited  him  to  his 
court,  and  to  his  table.  It  is  said  that  when  l:e 
was  one  day  dining  with  the  king,  his  thoughts 
being  busily  occupied  upon  the  objections  of  the 
new  Manichaeans  against  the  orthodox  faith,  he, 
after  a  long  silence,  suddenly  struck  the  table 
with  his  hand,  exclaiming,  "  That  is  a  decisive - 
answer  to  the  ManichiEans !"  A  prior  who  sat 
by  him,  reminding  him  where  he  was,  he  asked 
pardon  of  the  king  for  his  absence,  which  was 
readilv  granted  ;  and  a  secretary  was  called  in  to 
take  down  in  writing  the  important  argument. 
2  \ 


A  Q  U 


(     338     ) 


A  Q  U 


Aquinas,  upon  a  vi-;it  to  Rome,  was  in  the  clo- 
set of'iiopc  Innocent  IV.  when  an  officer  ot  his 
chancery  brought  in  a  bag  of  money,  procured 
by  the  sale  of  absolutions  and  indulgences. 
"  You  see,  voung  man,  (said  the  pope)  the  age 
of  the  church  is  past  in  which  she  said,  '  Silver 
and  gold  have  I  none;"  the  angelic  doctor  re- 
plied, "  'J'rue,  holy  father  :  but  the  age  is  also 
past  in  which  she  could  say  to  a  paralytic,  '  Rise 
tip  and  walk." 

In  1263  Aquinas  returned  into  Italy,  and 
was  appointed  rector  of  his  order  in  the  Roman 
province  ;  and  in  that  capacity  he  went,  in  the 
same  year,  to  a  general  assembly  held  at  Ly- 
ons. He  still  continued  to  distinguish  himself 
«s  a  public  preceptor  in  scholastic  theology,  and 
taught  in  several  of  tlie  principal  universities  ot 
•Italy.  Pope  Clement  IV.  offered  him  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Na|)les,  but  he  refused  to  take 
upon  him  so  weighty  a  charge.  At  a  general 
chapter  of  the  order,  held  at  Florence  in  1272, 
the  university  of  Paris  demanded  that  their  ad- 
mired teacher  should  be  sent  back  to  them  :  but 
Charles,  king  of  the  Sicilies,  detained  him,  and 
appointed  him  professor  of  theology  in  Naples, 
with  a  monthly  allowance  of  an  ounce  of  gold 
as  liis  pension.  A  general  council  being  sum- 
moned at  Lyons  in  1274,  under  ])ope  Gregory 
X.  for  the  purpose  of  uniting  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches,  Thomas  was  summoned  thi- 
ther, to  present  to  the  council  a  book  which 
he  had  written  by  order  of  pope  Urban  IV.  to 
refute  the  errors  of  the  Greek  church.  On  his 
way  through  Campania  he  was  seised  with  a 
violent  disorder  ;  and,  not  being  near  any  mo- 
nastery of  Dominicans,  he  stop])cd  at  an  abbey 
of  die  order  of  Citeaux,  at  Fossa  Nova,  in  the 
diocese  of  Terracina,  where  he  died  in  the  year 
1274.  After  his  decease  his  memory  was  load- 
ed with  honours.  Besides  the  appellation  of  The 
Angelic  Doctor,  which,  according  to  the  ridi- 
culous custom  of  the  times,  was  imiversally  given 
Jiim,  he  was  called  the  Angel  of  the  Schools,  the 
Eagle  of  Divines,  and  the  Fifth  Doctor  of  the 
Church.  The  Dominican  fraternity  removed 
his  body  to  Toulouse ;  pope  John  XXII.  ca- 
nonised him  ;  and  the  vulgar  believed  that  mira- 
cles were  wrought  at  his  tomb.  His  writings 
were  held  in  the  highest  estimation  ;  and  his 
naine  was  assumed  in  the  next  century  by  a  sect, 
who,  under  the  appellation  of  Thomists,  long 
occupied  the  field  of  controversy  with  the  Sco- 
tists,  followers  of  Duns  Scotus,  on  sundry  me- 
taphysical and  theological  questions. 

In  order  to  account  for  the  celebrity  which 
Thomas  Aquinas  obtained,  it  must  be  recol- 
hcted  that  he  lived  in  the  age  of  the  scholastics, 
jn  which  a   spirit  of  disputation  was  spread 


through  all  the  schools  of  Europe,  and  in  which 
the  merit  of  every  scholar  was  measured  by  his 
power  of  speculating  and  debating  on  abstruse 
questions  of  logic,  metaphysics,  and  theology. 
At  this  period  the  Aristotelian  |)hilosophy,  ob- 
scured by  passing  through  the  Arabian  channel, 
was  applied  with  wonderful  subtlety  to  the  ex- 
planation, or,  more  properly,  the  obscuration, 
of  points  of  Christian  theology  ;  and  Aquinas 
possessed,  in  a  sui prising  degree,  the  powers  of 
profound  investigation  and  subtle  reasoning. 
His  learning,  however,  seems  to  liave  been  al- 
most eritirely  confined  to  scholastic  divinity  and 
philosophy.  He  was  so  little  conversant  with 
liberal  studies,  that  he  was  not  even  able  to  read 
the  Greek  language,  and  was  obliged  to  rely 
upon  defective  l-atin  translations,  made  from  the 
Arabians,  for  his  acquaintance  with  the  w  ritings 
of  Aristotle.  Talents  and  industry,  which, 
more  judiciously  employed,  migiit  have  been  of 
great  benefit  to  the  world,  were  wasted  in  sub- 
tleties, which,  neither  tending  to  enlighten  the 
understanding  nor  improve  the  heart,  must 
be  pronounced  altogether  useless. ' 

The  writings  of  this  scholastic  are  exceed- 
ingly nimierous.  They  consist  of  commenta- 
I  ies  upon  the  works  of  Aristotle  ;  upon  the 
Books  ot  Sentences  of  Augustine  ;  and  upon 
various  parts  of  Scripture;  dissertations  on  va- 
rious questions  of  dogmatic  and  moral  theolo- 
gy ;  small  treatises  on  points  of  doctrine  or  dis- 
cipline, on  subjects  of  temporary  controversy, 
and  miscellaneous  matters ;  sermons,  and, 
"  Summa  Theologia:-"  [A  Summary  of  Theo- 
logy], which  is  his  principal  work,  and  which, 
when  it  appeared,  was  received  with  the  greatest 
applause,  and  afterwards  became  a  text-book  of 
high  authoiity  in  the  instruction  of  youth. 
The  second  section,  whicli  treats  of  mo- 
rals, may  be  read  with  particular  advantage. 
These  writings  have  been  published  in  seventeen 
volumes,  in  folio,  at  Venice  in  1490 ;  at  Nu- 
remberg in  1496;  at  Rome  in  1570 ;  at  ^''e- 
nice  in  1594;  and  at  Antwerp  in  1612.  The 
"  Summa  'Iheologia"  has  separately  passed 
through  various  editions  ;  Cologne,  1604  ;  Ant- 
werp, 1624;  Paris,  1638.  Neither  tlie  inattcr 
nor  the  style  of  the  arigelic  doctor  is  inuch 
suited  to  inodern  taste.  His  manner  of  think- 
ing and  writing  so  nearly  resembled  that  of  Au- 
gustine, that  the  soul  of  that  celebrated  Chris- 
tian father  was  said,  according  to  the  Pythago- 
rean doctrine  ot  mcti-mpsyc/iosis,  to  have  passed 
into  Thomas  Aquinas.  Dupin.  Cave,  Hut. 
Lit.  Bntckcr.  j\'Iorcii.  Notiv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 
AQUINO,  Philip,  a  learned  Jew  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  a  native  of  Avignon,  \vas 
converted  to  tlie  Christian  faith,  and  received 


r 


A  R  A  T  V  S ,  A  thmodortJiUus,  tt  x^st^^cttm  ^om^ew^olmnus .  disaj>ului,  ^  audi  tor 
C^monts. acMendemi  ^hilojo^horum ,  m matkmatici)  uno  Anjlothm .  Clawit  tempon  - 
hui(TwUmctet(Fhthd(Jj>hit'egs,^uando  yheocritus  qmq^  Syracusanm  "lucoluowm ^oetcO 
floruit .  Smhit  fatjnus  Jratijnter^rej . i^narum  Amtum  remm  mathematicarum.eiidoxi. 
atip  Sdp^archtjcrt^tajecmm.ad^hctenomenajmbenda  se  cormltfl^.  quod  cotifirmat  Cicero 
in  Uhrodt  oratore  mjcnhem.  Ccmtat  tntir io(ffoi  t^arum  JsUlonae  ormtwmts  atcpop-. 
timij  umtlus  Jratum  de  Cotlo.i^MlusmpuV.JpMuero  Arati ^hamomena .  tranffulit  la-- 
kw  umihuj  Cicero. i-po/ieum,^(rmanKUi  Caoar.aU^'^rmultiqutuul^  cinurnfmrttur ■  jtd 
aUa^lera(3  comfojutt  Jratuj .  quae  non  txtant.  Gmmemoramr atttm  ct  Sittda.  Ctuj  je^ulcnt 
fiwduxta  (Pompeiopohm  Ctciitae  ^me priw  SdiJSohne  k(hmr,  jcnhit  ^cmprmMe-. 
la.cuiuj  vtrha  sum  haec.  Juxta  Soloj  mfarm tumuto  JratJfottae  mommmtum .  ilco  refe ' 
rendum  .quia  i^otwn^uam  oh  caumm  laifa  ad  id  jaxa  diMtum. 


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liapti.sm  at  Aquino  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
wlience  he  ik-rivcil  his  name.  He  had  a  pen- 
sion allowed  hi'n  from  the  clergy  of  Franco. 
He  is  celebrated  for  his  skill  in  the  Hehrcw  lan- 
guage, which  one  of  his  contemporaries  com- 
mends as  so  rare  and  exquisite,  that  he  was  ne- 
ver consulted  on  this  suhject  in  vain.  Lc  Jay 
entrusted  him  with  the  care  of  jiriniing  and  cor- 
rectiiii;  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  texts  of  his 
Polyglot  ]5ih]e.  Aquino  was  the  author  of  se- 
veral works:  "  Dicrion-.irium  Hcbrxo-Chal- 
d:EO-T]ialmudico-Rahl)inicum,"  printed  in  fo- 
lio, at  Paris,  in  1629;  "The  Roots  of  riic 
Sacred  Language,"  l6mo.  Paris,  1620  ;  "  An 
Italian  Translation  of  Rabhi  Simeon's  Jewisli 
Apophthegms  ;"  "  An  Exposition  of  the  th'nieen 
"VVays  in  which  the  ancient  Rabbis  explain  the 
Pentateuch,"  printed  in  410.  at  Paris,  in  1620; 
«'  An  Interpretation  of  the  Tree  of  the  Cabala," 
in  8vo.  at  Paris,  1620 ;  "Literal,  Allegori- 
cal, and  Moral  Explications  of  the  Tabernacle, 
Vestments,  Sacrifices,  Camp,  Sec.  of  the  He- 
brews," printed  at  Paris,  in  4to.  1624.  An- 
tony Aquino,  first  physician  to  Louis  XIV. 
was  the  grandson  of  Philip  Aquino.  Bayle. 
Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  —  E. 

ARABSCHAH,a  Mahometan  writer  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Damascus, 
where  he  died  in  tiie  year  1460.  He  is  the  author 
of  a  history  of  Tamerlane,  entitled,  "The  v^on- 
derfid  Effects  of  the  Divine  Decrees  in  the  Af- 
fairs of  Tamerlane ;"  and  of  a  theological 
treatise  "  On  the  Unity  of  God."  D' Hcrbelot, 
Bib  I.   Or  tent.     Moreri.  —  E. 

ARANZIO(Arantius),  Jl'liusC.esar, 
an  eminent  physician,  surgeon,  and  anatomist, 
was  born  at  Bologna  in  t  520.  He  was  the  dis- 
ciple of  Vcsalius,  and  of  his  own  uncle  Bartho- 
lomew Maggi.  After  graduating  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Bologna,  he  became  professor  there  of 
the  practice  of  physic,  surgery,  and  anatomy, 
which  posts  he  occupied  with  great  distinction 
for  tliirty-two  years,  till  his  death  in  1589.  He 
published  "  De  Huniano  Fcctu  Opuscukim," 
Rome,  I  ^64  ;  several  times  reprinted  else  - 
where.  'J'liis  work,  though  small,  describes, 
with  greater  accuracy  than  had  before  been 
done,  the  various  parts  of  the  uterus,  and  parti- 
cularly its  vascular  structure,  together  with  that 
of  the  fcGtus,  all  which  he  examined  from  hu- 
man subjci  ts,  and  thcrebv  avoided  several  er- 
rors of  preceding  anatomists.  He  also  pub- 
lished, a  short  jime  before  his  death,  "  Obser- 
vationum  Anatomicarum  Liber,"  Venct.  1587, 
4to.  containing  many  valuable  remarks  which 
were  new  to  that  age.  He  was  acquainted  with 
tJic  lesser  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the 


lungs.  He  wrote  likcv.i^e  "  A  brief  Com- 
mentary on  Hijipocrates  upon  Wounds  ot  the 
Head  ;"  and  a  collection  of"  Consilia  ct  Epi- 
StoL-c  Medica?."  Vandcr  Linden.  HalleT,  Bibl. 
Anat.      Tiraboschi.  —  A. 

ARATL'S,  a  Greek  poet  and  astronomer,  ac- 
cording to  Sirabo  and  others  was  born  at  Soles, 
a  town  in  Cilicia,  but  according  to  Asclcpiades 
Mvleanus,  at  Tarsus.   He  attended  upon  Mene- 
crates  the  Ephtsian  grammarian,  and  upon  the 
philosophers Timon  and  Menedomus,  Dionysius 
Heracleotes,  and  Perst  us  the  stoic.  He  was  phy- 
sician to  Antigonus  Gonatus,  who  began    to 
reign  in  Macedonia  in  the  year  before  Christ 
278,  and  reigned  thirty-four  years.     He   was 
llie  author  of  various  works,  chietly  poetical, 
mentioned  by  Suidas  ;  but  the  only  piece  which 
he  has  transmitted  to  posterity  is  an  astronomi- 
cal heroic  poem,  in  Greek,  er.titlcd  "  Phseno- 
niena."     In  this  poem  Aratus  treats  of  the  na- 
ture and   motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  tlie 
figures  of  the  constellations,  their  rtlstive  situa- 
tions in  the  sphere,  their  rising  and  setting,  and 
the  fables  which  are  connected  with  their  names. 
When  Cicero  was   young,  he  translated  this 
poem    into    Latin    verse  ;    and   he    speaks    in 
terms  of  high   commendation  concerning  the 
verses,  but  adds,  that  the  author  himself  did  not 
understand  astronomy.    (Constat  inter  doctos, 
hominem  ignarum  astrologia;,  ornatissimis  at- 
que  optimis  versibus  Aratum  de  ccelo  et  stellis 
scripsisse.     De  Orat.  lib.  i.)      It   is   probable, 
from-Hipparcluis's  commentary  on  Aratus,  that 
the  poet  was  indebted  for  his  materials  to  the 
astronomer  Eudoxus.     In  conhrmation  of  this 
account,  it  has  been  remarked,  that  the  climate 
of  Aratus  did  not  agree  with  his  descriptions. 
Grotius  is  of  opinion,  that  Aratus  transferred 
into  his  poem  the  observations  of  various  astro- 
nomers in  different  climates,  and  for   want  of 
skill   in  astronomy    confounded    them.      The 
poem,  though  little   read  by  the  moderns,  had 
ccrtainlv  many  admirers  among  the  ancients  : 
it  has  had  numerous  commenfators ;  it  has  been 
copied  by  Virgil  in  his  Georgics  ;  and  a  quo- 
tation was  made  from  it  by  Paul,  the  apostle,  in 
his  address  to  the  Athenians.  The  words,  Tsyxp 
XXI  ysvo;  Ecrusv,  [for  we  aic  also  his  offspring], 
are    a    jiart    of  the  fifth  line   of   the    PhaMio- 
mena  of  Aratus  ;  and  other  passages,  to  which 
this  citation  has   been  rclcrrcd,  in  Cleanthes's 
Hymn  to  Jupiter,  Pythagoras's  Golden  ^'erses, 
and  Oppian's  Halieuiica,  though  they  agree  in 
sentiment,  vary  in  expression. 

liesidcs  Cicero's  translation  of  Aratus,  of 
which  we  have  only  a  few  fragments,  an  en- 
tire version  in  Latin  hexameters,  written  by 


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Cxwr  Germrinicus,  ansl  another  by  A\ii.nus, 
arc  extciiit.  In  later  times,  it  lias  been  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  i\Unus,  printed  in  4to.  at 
Paris,  in  1651  ;  and  in  410.  by  Grotius,  at 
I-evden,  in  1 600  ;  and  into  various  modern 
Lnigiiagcs.  A  collection  of  the  commentators 
on  Aratus,  Hipparehiis,  Achilles  -Tatius,  &:c. 
was  publislietl,  in  folio,  at  Florence,  in  1567  ; 
at  Paris,  in  1630;  and  at  Amsterdam,  in  1703. 
'i'lic  principal  editions  of  die  Greek  original  are, 
in  4to.  by  Morel),  at  Paris,  1559;  in  folio,  by  H. 
Stephens,- at  Paris,  in  1566;  in  8vo.  at  Oxford, 
bv  bishop  Fell,  n  1672  ;  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
with  the  ancient  versions,  &c.  at  Paris,  in  4to. 
1540 ;  at  Basil,  1649;  in  4to.  by  Grotius,  at 
Lcvden,  in  i6oo;  and  in  8vo.  by  Salvinns,  in 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian,  at  Florence,  in  1765. 
It  is  also  in  the  editions  of  the  ancient  astrono- 
mers. Fair.  Bibl.  Grac.  lib.  iii.  c.  18.  Hut- 
ion's  Math.  Diet. — E. 

AR.'\TUS,  of  Sicyon,  son  of  Clinias,  was 
born  about  B.  C.  273.  In  his  childhood  the 
government  of  Sic  von  was  in  a  very  disordered. 
state,  one  tvrant  after  another  gaining  the  su- 
premacy. Under  the  administration  of  Timo- 
clidas  and  Clinias,  two  of  tlie  most  respectable 
of  the  citizens,  it  had  begun  to  assume  a  more 
regular  form,  when,  on  the  death  of  the  former, 
one  Abanti'Jas,  raising  a  tumult,  killed  Clinias,' 
and  either  banished  or  massacred  his  relations 
and  friends.  He  caused  strict  search  to  be 
made  after  Aratus,  liis  son,  tlien  only  seven 
years  old  ;  but  the  boy,  escaping  in  the  confu- 
sion, and  wandering  forlorn  about  the  city,  en- 
tered unobserved  into  an  unknown  house,  which 
was  that  of  the  tyrant's  sister.  She  was  a  per- 
son of  generous  sentiments,  and,  besides,  con- 
ceived that  a  peculiar  providence  had  directed 
the  child  to  take  shelter  under  her  roof;  she 
concealed  him,  therefore,  till  night,  and  then 
sent  him  privately  to  his  friends  at  Argos. 

This  circumstance  seems  to  have  made  an 
indelible  impression  on  the  mind  of  young  Ara- 
tus, who  thenceforth  nourished  the  utmost  de- 
testation against  tyrants,  and  spent  all  his  life 
in  opposing  them.  He  was  liberally  educated 
by  his  relations  in  Argos,  and  distinguished 
himself  bv  his  strength  and  skill  in  athletic  ex- 
ercises. The  Sicvonian  exiles  regarded  him  as 
their  future  restorer,  and  he  had  scarcely  reach- 
ed his  twentieth  year  when  he  formed  a  plan  for 
taking  SkJ-on  from  Nicocles,  then  its  tvrant. 
This  he  executed  with  equal  art  and  boldness  ; 
and  having  scaled  the  walls  by  night,  made 
known  his  presence  at  day-break  by  the  voice 
of  a  IieraKl,  proclaiming,  that  "  Aratus,  the 
son  of  Clinias,  invited  the  citizens  to  resume 


their  ancient  liberty."  Tliey  joyfully  obeyed 
the  summons,  and  rushed  in  crowds  to  destroy 
the  iiouse  of  tlie  tyrant,  who  made  his  escape 
out  of  the  city.  Tliis  revolution  did  not 
cost  a  single  life,  for  Aratus  would  not  suffer 
the  regained  liberty  to  be  polluted  with  the 
slaughter  of  a  fellow-citizen.  The  exiles  were 
recalled,  and  Sicyon  began  to  resume  its  former 
splendor ;  but  difficulties  arose  both  without 
and  widiin.  Abroad,  Antigonus,  king  of  Ma- 
cedon,  the  friend  of  the  expelled  Nicocles,  me- 
ditated his  restoration  by  violence  ;  and  at  home, 
contentions  took  place  between  the  emigrants 
and  those  who  had  got  possession  of  their 
estates.  Aratus,  therefore,  found  it  expedient 
to  join  the  city  to  the  confederacy  called  the 
Achasan  league,  which  was  the  only  remaining 
support  of  freedom  in  Greece.  In  order  to  sa- 
tisfy the  opposite  claims  of  property  among  the 
citi/.ens,  he  took  a  hazardous  voyage  to  Pto- 
lemy, king  of  Egvpt,  for  whom  he  had  exe- 
cuted soir.e  commissions  for  pictures  bv  the 
Grecian  masters,  and  obtained  from  him  a  large 
sum,  by  the  proper  distribution  ot  which  be 
made  all  parties  easy.  He  was  vested  with  the 
supreme  constitutional  power  in  Sicyon,  which 
he  exercised  with  such  wisdom  and  modera- 
tion, as  to  make  himself  universally  beloved, 
and  to  establish  order  and  tranquillity.  After 
serving  for  some  time  in  the  cavalry  of  the 
Achaean  army,  he  was  made  pr^tor  or  general 
of  the  league.  One  of  his  most  splendid  suc- 
cesses in  this  station  was  recovering  the  citadel 
of  Corinth,  which  had  some  years  before  been 
surprised  by  Antigonus,  and  was  held  by  a  Ma- 
cedonian garrison.  The  manner  in  which 
Aratus  made  himself  master  of  this  strong  and 
almost  inaccessible  fortress  is  one  of  the  most 
admired  instances  of  ancient  military  stratagem. 
In  consequence  of  this  event  other  cities  were 
induced  to  join  the  confederacy  ;  but  it  cost 
Aratus  much  labour  and  contrivance  to  free 
Argos  from  its  tyrant  Aristippus;  which,  at 
length,  by  perseverance,  he  effected. 

Meantime  the  .^tolians,  becoming  jealous 
of  the  Achasans,  engaged  Clcomenes,  king  of 
S])arta,  in  hostilities  with  them  ;  and  such  was 
his  success,  that  Aratus  lost  much  credit,  and 
the  league  was  reduced  to  great  extremities. 
Parties  rose  even  in  Sicyon  and  in  Corinth,  and 
Aratus  was  compelled  to  use  severe  means  in 
suppressing  those  in  his  own  city,  and  was 
near  losing  his  life  in  attempting  the  same  in 
Corinth.  '  At  length,  contrary  to  his  inclina- 
tion and  principles,  he  laid  a  plan  for  engaging 
the  Ach.^aris  to  call  in  Antigonus  Doson,  king 
of  Macedon ;  though,  to  maintain  his  reputation. 


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he  advised  them  first  to  try  what  could  yet  be 
done  by  their  own  forces.  Further  bad  success 
made  the  Athaeans  gladlv  embrace  the  expe- 
dient of  inviting  Antigoniis,  who  entered  Pelo- 
ponnesus at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army, 
and  completely  turned  the  tide  of  affairs.  (See 
his  life.)  After  his  death  the  troubles  of  Greece 
were  renewed  by  the  .^Etolians,  who  made  an 
inroad  on  the  Messenians.  The  Achsans  took 
the  part  of  these  people,  and  Aratus,  at  the 
head  of  an  arniy,  inarched  against  the  invaders. 
The  ^tolians  agreed  to  retire  ;  but  Aratus, 
observing  them  laden  witli  plunder,  was  in- 
duced to  attack  them  at  a  disadvantage,  and  met 
with  a  complete  defeat.  For  his  conduct  on 
this  occasion  he  was  publicly  accused,  and  only 
escaped  a  censure  by  his  submission.  The 
Achseans  were  then  obliged  to  have  recourse  to 
Philip,  the  successor  of  Antigonus,  who  march- 
ed to  their  aid,  and  a  war  ensued  witii  various 
success.  In  the  course  of  it,  Philip,  who  at  hist 
had  a  great  veneration  for  Aratus,  and  followed 
l)is  counsels,  was  set  against  him  by  the  ill 
ofliccs  of  his  ministers,  and  the  difference  of 
(heir  characters  and  designs.  This  alienatioti 
proceeded  so  far,  that  after  peace  was  made, 
and  Aratus  had  retired  to  Sicyon,  Philip  (as  is 
said,  though  apparently  without  proof)  caused 
a  slow  poison  to  be  given  him,  which  brought 
Iiim  to  his  end  in  the  fifty-seventh  year  of  his 
age,  B.  C.  216.  Aratus  certainly  suspected 
bis  disease  to  be  caused  by  poison,  though  he 
bore  it  in  silence;  for,  happening  one  day  to 
spit  blood  in  the  presence  of  an  intimate  friend, 
who  expressed  his  concern,  "  Behold  (said  he) 
the  effect  of  friendship  with  kings!"  Aratus 
died  at  yEgium,  being  then  for  the  seventeenth 
time  pr^tor  of  the  Achxans.  'J'he  Sicyonians 
brought  his  body  in  triumjihant  procession  to 
their  city,  and  buried  hiin  in  the  most  conspi- 
cuous place,  which  long  after  bore  the  name  of 
tlie  ^rotium,  where  they  oflercd  two  annual  sa- 
crifices, one  on  his  birth-day,  the  other  on  that 
when  he  delivered  the  city  from  its  tyrants. 

Aratus  was  certainly  one  of  the  greatest  inen 
in  the  declining  days  of  Greece,  and  highly  de- 
serving of  the  esteem  and  gratitude  of  his  coun- 
trymen. It  is  to  be  lamented  that  the  calaini- 
tous  circumstances  of  the  times  obliged  him  to 
adopt  a  policy  inconsistent  with  his  jirineiples, 
and  which  sometimes  gave  his  conduct  the  ap- 
pearance of  unsteadiness  and  ambiguity.  As 
a  military  character,  he  was  more  successful  in 
stratagem  and  secret  enterprises,  than  in  the 
oj^en  fielil,  where  he  is  said  sometimes  to  have 
betrayed  timidity  and  incapacity.  He  was  more 
fiee  from  superstition  than  must  of  the  Greeks, 


and  acted  from  tlie  suggestions  of  his  reason, 
rather  than  from  omens  and  oracles.  His 
temper  was  calm  and  amiable,  and  his  manners 
virtuous. 

Aratus  was  a  historian,  and  wrote  "Commen- 
taries" of  his  own  actions,  and  the  alTairs  of  t!;c 
Aclisans.  Plutarch^s  Life  of  Aratus.  i.'niveit. 
Hist.— A. 

ARBOGASTES,  a  Frank  by  nation,  and  a 
soldier  of  fortune,  rose  by  Ills  merit  to  the  se- 
cond rank  in  the  army,  and  the  title  of  count, 
under  the  emperor  Gratian,  and  after  his  death 
engaged  in  the  service  of  Valcntinian  the 
younger  and  Theodosius.  By  the  latter  he 
was  sent  into  Gaul  to  oppose  Victor  the  son  of 
Maximus,  whom  he  defeated  and  killed.  The 
army,  with  which  he  had  ingratiated  himself  by 
his  liberality  and  valour,  then  raised  him,  with- 
out consulting  the  court,  to  the  post  of  general, 
in  which  he  acquitted  himself  with  moderation 
and  fidelity  till  the  departure  of  Theodosius  for 
Constantinople.  But  after  that  event,  he  begun 
to  aim  at  the  entire  management  of  the  state, 
and,  by  filling  every  post  with  his  creatures,  re- 
duced the  young  Valcntinian  to  the  condition  of 
a  mere  dependent  upon  his  will.  The  em- 
peror, perceiving  and  resenting  his  situation, 
resolved  to  discharge  him,  and  for  that  purpose 
presented  him  from  the  throne  with  a  paper  an- 
nouncing his  dismission.  The  haughty  count, 
after  reading  it,  coolly  told  him,  that  as  his  au- 
thority was  not  derived  from  him,  iPdid  not  de- 
pend upon  his  pleasure  ;  and  contemptuously 
threw  the  paper  on  the  ground.  Valcntinian, 
in  a  rage,  attempted  to  draw  the  sword  of  one 
of  the  guards,  but  was  prevented.  A\  ithin  a 
few  days  the  young  emperor  was  found  dead, 
and  little  doubt  could  be  entertained  of  the  au- 
thor of  the  fact,  tliough  Arbogastes  endeavoured 
to  make  it  believed  that  he  had  killed  himself. 
The  count,  not  choosing  to  assume  the  purple 
himself,  as  being  a  barbarian  by  origin,  set  up 
the  rhetorician  Eugcnius,  a  faithful  dependent, 
whom  he  had  raised  to  the  rank  of  master  of 
the  offiexs.  Theodosius  immediately  prepared 
for  war  against  the  usurper  :  but  it  was  not  till 
two  years  afterwards,  A.  U.  394,  that  he  en- 
tered Italy  with  his  army.  Arbogastes  waited 
for  him  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  and  exerted  all 
his  valour  and  skill  in  tlie  defence.  In  the  first 
conflict  he  was  victorious  ;  but  on  a  renewal 
of  the  battle  next  day  his  army  was  entirely  de- 
feated ;  to  which  event  a  sudden  storm  tiiat  blew 
in  his  men's  faces  greatly  contributed.  Alter 
discharging  every  duty  of  a  general  and  a  sol- 
dier, he  made  his  escape  to  the  mountains, 
where  he  wandered  some    days.     At    lenoth. 


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ilcspairing  of  being  aWc  to  evade  the  seavcli 
making  tor  liim,  he  put  an  end  to  his  life. 
L'/iil'i-rt.  Hist.      GibhoH. — A. 

ARBU THN'Or,   Alexander,  a  divine 
of  the  church  of  Scotland,  son  of  the  haron  of 
Arbiitlinot,  was  born  in  the  year  1538.  •  Hav- 
ing  siudicd  languages   and   |)liilosophy  in  the 
university  of  Aberdeen,  and  civil  law  under  the 
celebrated  Cujacius  at  Bourges  in  France,  he 
took   ecclesiastical    orders,    and    distinguished 
himself  as  a  zealous  supporter  of  the  reforma- 
tion.    In  several  gen'.-ral  assemblies  he  took  an 
active  and  leading  part.     At  the  general  assem- 
bly lieldat  Edin!>urghin  1568,  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  examine  a  work  which  li:id  given  oftcncc, 
cniitlcd  "'l"he  Fate  of  the  Roman  Church." 
The  censure  of  the  assembly  was  passed  upon 
the  book  for  an  assertion  which  it  contained, 
"  that  tlie  king  was  the  supreme  head  of  the 
church  ;"   and   it  was    ordered   that  no    book 
should  be  published  till  licensed  by  commission- 
ers appointed  by  tlie  assembly.     Thus  the  re- 
formed clergy,  who  owed  their  emancipation  to 
the  exercise  of  the  right  of  private  judgment  in 
matters  of  religion,  with    gross   inconsistency 
obstructed  the  progress  of  free  inquiry,  by  tak- 
ing  upon    themselves   the   regulation    of  the 
press.    In  1569  Arburhnot  was  appointed  prin- 
cipal of  the  king's  college  at  Aberdeen.     He 
>vas  a  member  of  tlie  general  assembly  held  at 
St.    Andrews   in    the  year    1572,  in  which  a 
.strenuous  deposition  was  made  to  a  scheme  of 
church   government,   called    "  The  Book  of 
Policy,"  which  was  invented  by  certain  states- 
men, to  restore  the  old  titles  in  the  cliurch,  and 
hereby,  to  retain  among  themselves  the  tempora- 
lities formerly  annexed  to  them.      In  the  gene- 
ral assemblies  held  at  Edinburgh  in   1573  and 
in    1577,  Arbuthnot    was  chosen   moderator; 
and   he  appears  to  have  been  constantly  em- 
ployed, on  the  pan  of  the  church  of  Scotland, 
in  the  commission  for  conducting  the  trouble- 
sorric  and  tedious  contest  with  the  regency  con- 
cerning the  plan  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  to 
be  adopted  in  the  church  of  Scotland.     Tlie 
part   which  Arbuthnot   took   in  these  affairs 
gave  offence  to  James  VI.  and  the  offence  was 
increased  by  the  publication  of  Buchanan's  His- 
tory  of  Scotland,    of  which   Arbuthnot   was 
the  editor.     It  was  therefore   resolved    to    re- 
strain him  by  an  oppressive  act  of  arbitrary 
power ;  and  a  royal  order  was  issued,  forbid- 
ding him  to  absent  himself  from  his  college  at 
Aberdeen.   The  clergy,  who  saw  that  the  de- 
sign of  this  order  was  to  deprive  them  of  the 
benefit  of  Arbuthnot's  services,  remonstratcl : 
the  king,  however,  remained    inflexible,   and 


tlie  clerciv  submitted.  This  ]>ersecution  pro- 
bably atfccicd  Arbuthnot's  health  and  spirits  ; 
for  the  next  vear,  1583,  he  fell  into  a  gradual 
decline,  and  died.  Arbuthnot  appears  to  have 
possessed  much  good  sense  and  moderation, 
and  to  have  been  well  qualified  for  public  busi- 
ness. His  knowledge  was  various  and  exten- 
sive ;  he  was  a  patron  of  learning  ;  and,  at  the 
same  time  that  he  was  active  in  promoting  the 
interests  of  the  reformed  cliurch,  he  contributed 
to  the  revival  of  a  taste  for  literature  in  Scot- 
land. The  only  literary  production  which  he 
has  left,  is  a  learned  and  elegant  Latin  work, 
entitled  "  Orationes  dc  Origine  et  Dignitatc 
Juris"  [Orations  on  the  Origin  and  Dignity  of 
the  Law]  :  it  was  printed,  in  410.  at  Edinburgh 
in  1572.  Spotswood,  Hist.  Scot.  b.  vi.  Cahler- 
-Mood's  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  p.  44, 
isle.  Pctrie's  Compend.  Hist,  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  p.  359,  tcz.  M' Kenxic' s  Lives  of 
Scots  fVriters,  vol.  iii.  p.  192.  Biogr,  Brit. 
— E. 

ARBUTHMOT,  John,  M.  D.  one  of  the 
constellation  of  wits  in  the  reign  of  queen  Anne, 
and  more  a  man  of  learning  than  any  of  them, 
was  the  son  of  an  episcopal  clergyman  in  Scot- 
land, and  was  born,  soon  after  the  restoration,  at 
Arbuthnot,  near  Montrose.  He  went  through 
a  course  of  academical  studies  at  Aberdeen, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  physic. 
Coming  to  London  to  seek  his  fortune,  he  en- 
gaged in  teaching  the  mathematics,  in  which 
science  he  was  very  well  grounded.  He  first 
became  known  to  the  learned  world  in  1697, 
by  a  work  entitled  "  An  Examination  of  Dr. 
Woodward's  Account  of  the  Deluge,  &c." 
■which  was  well  received;  and  in  1700  he 
greatly  added  to  his  reputation  by  an  excellent 
treatise  "  On  tlic  Usefulness  of  Mathematical 
Learning."  He  communicated  to  the  Royal 
Society  a  curious  paper,  "  On  the  Regularity 
of  the  Births  of  both  Sexes,"  showing  fron> 
authentic  documents  the  proportion  constantly- 
observed  by  nature  in  this  particular,  and  draw- 
ing judicious  inferences,  moral  and  political. 
Tills  occasioned  his  election  into  that  body  in 
1704.  Meantime  he  was  gradually  rising  to 
notice  in  his  proper  profession  ;  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  casual  attendance  on  prince  George- 
of  Denmark,  came  to  be  appointed  physician 
extraordinary,  and  afterwards  one  of  the  physi- 
cians in  ordinary,  to  queen  Anne.'  In  1710  he 
was  admitted  into  the  college  as  a  fellow. 
About  this  period  he  formed  an  intimate  con- 
nection with  the  literary  triumvirate,  Swift, 
Pope,  and  Gay,  which  continued  with  the 
greatest  mutual  kindness  and  esteem  during  the 


A  R  B 


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ARE 


rest  of  his  life.  He  engaged,  in  17 14,  with 
Pope  and  Swift,  in  an  extensive  de'^ign  ot  a  sa- 
tiie  on  the  abuses  of  learning  in  every  branch, 
to  be  written  in  the  grave  ironical  manner, 
under  the  form  of  a  history  of  the  adventures 
of  a  fictitious  character.  The  plan  was  never 
completed  ;  but  the  "  Memoirs  of  Martinus 
Scriblerus,"  published  in  Pope's  works,  is  a 
part  of  it;  and,  of  that,  mucli  is  the  performance 
of  Dr.  Aibuthnot,  particularly  what  relates  to 
anatomy,  logic,  and  the  manners  and  customs 
of  antiquity,  llie  whole  first  book,  indeed, 
was  probably  his  composition.  Tiie  real 
depth  of  knowledge  discovered  in  this  piece, 
with  the  genuine  wit  and  humour  with  which 
the  satire  is  directed,  render  it  one  of  the  most 
original  and  entertaining  productions  in  the 
English  language.  The  death  of  queen  Anne, 
equally  fatal  to  his  personal  views  and  his  po- 
litical wishes,  was  a  severe  stroke  upon  him  ; 
and  to  divert  his  melancholy  he  made  a  short 
visit  to  Paris.  On  his  return  he  quitted  St. 
James's,  where  his  medical  services  were  now 
no  longer  lequired,  and  followed  the  practice  of 
liis  profession  at  large,  without  relinquishing  his 
litciary  pursuits,  though  his  publications  were 
only  occasional,  and  with  long  intervals.  His 
principal  learned  work,  entitled  "  Tables  of 
ancient  Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures,  ex- 
plained and  exemplified  in  several  Disserta- 
tions," in  a  4to.  vol.  appeared  in  1727.  It  is  a 
work  of  great  value,  and  notwithstanding  some 
inaccuracies,  scarcely  avoidable  in  such  intri- 
cate subjects,  has  ever  since  been  considered  as 
standard  authority.  Two  professional  trea- 
tises, "  On  the  Nature  and  Choice  of  Ali- 
ments," published  in  1732,  and  "On  the  Ef- 
fects of  Air  on  Human  Bodies,"  in  1733,  finish 
the  list  of  his  serious  performances.  Both  these 
were  well  esteemed  by  the  faculty,  and  are  still 
■occasionally  read  and  quoted.  With  respect  to 
}iis  humorous  effusions,  which  were  frequculy 
■tiropping  from  his  pen  at  leisure  hours,  and  with 
little  premeditation,  they  are  so  blended  with 
those  of  his  confederates,  that  it  is  difEcult  to 
<listinguish  them.  But  the  "  History  of  John 
Bull,"  in  two  parts,  is  confidently  ascribed  to 
him  in  the  Biogr.  Brit,  and  that  alone  would 
raise  him  almost  to  the  summit  of  om-  list  of 
witty  writers.  Never  was  a  jiolitical  allegory 
managed  with  more  exquisite  humour,  or  skil- 
ful adaptation  of  characters  and  circumstances. 
"  A  Treatise  concerning  the  Altercation  or 
5colding  of  the  Ancients,"  and  the  "  Art  of 
political  Lying,"  arc  among  his  acknowledged 
pieces  ;  with  a  few  more  of  the  same  ironical 
cast.     Great  part  of  the  contents  of  two  small 


volumes,  entitled  "  The  Miscel'aneoiiS  Work? 
of  Dr.  Arbuthnot,"  publislied  in  1751,  is  de- 
nied, by  his  son,  to  be  of  his  composition.  Yet 
as  it  was  his  custom  to  write  in  a  large  folio 
book  which  lay  in  his  parlour,  upon  every  oc- 
currence that  struck  liim  in  a  comic  light,  it  is 
probable  that  many  slight  and  unfinished  essays 
might  get  abroad,  which  he  himself  had  almost 
forgotten.  A  good-humoured  vein  of  plea- 
santry runs  through  almost  all  his  pieces  of  this 
kind,  which  conhrnis  the  character  that  Swift 
gave  of  him  to  a  lady  who  desired  his  opinion 
respecting  Dr.  Arbuthnot  :  "  He  has  more  wit 
than  we  all  have,  and  his  humanity  is  equal  to 
his  wit."  That  they  are  strongly  tinged  with 
party,  cannot  be  denied  :  yet  they  are  generally 
free  from  the  gall  and  rancour  that  is  too  apt  to 
infect  jwrty  writings.  If,  however,  the  "  Me- 
morandums of  the  six  Days  preceding  the 
Death  of  a  late  Right  Reverend"  (ineaning 
bishop  Burnet)  be  his,  he  cannot,  in  that  in- 
stance, be  acquitted  of  suffering  his  personal 
dislike  to  get  the  better  of  his  humanity.  As 
to  his  very  bitter  "  Epitaph  on  Colonel  Char- 
tres,"  the  indignation  of  a  man  of  strict  virtue 
towards  a  character  overwhelmed  widi  infamy 
may  sufficiently  justify  its  severity,  though 
party  probably  aggravated  his  aversion  to  the 
man,  as  it  did  Pope's.  Arbuthnot  tried  his  pen 
in  verse,  though  without  any  proper  poetical 
•  talent.  A  piece  published  in  Dodsley's  collec- 
tion, entitled  TNaei  2;EATT0N  [Know  thy- 
self], is  valuable  for  its  pliilosojihical  sentiment. 
He  was  also  skilled  in  ijiusic  ;  and  an  anthem 
and  a  burlesque  song  of  his  composition  are 
mentioned  by  sir  J.  Hawkins. 

In  these  occu]5ations,  amid  the  endearments 
of  doincstic  life,  and  the  love  and  esteem  of  his 
friends,  he  passed  his  days,  bearing  with  cheer- 
fulness and  resignation  the  afflictions  from 
sickness  and  other  causes  that  fell  to  his  lot. 
Of  his  two  sons,  one  died  before  him  ;  the 
other,  with  some  daughters,  survived  him.  He 
seems  to  have  been  thoroughly  beloved  by  his 
great  literary  associates,  who  have  taken  care 
to  record  their  mutual  friendship.  Pope  dedi- 
cated to  him  an  epistle  called  "  A  Prologue  to 
the  Satires  i"  and  Swift  feelingly  laments,  in  one 
of  his  poems,  that  he  is 

"  Tar  from  his  kinil  .-\rbulIinot*s  aiil, 
Who  kuuws  liis  .ir(,  but  not  histratlc." 

He  fell  at  length  into  a  dj  opsical  disorder,  the 
sequel  to  an  inveterate  asthma,  for  relief  fVom 
which  he  retired  for  some  time  to  Hamj-stcad, 
but,  as  he  assurexl  his  friends  Pope  and  Sw  ift, 
without  ihc  least  hope  of  a  recovery.     His  sc- 


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ARC 


renitv,  supported  by  habitual  piety,  never  de- 
serted him  ;  and  these  qualities,  with  an  ardent 
love  of  virtue,  and  disdain  of  meanness  and 
vice,  are  beautifully  disjiiaycd  in  his  latest  let- 
ters. Returning  to  his  liouse  in  London,  he 
died,   February  27,   1734-5.      Biog.  Brit. — A. 

ARC,  Joan    of,  called  tlie   A/aid  of  Or- 
leans, one  of  the  most  extraordinary  heroines 
mentionetl  in  history,  was  the  daughter  ot  a  pea- 
sant named  James  d'Arc,  of  Domrcmi,  near 
Vaucouleurs  iu  Lorrain,  where  she  was  born 
about  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century.  S!ie  was 
jHit  to  service  at  a  small  inn,  in  wiiicii  she  was 
accustomed  to  tend  iiorscs,  lidc  them  to  water 
without  a  saddle,  and  perform  other  offices  more 
commonly  assigned  to  the  other  sex.     When 
she  was  of  the  age,  probably,  of  twenty-seven 
or  twenty-nine,  at  a  time  when  king  Cliarlcs 
'  VII.  was  reduced  to  the  lowest  condition  by  the 
English,  who  possessed  the  greatest  part  of  his 
kingdom,  Joan  fancied  that  she  saw  visions  in 
wliith  she  was  commanded  by  St.  Michael  to 
go  tu  the  relief  of  Orleans,  then  closely  pressed 
by   the  English,  and   afterwards  to  cause  the 
king  to  be  consecrated  at  Rheims.     She  was 
taken  by   her  parents,    in  February    1429,  to 
Baudricourt,   governor   of  Vaucouleurs,  who 
at  first  treated  her  pretended  inspiration  as  an 
idle  tale  ;  but  at  length,  moved  by  her  repeated 
and  urgent  solicitations,  he  sent  jier  to  the  king, 
then  at  Chinon.     Charles,  eitlier  in  earnest  or 
from  collusion,  proposed  to  try  her  by  introduc- 
ing her  before  a  large  company   in  which  he 
was   undistinguislicd  from   his  nobles   by  any 
marks  of  dignity  ;  and  it  is  affirmed  tliat  she 
immediately    recognised   him,    and    acquainted 
him  with  secrets  wliich  he  had  never  commu- 
nicated   to   any  one.     She  promised   boldly  to 
tullil  the  two  objects  of  her  mission,  and  de- 
manded to  be  armed  with  a  consecrated  swonl, 
kept  in  the  church  of  St.  Catharine  of  Fierbois, 
the  marks  of  which  she  described,  though  slie 
had  never  seen  it.     Her  manner  inspired  confi- 
dence :   she  was  committed  to  matrons  for  proof 
ofher  virginity,  and  to  the  doctors  oftlie  cliurch 
tor  inquiry  into  her  inspiration.     Their  report 
was  favourable  ;  but  tlie  parliament,  to  whoirt 
she  was  next  consigned,  treated  her  as  insane, 
and  asked  her  for  a  miracle.     She  replied  that 
she  had  none  then  to  exhibit,  but  that  she  soon 
would  perform  one  at  Orleans.     In  fine  she  was 
completely  armed,  mounted,  and  sent  to  join 
the  army  destined  to  the  relief  of  Orleans.    She 
here  displayed  a  consecrated  banner,  purged  the 
camp  of  licentiousness,  and,   by  her  whole  de- 
meanour, infused  into  the  soldiers  that  enthu- 
siasm wirfi  >vhich  she  herself  was  animated. 


She  entered  Orleans,  introduced  a  convoy,  at- 
tacked the  English  in  their  forts,  defeated  and 
dismayed  them,  and  raised  the  siege.  In  all 
these  actions  she  showed  an  heroic  courage,  and 
the  dignity  of  a  superior  mind.  Other  successes 
rapidly  followed,  and  the  panic-struck  English 
every  where  tied  from  a  foe  whom  a  short  time 
before  they  had  despised.  Joan  now  thought  it 
time  to  fulfil  her  other  promise  of  crowning  the 
king  at  Rheims  ;  and,  accompanied  by  iier,  he 
marched  without  opposition  across  the  king- 
dom, receiving  the  submission  of  the  towns  as 
he  passed.  Rheims  sent  him  its  keys,  and  ad" 
mitted  him  with  transport.  He  was  crowned 
and  anointed  with  the  holy  oil  of  Clovis,  the 
maid  standing  by  his  side  in  complete  armour, 
and  displaying  her  consecrated  banner.  Charles 
testified  his  gratitude  for  her  extraordinary  ser- 
vices, by  ennobling  her  family,  and  giving  it  the 
name  of  du  Lys  (probably  in  allusion  to  the  lilies 
of  her  banner),  with  a  suitable  estate  in  land.  Joan, 
now  that  the  two  objects  of  her  mission  were 
obtained,  proposed  to  retire ;  but  the  general, 
Dunois,  sensible  of  the  advantages  he  derived 
froiTi  the  idea  of  her  supernatural  commission, 
persuaded  her  to  remain  in  arms  till  the  English 
should  be  finally  expelled.  By  his  advice  she 
threw  herself  into  Compcigne,  then  besieged  by 
tlie  duke  of  Burgundy  and  the  English  ;  where, 
on  a  sally,  after  having  driven  the  enemy  from 
their  entrenchments,  she  was  deserted  by  her 
friends,  surrounded,  and  taken  prisoner.  The 
English  indulged  a  malignant  triumph  on  the 
capture  of  one  who  had  caused  such  a  reverse 
in  their  affairs,  and  resolved  to  show  her  no 
mercy.  The  regent  duke  of  Bedford  purchased  her 
from  the  captors,  and  instituted  a  criminal  pro- 
secution against  her  on  the  charges  of  sorcery, 
impiety,  and  magic.  The  clergy  in  his  interest, 
and  the  university  of  Paris,  joined  in  the  accusa- 
tion. She  was  brought  in  irons  before  an  eccle- 
siastical commission  at  Rouen,  where  a  number 
of  captious  interrogatories  were  put  to  her  dur- 
ing the  space  of  a  four  months'  trial,  to  which 
slie  replied  with  firmness  and  dignity.  Among 
other  questions,  it  was  asked  her  why  she  as- 
sisted with  her  standard  in  her  hand  at  the  coro- 
nation of  Charles.  "  Because  (she  nobly  re- 
plied) the  person  who  shared  in  the  danger  had 
a  right  to  share  in  the  glory."  Her  pretended 
visions  and  inspirations  were  the  most  dangerous 
points  of  the  attack,  and  the  weakest  of  her 
defence.  Urged  on  these  grounds  \vith  the 
crimes  of  heresy  and  iinpiety,  she  appealed  to 
the  pope,  but  her  appeal  was  disallowed.  At 
length  she  was  solemnly  condemned  as  a  sorce- 
ress and  blasphemer,  and  delivered  over  to  the 


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secular  arm.  Her  resolution  at  last  forsook 
her,  and  slie  tried  to  avcri  the  dreadful  pui^ish- 
ment  that  awaited  hci ,  by  an  open  recantation 
of  her  errois,  and  a  disavowal  ot  her  supposed 
revelations.  Her  sentence  was  tlicn  mitigated 
to  perpetual  imprisonment ;  but  the  barbarity 
of  her  enemies  was  not  satisfied  with  this  ven- 
geance. 'J'hey  insidiously  placed  in  her  apart- 
ment a  suit  of  man's  apparel  ;  and,  because, 
temptcil  by  the  view  of  a  dress  in  which  she  liad 
obtained  so  much  glory,  she  ventured  to  put  it 
on,  they  interpreted  the  action  as  a  relapse  into 
liercsy,  and  condemned  her  to  the  stake.  In 
June  143 1,  to  the  perpetual  shame  of  her  cruel 
and  unjust  prosecutors,  she  was  burned  in  the 
market-place  of  Rouen.  She  met  her  fate  with 
resolution,  and  the  English  themselves  beheld 
the  scene  with  tears.  Her  king  did  nothing  to 
avenge  her  cause.  He  was  contented  with  pro- 
cui  ing  a  revision  of  the  process,  and  a  restoration 
of  her  memory  by  the  pope  ten  years  afterwards. 
In  that  act  she  was  styled  a  "  martyr  to  her  re- 
ligion, her  country,  and  her  king."  The  en- 
thusiastic admiration  of  her  countrymen  did  not 
wait  for  such  a  slow  process.  They  propa- 
gated many  marvellous  tales  relative  to  her  exe- 
cution ;  and  a  party  would  not  suppose  her 
really  dead,  but  continually  expected  her  return 
to  lead  them,  as  before,  to  victory.  Posterity  has 
not  been  able  to  form  an  uniform  and  consistent 
judgment  respecting  this  personage  and  her  ac- 
tions. The  most  probable  supposition  seems  to 
be,  that  she  was  sincere  in  tlieidea  of  her  divine 
inspiration,  and  gave  herself  up  to  the  enthu- 
siasm of  a  heated  fancy,  and  that  this  circum- 
stance was  improved  by  some  of  the  leading  peo- 
ple in  the  interest  of  Charles,  with  the  addition 
of  so  much  artifice  as  was  necessary  to  produce 
a  full  effect  on  the  passions  of  the  public.  It  is 
not  doubted,  that,  in  fact,  tlie  appearance  of  the 
Maid  of  Orleans  gave  a  decisive  turn  to  the  con- 
test between  the  French  and  English. 

This  heroine  has  been  the  subject  of  various 
works  in  prose  and  verse.  Of  the  latter,  the  se- 
rious poem  of  Chapclain  has  had  much  less  suc- 
cess than  the  b.urlesque  and  very  licentious  one 
of  Voltaire — .a  real  injury  to  her  memory, 
wliich  has  been  in  some  degree  repaired  in  Eng- 
land by  Southey's  sublime  and  spirited  poem  of 
"  Joan  of  Arc,"  representing  her  in  the  brightest 
colours  of  virtue  and  heroism.  Aforcri.  Nouv. 
Diet.  Hiit.     Hume's  Hist,  of  Engl. — A. 

ARCADIUS,  emperor  of  the  east,  eldest 
son  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  was  born,  A.  D. 
377,  in  Spain,  his  father  being  then  a  private 
person.  At  the  early  age  of  six  he  was  invest- 
ed with  the  purple  by  his  father  ;  and  he  received 

VOL.  I. 


his  education  in  the  palace  of  Constantinopl':. 
Theodosius,  at  his  decease  in  395,  divided  the 
empire  between  his  two  sons  Arcadiusand  Hono- 
rius  ;  allotting  to  the  former  Thrace,  Asia  Mi- 
nor, Syria,  and  Egypt,  with  Dacia,  Macedonia, 
and  half  of  lllyricum.  Arcadius  possessed  none 
of  the  qualities  which  could  enable  him  to  rule 
such  an  extensive  dominion.  He  first  fell  into 
the  hands  of  bis  father's  unworthy  favourite 
Rnfinus,  who  governed  him  and  tlie  empire 
with  absolute  sway,  and,  not  contented  with 
secondary  authority,  aspired  to  the  sovereignty 
itself.  Rufinus  had  planned  a  marriage  be- 
tween the  emperor  and  his  daughter ;  but  he 
was  supplanted  by  the  artifices  of  the  eunuch 
Eutropius,  who  engaged  the  affections  of  Ar- 
cadius to  Eudoxia,  daughter  of  Bauta,  a  gene- 
ral of  the  Franks;  and  tlic  nuptials  took  place 
in  tlie  first  year  of  his  reign.  Rufinus  was 
soon  after  ojienly  inurdered  by  the  army  under 
the  command  of  Gainas  the  Goth,  in  the  pre- 
sence of  the  emperor.  Eutropius,  who  appears 
to  have  been  a  worse  man  than  Rufinus  himself, 
succeeded  to  the  ministerial  power,  and  removed 
from  the  view  of  Arcadius,  by  fraud  or  vio- 
lence, all  in  whom  he  seemed  to  place  any  con- 
fidence. He  fomented  discord  between  the  two 
im])erial  brothers,  and  persuaded  Gildo  to  trans- 
fer tlie  allegiance  of  Africa  from  Honorius  to 
Arcadius.  For  his  security  he  caused  the  em- 
peror to  pass  a  most  unjust  and  cruel  law  of 
treason,  by  which  the  crime  was  extended  to 
all  practices  against  the  ministers  and  officers  of 
the  sovereign,  and  its  punishment  was  made  to 
involve  t!ie  ruin  of  descendents.  The  rebellion 
of  Tribigild,  the  Ostrogotli,  however,  even- 
tually overtlirew  the  power  of  tliis  domineering 
eunuch  ;  towards  whose  fall  the  empress  Eu- 
doxia contributed  all  Iier  influence,  and  whom 
she  succeeded  in  an  abscdute  rule  over  the  feeble 
Arcadius.  She  procured  herself  to  be  distin- 
guished by  the  title  of  Augusta,  and  to  have 
her  image  borne  through  ail  tlie  provinces  of 
the  empire,  and  treated  with  all  the  honours 
bestowed  on  that  of  the  emperor  itself — for 
this  species  of  idolatry  had  been  spared  by 
Christianity  after  it  had  subverted  every  other. 
During  these  court  changes,  Gainas  tlie  Goth 
had  reduced  the  emperor  to  comply  with  very 
ignominious  demands,  and  had  atterwards  open- 
ly revolted,  but  was  finally  defeated  and  killed. 
Disturbances  rose  at  Constantinople  in  conse- 
ijuence  of  Eudoxia's  persecution  of  the  venera- 
ble Chrysostom,  who  had  too  freely  exposed 
the  vicesof  the  court  and  of  the  empress  her- 
selt".  He  was  at  length  bnnished,  and  died  in 
exile :  but  £udo.\ia,  in  the  bloom  of  \  outh,  waoi 
2  Y 


ARC 


(     346     ) 


ARC 


cut  o(r  before  liim.  Arcadius  lived  a  few  years 
longer,  an  insensihle  spectator  of  the  calamities 
which  were  gathering  round  the  eastern  empire. 
At  length,  in  Ills  thirty-first  year,  after  a  nomi- 
nal possession  of  the  throne  between  thirteen 
and  fourteen  years,  he  died,  A.  D.  408.  He 
left  one  son,  T heodosius,  in  the  eighth  year  of 
his  age  ;  and  four  daughters.  A  very  improba- 
ble talc  is  related  by  Procopius  alone,  of  his  ap- 
pointing Jesgederd,'  king  of  Persia,  guardian  to 
the  voung  prince.  "  It  is  impossible  (says  Mr. 
Gibbon)  to  delineate  the  character  of  Arcadius  ; 
since,  in  a  period  very  copiously  furnished  witli 
historical  materials,  it  has  not  been  possible  to 
remark  one  action  that  properly  belongs  to  the 
son  of  the  great  Theodosius."  Univers.  Hist. 
Gibbon.  —  A. 

ARCESILAUS,  or  Arcf.cilas,  a  Greek 
philosopher,  the  founder  of  the  middle  academy, 
was  born  at  Pitane  in  yEolia,  in  the  fourth 
vear  of  the  134th  Olympiad,  or  316  years  be- 
fore Christ.  I  lis  first  preceptor  was  his  coun- 
tryman Autolycus  the  mathematician,  whom 
he  followed  to  Sardis.  He  afterwards  went  to 
Athens,  where  he  studied  music  under  Xan- 
thus,  geometry  under  Hipponicus,  and  philoso- 
phy first  under  Thcophvastus,  and  afterwards 
under  Polemon  and  Grantor :  he  formed  an  in- 
timate friendship  with  the  latter.  Poetry  was 
his  favourite  amusement,  and  he  took  so  much 
delight  in  Homer,  that  it  was  his  practice,  every 
night  before  he  went  to  sleep,  to  read  a  por- 
tion of  his  works.  His  studies,  however,  were 
chiefly  devoted  to  philosophy.  After  the  death 
of  Ci-ates,  Arcesilaus  took  the  charge  of  the 
Academy,  and  introduced  innovations,  which 
gave  rise  to  a  new  school,  called,  in  reference 
to  the  school  of  Plato,  tlie  Second  Academy, 
and,  with  respect  to  a  subsequent  innovation 
by  Carneades,  the  Middle  Academy. 

'  The  school  of  Arcesilaus  was  founded  upon 
the  principle  of  the  uncertainty  of  knowledge, 
and  \\  as  instituted  in  opposition  to  the  Dogma- 
tists, particularly  the  S;oics,  who  taught  with 
great  confidence  a  system  different  tnnn  tiiat  of 
Plato.  Arcesilaus  was  jealous  of  the  rising 
fame  of  Zeno,  his  fellow-discipic  under  Pole- 
mon, and  employed  great  ingenuity  and  elo- 
quence in  controverting  the  axioms  and  reiison- 
ings  of  his  school.  He  did  not  choose  to  avow, 
in  its  full  extent,  the  dt)ctrine  of  universal  scep- 
ticism, as  taught  by  Pyrrho,  at  this  time,  in  his 
new  school  ;  but,  under  the  sanction  ot  So- 
crates, who  had  confessed  that  the  only  thing 
which  he  knew  was  that  he  knew  nothing,  and 
of  Plato,  who  had  taught  that  no  certain  know- 
ledgccan  be  obtained  from  the  varying  forms  of 


physical  bodies,  he  taught,  that,  although  there 
may  be  a  real  certainty  in  the  nature  of  things, 
every  thing  is  uncertain  to  the  human  under- 
standing. He  taught  his  disciples  not  to  assert 
their  own  opinions,  but  to  controvert  those  of 
others  ;  lie  suspended  his  own  judgment  in  every 
thing,  and  disputed  only  to  convince  himself 
that  opposite  opinions  may  be  supported  by  ar- 
guments of  equal  weight.  "  Arcesilaus  (says 
Cicero)  denied  that  any  thing  could  be  known, 
even  that  which  Socrates  had  excepted.  Thus 
the  philosophers  of  his  school  were  of  opinion, 
that  every  thing  lay  concealed,  and  that  no- 
thing could  be  perceived,  or  understood  ;  and 
lience  they  inferred,  that  no  one  ouglit  to  affirm 
or  assert  any  thing,  but,  by  suspending  tlieir  de- 
cision, always  to  avoid  the  discredit  of  giving  a 
rash  judgment,  and  assenting  to  propositions 
which  are  either  false  or  unknown;  nothing 
being  more  disgraceful,  than  to  suffer  assent  to 
precede  knowledge  and  perception."  (Cic. 
Acad.  Qiinest.  lib.  i.  c.  12.)  Arcesilaus  main- 
tained, that  truth  has  no  certain  characters,  by 
which  it  may  be  distinguished  from  error  ;  and, 
on  this  point,  according  to  Cicero,  turned  the 
dispute  between  the  Academics  and  the  Dog- 
matists,   (lb.  c,  24.) 

The  school  of  Arcesilaus  appears  to  have 
been  a  field  of  unprofitable  contcniion.  The 
master,  who  possessed  great  skill  in  disputa- 
tion, and  captivating  powers  of  address,  per- 
mitted iiis  disciples  and  hearers  to  propound  and 
maintain  their  opinions :  he  then  refuted  theni 
with  so  much  subtlety  of  argument,  and  such 
persuasive  eloquence,  that  his  antagonist  was 
overcome,  and  the  audience  w  ere  astonished  ; 
(Numcnius,  aptid  Eustb.  Prajp.  Ev.  lib.  xiv. 
c.  6.)  and  the  point  in  dispute  seemed  deter- 
mined, till  the  same  ingenuity  was  employed  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  question.  Arcesilaus 
has  been  compared  to  Tiberiiis  Gracchus,  as  a 
disturber  of  the  peace,  who  endeavoured  to 
overturn  the  established  philosophy  ;  but  he  had 
not,  like  that  political  reformer,  the  merit  of  at- 
tempting the  correction  of  abuses  and  errors, 
for  he  brought  the  world  of  science  into  a  worse 
state  of  confusion  than  he  found  it.  (Cic.  Acad. 
Quaest.  lib.  iv.  c.  5 — 12.  De  Fin.  lib.  ii. 
c.  I.  lib.  v.  c.  31.) 

The  sceptical  doctrine  of  Arcesilaus  seems 
necessarily  to  destroy  the  foundations  of  viraie, 
and  to  introduce  uncertainty  and  inditTcrence 
with  respect  to  the  obligations  of  morality.  Ac- 
cordingly, one  of  the  adversarie;  of  this  jjhiloso 
pher  reproaciied  liim  with  living  according  to 
his  principles.  Cleanthes,  who  was  present, 
though  a  stoic,  took  his  part,  and  said,  "You 


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(     347     ) 


ARC 


blame  him  v\  ichout  reason  ;  fcr,  though  he  de- 
stroys morals  by  his  doctrine,  he  establishes  them 
by  his  conduct."     "  You  flatter,"  said  Arcesi- 
laus.     "  Is  it  then  flattery    (rcpli'.d  Clcantlics) 
to  assert,  that  you  say  one  tiling  and  do  ano- 
ther?" 'i'he  repartee  was  smart,  and  tlic  vindi- 
cation urbane  and  candid  ;  but  it  is  not  justified 
by  the  hi'itory  of  his  life.     Diogenes  Laertius 
relates,  that  he  was  addicted  to  the  grossest  in- 
tempcrance  and  most  shameful  lewdness,   and 
merited  the  cliaracter  of  a  corrupter  of  youth. 
He  frequently,  on  public  festivals,  visited  Hie- 
rocles,  tiic  governor  of  IMunychia  and  the  Pi- 
raeus,  and  indulged  himself  in  great  excesses. 
His  death,  at  the  age  of  seventy-five,  was  tlic 
effect  of  a   deliiium   occasioned    by   excessive 
drinking.     It  must,  however,  injustice  to  his 
character,  be  added,  that  he  gave  freqMcnt  proofs 
of  a  generous  and  liberal  spirit.     He  frequently 
advised  his  disciples  to  visit  the  schools  of  other 
masters.     One  of  his  pupils  having  expressed  a 
wish  to  become  the  disciple  of  another  master, 
Hieronymiis,  a  peripatetic  philosopher,  Arcesi- 
laus  conducted  him  to  his   school,   and  recom- 
mended him  to  his  attention.     He  expelled   a 
pupil  from   his  school  for  affronting  Cleanthes 
in  a  verse  of  a  comedy,  and  would  not  restore 
him  till  he  had  made  a  satisfactory  acknowledg- 
ment to  the  person  whom  he  had  offended:  an 
action  tlie  more  meritorious,  as  Cleanthes  was 
the  successor  of  Zeno,  the  professed  adversary 
of  Arcesilaus.  Having  lent  some  silver  vessels  to 
a  friend  for  an  entertainment,   when  he  found 
that  he  was   poor,   he  refused  to  receive  them 
back.     Visiting  a  sick   friend,  who  was  in  ex- 
treme poverty,  lie  secretly  conveyed  a  purse  of 
money  under  his  pillow  :   wh^n  the  att-jndant 
discovered  it,  the  sick  man  said  with  a  smile, 
"  This  is  one  of  the  generous  frauds  of  Arcesi- 
laus."     (Senec.  de  Benef.  lib.  ii.  c.  lO.)      No 
writings  of  tliis  philosopher  remain  ;  and  it  is  a 
dispute  not   worth   deciding,   whether   he  ever 
published    any    thing       He    received    honours 
during  his  life,  and  the  Athenians  paid  respect  to 
his  memory  by  a  magnificent  funeral :    his  doc- 
trine has  been  inveighed  against  with  great  ve- 
hemence by  two  Chiistian   fathers,   Numenius 
and  Lactantius.      Diogenes  La'crt.      Plutarch, 
adv.   Colot.  ct  DisLilm.  Adul.     Emcb.    Piiep. 
Ev.  lib.  xiv.  c.  9.     Lactant.  Inst.  lib.  iii.  c.  4. 
Suidas.     Bttylc.     Sianliy.     Bi  ticker.  —  E. 

ARCllELAUS,  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  by 
his  \\  ite  Martace,  was  declared  successor  to  that 
king  by  his  will,  B.  C.  3,  subject  to  the  confir- 
mation of  Augustus.  Immediately  after  liis  ac- 
cession a  tumult  arose,  which  was  not  suppressed 
without  the  death  of  three  tliousand  of  the  mu- 


tineers, and  the  interruption  of  llie  paschal  so- 
lemnity of  that  year.  Archelaus  proceeded  to 
P.onie,  where  he  met  with  a  competitor  in  An- 
tipas,  another  of  Herod's  sons.  Each  pleaded 
his  cause  before  the  emperor  ;  and  a  deputation 
of  the  Jews  requested  that  they  might  live  under 
the  Roman  government  without  any  king  :  but 
Archelaus,  by  his  profound  hiimilitv,  obtained 
the  sovereignty  of  half  of  Herod's  kingdom, 
vi?..  Jud^a  Proper,  Iduinjea,  and  Samaria,  with 
the  title  of  Ethnarcli.  On  his  return  to  Jerusa- 
lem he  deposed  Joazar  from  the  high  priest- 
hood, and,  soon  after,  his  successor  Eleazar. 
He  offended  the  Mosaic  law  by  repudiating  his 
wife  Mariamne,  and  marrying  Glaphvra,  his 
brother  Alexander's  widow,  notwithstanding 
she  had  several  children.  In  other  respects  al- 
so, his  reign  was  tyrannical  ;  so  that  he  was 
sent  for  to  Rome  to  answer  to  charges  trans- 
mitted against  him,  and  was  condemned  by  Au- 
gustus to  banishment  and  confiscation  of  his 
goods,  and  Judaa  was  reduced  to  a  province. 
This  took  place,  A.  D.  6.  Archelaus  died  in 
exile  at  Vienna  in  Gaul.      Un'ivers.  Hiit. — A. 

ARCHELAUS,  kingof  Maccdon,  was  one 
of  those  princes  who  wore  witli  glory  a  crown 
obtained  and  preserved  by  villany.  He  was  na- 
tural son  of  Perdiccas  II.  and  succeeded  him  by 
supplanting  Alcetas  the  brother  of  that  king, 
whom  he  afterwards  caused  to  be  assassinated, 
together  with  his  son.  He  is  likewise  said  to 
have  pushed  into  a  well  his  youni;  brother,  the 
legitimate  son  of  Perdiccas  and  Cleopatra,  and 
to  have  told  his  mother  that  he  fell  in  by  acci- 
dent. Having  secured  himself  on  tho  throne, 
he  applied  with  vigour  to  the  rendering  Alace- 
don  formidable,  by  fortifying  its  towns,  col- 
lecting magazines,  keeping  a  well-disciplined 
army,  and  fitting  out  armed  ships,  a  new  spe- 
cies of  force  to  tliat  kingdom.  He  was,  more- 
over, a  great  patron  of  aits  and  learning,  and 
his  court  was  frequented  by  some  of  tlte  most 
celebrated  men  in  Greece.  He  caused  his  pa- 
lace to  be  painted  by  Zeuxis.  Euripides  lived 
in  honour  witli  him ;  and,  in  a  state  of  free- 
dom iniusual  in  connection  with  a  monarch,  if 
it  be  true,  that,  on  being  re<]uestcd  by  Arche- 
laus to  write  a  tragedy  on  some  subject  relative 
to  him,  the  poet  excused  himself,  that  he  might 
not  have  to  represent  the  cruelties  of  a  tyrant. 
Socrates,  however,  on  being  invited  to  pay  a 
visit  to  his  court,  refused  to  give  him  that  tes- 
timony of  respect.  Archelaus  instituted  sacri- 
fices and  scenic  games  in  honour  of  Jupiter  aivl 
the  Muses.  Each  Muse  had  a  day  ilevoteil  to 
her.  He  also  sent  chariots  to  the  Pyi'iian  and 
Olympic  races.     Though  historians  agree  that 


ARC 


(    34S    ) 


ARC 


Archelaus  died  a  violent  death,  they  ditTcr  as  to 
the  cause,  and  to  the  kngtli  of  his  reign.  It 
seems  most  probable  that  the  conspiracy  against 
him  was  planned  by  one  Craterus,  who  had 
been  his  minion,  in  revenge  of  an  aftVont.  The 
duration  of  his  reign  is  estimated  by  ditl'erent 
writers  at  twenty-four,  sixteen,  fourteen,  and 
seven  years.  The  aiitliors  of  the  Univcrs.  Hist. 
prefer  fourteen  years  ;  and  Baylc,  seven,  who 
places  Ivis  death,  B.  C.  399.  —  A. 

ARCHELAUS,  a  Greek  philosopher,  a 
disciple  of  Anaxagoras,  was,  according  to  some 
writers,  a  native  of  Miletus,  according  to  others, 
of  Athens.  Having  attended  Anaxagoras  at 
Lampsacus,  he  occupied  the  chair  of  that  phi- 
losopher after  his  death,  and  was  the  last  teacher 
in  that  school.  He  afterwards  went  to  Athens, 
and  taught  philosophy  :  he  was  therefore,  as 
Diogenes  Laerriiis  asserts,  the  person  who  re- 
moved the  school  of  Thales  from  Ionia  to 
Athens  ;  and  Clemens  Alexandrinus  was  mis- 
taken in  asserting  (Stromat.  lib.  ii.)  that  this 
vas  done  by  Anaxagoras  ;  perhaps  Clemens 
Alexandrinus  mav  be  understood  to  mean,  that 
Anaxagoras  was  the  first  person  of  the  sect  of 
Ionia  who  taught  at  Athens.  Archclaus  ac- 
quired high  reputation  at  Athens,  and  had  many 
scholars,  among  whom  is  reckoned  Socrates. 

Archelaus  made  but  little  alteration  in  the 
doctrine  of  his  master.  He  probably  held,  with 
him,  that  similar  parts  were  the  material  princi- 
ples of  all  things,  and  that  a  superintendent 
mind,  by  collecting  and  uniting  these,  formed 
natural  bodies.  (August.  deCivit.  Dei,  lib.  viii. 
c.  2.)  He  taught  that  the  universe  is  infinite  ; 
that  heat  and  cold  are  the  immediate  causes  of 
production,  and  that  animals  were  produced 
from  the  earth,  which  was  at  first  a  muddy 
mass.  Like  his  predecessors,  he  chiefly  applied 
his  attention  to  physical  questions  concerning 
the  origin  and  nature  of  things,  but  he  also 
taught  some  doctrines  on  moral  subjects.  His 
fundamental  principle  in  ethics  was,  that  the 
distinction  between  right  and  wrong  is  not 
founded  in  nature,  but  in  positive  institution  ; 
and  conscquentlv,  that  all  actions  are  indiffe- 
rent, till  human  laws  declare  them  to  be  good  or 
evil.  A  principle  so  destructive  of  all  moral 
obligation  could  obtain  little  credit :  it  soon 
yielded  to  the  purer  and  wiser  doctrine  of  So- 
crates. D'log.  La'ert.  Plut.  de  Placit.  Phil. 
Boyle.   Biucker.   Stanley. — E. 

ARCHELAUS,  a  Christian  divine,  bishop 
of  Mesopotamia,  flourished  under  Probus,  about 
the  year  278.  He  was  a  zealous  champion 
for  the  catholic  faith  against  the  Manichsans. 
Jerom  speaks  of  a  work  written  by  hira  in  the 


Syriac  language,  which  related  "  A  Confe- 
rence or  Dispute  which  he  held  with  Mani  at  his 
coming  out  of  Persia."  This  work  was  tiuns- 
la ted  from  Syriac  into  Greek,  and  thence  into 
Latin.  The  Latin  translation  remains  ;  but  it 
is  uncertain  at  what  time  it  was  made,  and  it  is 
thought  not  to  be  complete.  The  work,  as  it 
comes  down  to  us,  contains  two  disputes  ;  one 
held  at  Casuhar,  or  Carchar,  a  city  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, with  Mani ;  the  other  with  one  of  his 
disciples,  the  presbyter  of  Diodoris,  a  small 
town  in  the  same  country  :  it  also  contains  an 
account  of  the  life  and  death  of  Mani,  with 
some  other  articles.  Various  opinions  are  en- 
tertained concerning  the  author  and  the  authen- 
ticity of  this  work.  Photius  (Cod.  85.)  writes, 
that  Heracleon,  bishop  of  Chalcedon,  in  his 
book  against  the  Manichecs,  ascril)ed  it  to  He- 
gemonius,  an  author  whose  age  is  unknown. 
Fabricius  conjectures  that  this  writer  published 
an  abridgment  of  the  original  work.  However 
this  was,  there  are  in  the  work  many  things 
which  do  not  well  agree  with  other  accounts  of 
Mani,  and  which  favour  the  opinion  of  B^au- 
sobre,  that  it  cont!>ins  some  truths,  but  mixed 
with  falsehoods,  and  that  it  was  written  by  some 
Greek  in  the  fourth  century.  From  a  MS.  of 
the  Latin  translation,  found  at  Cassino,  toge- 
ther with  some  fragments  of  the  Greek  in  Cyril 
(Catachis.  6.)  and  in  Epiphanius,  (Haeres. 
66.  n.  25 — 32.)  the  work  was  edited,  in  410. 
by  Zacagni,  in  his  "  Collectanea  Monumen- 
torum  Vet.  Rom."  in  1698.  Fabric.  Bib/. 
Grac.  lib.  y.  c.  I.  §  31.  Cave,  Hist.  Lit. 
Dupin.  Lardner  s  Cred.  part  ii.  c.  62,  63. — E. 
ARCHIAS,  AuLus-LiciNius,  a  Greek 
poet,  is  chiefly  known  from  the  eloquent  ora- 
tion made  by  Cicero,  about  B.  C.  60,  to  de- 
fend his  right  to  the  citizenship  of  Rome.  From 
that  we  learn  that  he  was  a  native  of  Antioch, 
and  that  he  obtained  in  early  youth  such  a  repu- 
tation for  his  poetical  talents,  that  his  arrival 
was  expected  with  impatience  in  all  the  Greek 
cities  of  Asia  and  Europe  which  he  visited.  He 
came  to  Rome,  B.C.  102,  where  he  was  first 
a  guest  in  tlie  Lucullan  family,  and  was  after- 
wards highly  favoured  by  the  Mctelli,  Catuli, 
Crassi,  and  other  noble  houses  in  Rome.  Ci- 
cero was  peculiarly  his  friend,  and  speaks  with 
admiration  of  his  powers,  which  probably  con- 
sisted rather  in  facility  and  copiousness  of  versi  - 
fying,  than  in  the  higher  qualities  of  a  poet. 
"  How  often  (says  the  orator)  have  I  heard 
him,  without  writing  a  v^'ord,  pour  out  a  num- 
ber of  excellent  verses  extempore  on  an  occa- 
sional topic,  and  then  repeat  the  same  ideas  in 
different  words  and  sentences  !"   He  adds,  thu^ 


^ARCHIMEBES    THILOSOMHB 

Grec.  Chap.  2j, 


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vliat  he  compos'jcl  with  study  'iiiJ  premedita- 
tion was  tlioughi  to  equal  the  works  of"  anti- 
quity. Archias  wrote  a  poem  on  the  Cimbric 
war,  and  began  one  on  the  consulate  ot  Cicero, 
wliicli  he  seems  not  to  have  finislied.  Nothing 
is  leftofliini  hut  some  epigrams  in  tlie  "  Antho- 
logia."    Ctcoo  pro  Archia.    LtUui  Girald. — A. 

ARCHIDAAIUS  111.  king  of  Sparta,  and 
son  of  Agcsilaiis,  had  the  command  of  the 
Spartananny  during  his  father's  life,  B.  C.  367, 
•when  he  obtained  a  great  victory  over  the  Ar- 
cadians, in  which  not  one  native  Lacedemo- 
nian fell ;  whence  it  was  called  the  tearless  bat- 
tle. Afterwards,  when  Epaminondas  made  an 
attempt  upon  Sparta  itself,  Archidamus  formed 
such  dispositions  for  defence,  that  the  Theban 
general  was  obliged  to  retire.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  the  throne,  B.  C.  361  ;  and,  in  the 
sacred  war,  gave  assistance  to  the  Phocseans,  to 
which  he  is  said  to  have  been  induced  by  the 
bribes  given  to  himself  and  his  wife.  It  is  pro- 
bable, however,  that  the  whole  state  of  Sparta 
was  bribed  to  the  unjust  part  which  they  took  in 
this  war  ;  for  the  Lacedemonians  were  now  be- 
come as  greedy  of  gain  as  any  state  in  Greece. 
Philip  of  Macedon  now  assuming  great  conse- 
quence in  the  affairs  of  Greece,  and  being  ele- 
vated by  success,  Archidamus,  to  humble  him, 
replied  to  a  haughty  message  from  him,  that 
*'  if  he  would  measure  his  shadow,  he  would 
find  it  no  longer  than  before."  Another  laco- 
•nic  sentence  of  his  displays  magnanimity  rather 
than  a  sense  of  justice.  To  the  question  how 
far  the  dominion  of  Sparta  extended  ;  "  As  far 
(he  replied)  as  they  can  stretch  their  lances." 
The  scanty  and  constrained  mode  of  living  en- 
joined by  the  laws  of  Lvcurgus  was  not  to  the 
taste  of  Archidamus  ;  whence  he  gladly  em- 
braced the  occasion  of  absence  offered  by  a  de- 
cree of  his  country  to  assist  the  Tarcntines  with 
a  body  of  forces.  In  this  quarrel  he  was  slain 
in  a  combat  with  the  Messapians,  after  a  reign 
of  fifteen  years,  leaving  the  character  of  a  wor- 
thy successor  of  Agcsilaus  with  respect  to  va- 
lour and  public  spirit.      Unlvcrs.  Hist. — A. 

ARCHIGENES,  a  Greek  physician  of  the 
pneumatic  sect,  a  native  of  Apamea,  and  disciple 
of  Agathinus,  flourished  in  the  times  of  Domi- 
tian  and  Trajan,  and  acquired  such  celebrity  in 
his  profession,  that  his  name  is  thrice  used  by 
Juvenal  as  a  general  term  to  denote  a  physician 
of  eminence.  He  was  well  versed  both  in  the 
theory  and  practice  of  his  art ;  but  in  the  latter 
he  seems  to  have  been  chicflv  an  empiric,  pro- 
posing a  variety  of  remedies,  often  of  the  most 
opposite  kinds,  for  particular  diseases,  with  little 
consideration  of  the  ori2,in  or  state  of  the  mala- 


dy.  He  is  accounted  one  of  the  most  copious 
writers  concerning  medicines,  and  his  works  are 
very  frequently  referred  to  by  Galen.  Various 
fragments  of  them  exist  in  the  collections  of  Ae- 
tius  of  Amida.  Besides  his  writings  on  sub- 
jects of  pharmacy,  he  wrote  treatises  on  local  af- 
fections, on  the  cure  of  chronic  diseases,  on  the 
nature  and  types  of  fevers,  on  pulses,  &c. 
Vander  Linden.  Script.  Med.  Haller,  Bibl. 
Med.—k.     ■ 

ARCHILOCHUS,  a  Greek  poet,  famous 
throughout  antiquity  as  an  example  of  a  bitter 
and  mahgnant  satirist,  was  a  native  of  the  isle  of 
Pares,  and  son  of  Telesicles.  The  period  in 
which  he  flourished  is  not  agreed  upon  among 
authors,  but  was  probably  as  early  as  660  years 
B.  C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor 
of  iambic  verse,  and  his  poetical  powers  were 
in  high  estimation  both  among  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans.  A  proof  of  the  force  of  his  satire, 
often  alluded  to  by  the  ancients,  is  the  tragical 
end  of  one  Lvcambes,  who  had  promised  him 
his  daughter  in  marriage.  On  his  breach  of 
contract,  Archilochus  rendered  him  and  his  fa- 
mily so  infamous  by  a  torrent  of  abuse  and  de- 
famation, that  he  was  driven  to  terminate  his 
life  by  the  halter,  and  one,  if  not  all,  of  his 
daughters  followed  his  exainplc.  The  poems 
of  Archilochus  are  said  in  general  to  have  been 
offensive  to  decency,  on  which  account  they 
were  prohibited  at  Sparta.  A  confession  of  his 
own  cowardice  in  a  battle,  and  the  maxim, 
"  that  it  was  better  to  run  away  than  stay  and  be 
killed,"  was  probably  an  additional  cause  of  tlie 
stigma  affixed  to  him  at  Lacedemon.  He  was, 
however,  not  incapable  of  the  heroic  strain,  and 
a  hymn  which  he  composed  on  Hercules  and 
lolfius  used  to  be  thrice  sung  in  Iionour  of  the 
Olympic  victors.  That  he  was  in  great  favour 
among  the  Greeks,  appears  from  the  conduct  of 
the  Delphian  oracle,  which  expelled  from  the 
temple  of  Apollo,  Corax  of  Naxos,  who  killed 
him,  though  the  deed  appears  to  have  been  done 
in  open  war.  Aixliilochus  is  several  times  men- 
tioned by  Horace,  who  represents  himself  in  his 
satires  as  the  imitator  of  the  Grecian  bard  in  his 
style  and  manner,  though  not  in  his  malignitA-. 
Ovid  likewise  refers  to  him  ;  and  Pateiculus  and 
Quintilian  bestow  great  praises  on  his  poetry. 
None  of  his  works  have  reached  our  times. 
Vossitis,  PsJf.  Griic.      Boyie. — A. 

ARCHIMEDES,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated mathematicians  among  the  ancients,  was 
born  at  Syracuse  in  S'cilv,  probably  about  280 
years  before  Christ.  It  was  an  honour  to  Hie- 
ro,  king  of  Syracuse,  that  Le  could  call  this 
great  man  his  relation  and  friend.     He  lived 


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.-ibout  tit'ty  vcars  after  Euclid  :  but  under  wliar 
masters  lie  studied,  dr  liow  much  he  was  in- 
debted to  his  predecessors,  is  unknown.  Abul- 
l)haragius,  tlic  Arabian  annalist,  says  (p.  41.) 
tiiat  he  derived  his  knowledge  from  tlie  Egyp- 
tians :  but  it  is  probable,  that  in  his  scientific 
commerce  with  that  country  he  communicated 
more  than  he  received.  J^iodorus  of  Sicily  re- 
lates (Bibl.  Hist.  lib.  v.)  that  he  travelled  into 
Egypt,  but  adds,  that  this  country  was  indebted 
to  him  for  the  invention  of  the  cochleon,  or 
screw-pump  for  drawing  otF  v%-ater.  'I'his  il- 
lustrious philosopher  unquestionably  owed  the 
liigh  distinction  which  he  obtained  among  his 
contemporaries,  and  the  immortal  name  which 
he  has  transmitted  to  posterity,  chiefly  to  his 
own  vigorous  and  inventive  intellect.  Dio- 
dorus  celebrates  Archimedes  as  the  author  of 
many  inventions,  much  greater  than  that  which 
he  had  just  mentioned,  which  had  rendered  him 
famous  through  the  world.  Livy  speaks  of 
him  as  a  singularly  excellent  observer  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  and  as  possessing  a  still  more 
wondciiul  power  of  inventing  and  constructing 
warlike  machines.  [Unicus  spectator  coeli  side- 
ruinquc,  mirabilior  tamcn  inventor  ac  macliina- 
tor  belliconim  tormentorum,  &c.  lib.  xxiv. 
c.  33.]  His  ingenuity  in  solving  problems 
was,  in  Cicero's  time,  become  proverbial.  In 
a  letter  to  Atticus,  (lib.  xiii.  ep.  28.)  he  informs 
him,  that  he  is  now  freed  from  a  difficulty, 
which,  strongly  to  express  its  magnitude,  he 
calls  7r«?Xi;y,a  Kcyj\Lr^li\w ,  an  Archimeuian  pro- 
blem. He  is  (hb.  xiv.  ver.  677.)  thus  cele- 
brated by  Siliusltalicus: 

Vir  fuit,  Istluui.icis  dccus  iinmorlale  colouis, 
Inycnio  facile  ante  onincs  l<-lluris  alumnus, 
Kudus  opum,  bcd  cui  ca-lum  terra;t]uc  palcreiit. 

Though  it  mav  not  be  easy,  from  the  accounts 
which  remain  ot  the  inventions  of  Archimedes, 
exactly  to  learn  their  nature  and  use,  enough  is 
known  to  justify  the  high  encomiums  bestowed 
upon  him.  If  it  be  difficult  to  conceive  that  he 
made  a  glass  sphere  wiiich  rejiresentcd  the  mo- 
tions of  the  heavenly  bodies,  it  may  be  believed 
that  he  constructed,  from  other  materials,  some 
kind  of  pltineiarium,  which  represented  the  celes- 
tial phasnomena  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  af- 
ford some  foundation  for  the  following  verses 
of  Claudian : 


Jupiter,  in  parvo  eum  ccrnerel  scthera  vitro, 
Risit,  ct  ad  superos  talia  dicta  dedit : 

Iluccinc  inortalis  progressa  potentia  ciira  .^ 
Jam  mcus  in  iVagili  Uiditur  orbe  labor. 

Jura  poli,  rcrun\t|ue  tidcm,  legcsquc  dcoruin, 
Lcte  Syracosius  trauslulit  arte  scacx. 


Inclusus  variis  famulatur  spirilus  asti-is, 

I'-t  \ivuin  ccrlis  in')libiis  ur;^el  opus. 
Pcrcurril  prupriuin  mcntitus  srijnifcr  annum, 

lit  ^iniul.ita  novti  Cyiilhia  mcnsc  redit. 
Janiuuc  buun»  \  ulceus  audax  industria  mundum 

Gaudct,  el  hunianA  sidcra  meiite  regit. 
Quid  I'also  insonlcm  tonitru  Salinunca  n»iror? 

^uiula  naluric  parva  rcpcrla  maiuis. 

Wlicn  in  a  ijlass's  narrow  sphere  confin'd, 
Jove  saw  the  fabric  of  th'ahnit^lity  mind, 
He  sniil'd  and  said,  *'  Can  mortal's  art  alone 
Our  heavenly  labours  mimic  with  tlicir  own  ? 
The  Syracusan's  Ijriltic  work  contains 
Th"  eternal  l;tw,  that  tlirou^'Ii  all  nature  reigns. 
Fram'd  by  his  art,  sec  stars  unnumber'd  burn, 
And  in  their  courses  rolling  orbs  return  ; 
His  sun  through  various  signs  describe  the  year. 
And  cv'ry  month  his  mimic  mtjons  appear. 
Our  rival's  la«s  his  lullc  planets  bind, 
And  rule  their  motions  by  a  hiiinan  mind. 
Salmoneus  could  our  thunder  imitate; 
But  Archimedes  can  a  world  create." 

Ovid  mentions  the  same  machine. 

Arte  Syracosia  suspcnsus  in  aere  clauso 
Stat  globus,  iiumensi  parva  figura  poli. 

Ovid.  Fast.  vi.  277. 

In  proof  of  Archiniedes's  knowledge  of  the 
doctrine  of  specific  gravities,  a  singular  fact  is 
related  in  Vitruvius.  (lib.  ix.  c.  3.)  Hiero 
suspecting  that  in  making  a  golden  crown 
which  he  had  ordered,  the  workmen  had 
stolen  part  of  the  gold,  and  substituted  in  its 
stead  an  equal  weight  of  silver,  he  applied  to 
Archimedes,  entreating  him  to  exercise  his  inge- 
nuity in  detecting  the  fraud.  Contemplating  the 
subject  one  day  as  he  was  in  the  bath,  it  occur- 
red to  him  that  he  displaced  a  quantity  of  wa- 
ter equal  to  the  bulk  of  his  own  body.  Quit- 
ting the  bath  with  that  eager  and  impetuous  de- 
light which  a  new  discovery  naturally  excites 
in  an  inquisitive  mind,  he  ran  naked  into  the 
street,  crying,  E'yf-ijx.a  !  E'ucTixa  !  [I  have  found 
it  out  1  I  have  found  it  out  !]  Procuring  a  mass 
of  gold,  and  another  of  silver,  each  of  equal 
weight  with  the  crovs'n,  he  observed  the  quan- 
tity of  fluid  which  each  displaced,  successively, 
upon  being  inserted  in  the  same  vessel  _/"«//  of 
water  :  he  then  observed  how  much  water  was 
displaced  by  the  crown  ;  and,  upon  coinparing 
this  quantity  \\  ith  each  of  the  former,  soon 
learned  the  proportions  of  silver  and  gold  in  the 
crown. 

In  mechanics  and  optics  the  inventive  pow- 
ers of  Archimedes  vvcre  astonishing.  It  was 
not  without  cause  diat  he  boasted,  "  Give  me  a 
place  to  stand  upon,  and  I  will  move  the  earth  :" 
for  he  perfectly  understood  the  doctrine  of  the 
lever,  and  well  knew,  that,  theoretically,  the 
greatest  weight  may  be  moved  bv  the  smallest 
power.  To  show  Hiero  the  wonderful  etPectof 
mechanic  powers,  he  is    said,   by  the  help   of 


u'^f-cA-i'ftuet^ew  '^/c^'Z-Jm^  iri^  ol   iA.^ma^  ^   y^/«Vgy- 


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ropes  antl  pullevs,  to  have  drawn  towards  him 
•with  perfect  case  a  galley  which  lay  on  shore, 
manned  and  loaded.  But  t!ie  grand  proofs  of 
his  skill  were  given  during  the  siege  of  Syracuse 
by  Marcellus.  (Pint.  Vit.  Marcell.  Iliv.  lib. 
xxiv.  c.  34.)  Whether  the  vessels  of  tha  be- 
siegers approached  near  the  walls  of  the  city,  or 
kept  at  a  considerable  distance,  Archimedes 
found  means  to  annoy  them.  When  they  ven- 
tured closely  under  the  rampart  raised  on  the 
side  towards  the  sea,  he,  by  means  of  long  and 
vast  beams,  probably  hung  in  tlie  form  ot  a  le- 
ver, struck  with  prodigious  force  upon  the  gal- 
leys, and  sunk  tliem  :  or  by  means  of  grappling 
hooks  at  the  remote  extremity  of  other  levers, 
he  caught  up  the  vessels  into  the  air,  and  dashed 
them  to  pieces  against  the  walls  or  the  projecting 
rocks.  When  the  enemy  kept  at  a  greater  di- 
stance, Archimedes  made  use  of  machines,  by 
which  he  threw  irom  behind  the  walls  stones  in 
vast  masses,  or  great  numbers,  which  shattered 
and  demolished  the  ships  or  the  machii^es  em- 
ployed in  the  siege.  This  mathematical  Bria- 
reus,  as  Marcellus  jestingly  called  him,  employed 
his  hundred  arms  with  astonishing  effect.  His 
meclianical  genius  was  the  informing  soul  of  the 
besieged  city  ;  and  his  powerful  weapons  struck 
the  astonished  Romans  with  terror.  One  in- 
strument which  Archimedes  is  said  to  have  made 
use  of  on  this  occasion  was  commonly  treated 
by  modern  writers  as  fabulous,  till  experimcrit 
proved  the  story  to  lie  within  the  limits  of 
practicability.  If  any  one  was  disjiosed  to  be- 
lieve that  Archimedes  set  tire  to  the  ships  of 
the  enemy  by  means  of  the  rays  of  the  sun, 
be  was  reminded, 

-^^ quid  GriTci.i  mendax 

Atidct  in  hisluri^. 

"  In  history  m  liat  lying  Greece  dares  tell." 

BufFon,  however,  contrived  and  made  a  burn- 
ing glass,  composed  of  about  four  hundred  glass 
planes,  each  six  inches  square,  so  placed  as  to  ' 
tbrm  a  conrave  mirror,  capable  of  melting  sil- 
ver at  the  distance  of  fifty  feet,  and  lead  and  tin 
at  the  distance  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet, 
and  of  setting  fire  to  wood  at  the  distance  of 
two  liundrcd  feet  ;  and  the  story  of  Archimedes's 
in<;trunKnt  for  Inirning  ships  at  a  great  distance 
is  no  long<^r  ridiculed. 

Eminent  as  Archimedes  was  for  his  skill  and 
invention  in  mechanics,  his  chief  excellence, 
perhaps,  lay  in  the  rare  talent  which  he  pos- 
sessed of  investigating  abstract  truths,  and  in- 
venting conclusive  demonstrations  in  tlie  higher 
branches  of  pure  geometry.     If  we  are  to  cre- 


dit tl>e  representation  of  Plutarch,  he  looked 
upon  mechanic  inventions  as  far  inferior  in  va- 
lue to  those  intellectual  speculations  which  ter- 
minate in  simple  truth,  and  carry  with  them  ir- 
resistible conviction.  Of  his  success  in  tJicse 
lucubrations,  the  world  is  still  in  possession  of 
adinirable  proofs  in  the  gcometiical  treatises  af- 
terwards to  be  noticed.  Of  the  unremitting  ar- 
dour with  which  he  devoted  himself  to  mathe- 
matical studies,  and  the  deep  attention  with 
which  he  pursued  them,  his  memoirs  afford 
striking  and  interesting  examples.  It  is  related 
of  him,  that  he  was  often  so  totally  absorbed  in 
mathematical  speculations,  as  to  neglect  his 
meals  and  the  care  of  his  person.  At  the  bath  he 
would  frequently  draw  geometrical  figures  in 
the  ashes,  or,  when  according  to  the  custom  he 
was  anointed,  upon  his  own  body.  He  was 
so  much  delighted  with  the  discovery  of  the  ra- 
tio between  the  sphere  and  the  containing  cy- 
linder, that,  passing  over  all  his  mechanic  in- 
ventions, as  a  memorial  of  this  discovery,  he 
requested  his  friends  to  place  upon  his  tomb  a 
cylinder,  containing  a  sphere,  with  an  inscrip- 
tion expressing  the  proportion  which  the  con- 
taining solid  bears  to  the  contained. 

No   sincere  admirer  of  scientific  merit  will 
read  without  painful  regret,  that  when  Syra- 
cuse, after  ail  the  defence  which  philosophy  had 
afforded  if,  was  taken  by  storm,  and  given  up 
to  the  sword,  notwithstanding  the  liberal   ex- 
ception which  Marcellus  had  made  in  favour  of 
Archimedes,  bv  giving  orders  that  his  house  and 
his  person  should  be  held  sacred,  at  a  moment 
when  this  great  man  was  so  intent  upon  some 
mathematical  speculation  as  not  to  perceive  that 
the  city  was  taken,   and  even  when,  accord- 
ing to  Cicero,   (De  Finibus,  lib.  v.  c.  19.)  lie 
was  Actually  drawing  a  geometrical  figure  upon 
the  sand,  an  ignorant  barbarian,  in  the  person 
of  a  Roman  soldier,  without  allowing  him  the      i^ 
satisfaction  of  completing  the  solution    of  his 
problem,  ran  him   through   the   body.     This 
event,  so  disgraceful  to  the  Roman  character 
and  to  human  nature,  happened   in  the,  i42d 
Olymjiiad,  or  212  years  before  Christ.      (Liv. 
lib.  x.KV.  c.  31.     Valcr.  Maxim,  lib.  viii.  c.  7. 
Polvasnus,  lib.  viii.  c.  11,  12.)     It  was  a  pour 
compensation  for  the  insult  offered  bv  this  action 
to  Science  in  the  person  of  one  of  l-.cr  most  fa- 
voured sons,  that   Marcellus,  in  the  midst  of 
his  triumphal  laurels,   lamented  the  fate  of  Ar- 
chiinedes,  and,  taking  upon  himself  the  charge 
of  his  funeral,  protected  and  honoured  his  rela- 
tions.    (Plin.  Nat.  Hist.  lib.  vii.  c.  37.)    The 
disgrace  was  in  some  measure  cancelled  when 
the  philosopher  of  Arpiuum,  a    hundred  ani 


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forty  years  aftcrwarils,  paid  homage  to  his 
forgotten  tomb.  "  During  my  qua;storship," 
savs  Cicero,  (Tiisc.  Quaest.  hb.  v.  c.  23.) 
"  1  dihgently  sought  to  discover  the  sepulchre 
of  Archimedes,  which  the  Syracusans  had  to- 
tally neivlected,  and  sulTered  to  be  grown  over 
with  thorns  and  briars.  Recollecting  some 
verses,  said  to  be  inscribed  on  the  tomb,  which 
nunfioncd  that  on  the  ti^i  was  placed  a  sphere 
with  a  cylinder,  I  looked  round  me  upon  every 
object  at  the  Agragentine  gate,  the  common  re- 
ceptacle of  the  dead.  At  last  I  observed  a  lit- 
tle column  which  just  rose  above  the  thorns, 
upon  which  was  jihiccd  the  figure  of  a  sphere 
and  cylinder.  This,  said  I  to  the  Syracusan 
nobles  who  were  with  me,  this  must,  I  think,  be 
what  I  am  seeking.  Several  persons  were  im- 
mediately employed  to  clear  away  the  weeds 
and  lay  open  the  spot.  As  soon  as  a  passage 
was  opened,  we  drew  near,  and  found  on  the 
opposite  base  the  inscription,  with  nearly  half 
the  latter  part  of  the  verses  worn  away.  Thus 
would  this  most  famous,  and  formerly  most 
learned  citv  of  Greece  have  remained  a  stranger 
to  the  tomb  of  one  of  its  most  ingenious  ci- 
tizens, had  it  not  been  discovered  by  a  man  of 
Arpinum." 

Several  invaluable  remains  of  this  celebrated 
mathematician  are  preserved.  On  subjects  of 
abstract  geometry,  vve  have  two  books  "  On 
the  Sphere  and  Cylinder  ;"  a  treatise  '•  On  the 
Dimension  of  the  Circle,  or  the  Proportion  be- 
tween the  Diameter  and  the  Circumference  ;" 
two  books  "On  Obtuse  Conoids  and  Sphe- 
roids;" a  book  "On  Spiral  Lines;"  and  ano- 
ther "  On  the  Quadrature  of  the  Parabola." 
.^mong  the  numerous  objects  of  mathematical 
speculation,  which  occupied  the  penetrating  ge- 
nius of  Archimedes,  one  of  the  principal  was  the 
nitn>uration  of  the  conic  sections.  He  deter- 
mined the  relations  of  spheres,  spheroids,  and 
conoids  to  cylinders  and  cones,  and  of  parabolas 
to  rectilineal  planes,  whose  quadratures  were  al- 
ready known.  He  reduced  the  quadrature  of 
the  circle  to  the  determination  of  the  ratio  be- 
tween the  diameter  and  the  circumference  ;  and, 
though  unable  to  attain  the  exact  quadrature  of 
ilic  circle,  he  assigned  a  useful  approximation  to 
it  by  the  numeral  calculation  of  the  perimeters 
of  tlie  inscribed  and  circumscribed  columns. 
He  determined  the  relation  between  the  circle 
and  the  ellipse  ;  but  if  he  attempted  the  hyper- 
bola, it  does  not  appear  that  it  was  with  any 
success.  He  also  determined  the  proportion  of 
the  area  of  the  spiral  to  that  of  the  circuinscribed 
circle,  and  of  their  sectors.  Besides  the  geome- 
trical works  in  which  these  subjects  arc  treated, 


Archimedes  wrote  a  treatise  entitled,  "  Arcna- 
rius,"  in  which  is  demonstrated,  that  not  only 
the  sands  of  the  earth,  but  a  greater  quantity  of 
particles  than  could  be  contained  in  the  immense 
sphere  of  the  fi.xed  stars,  might  be  expressed  in 
numbers,  by  a  mediod  in  which  the  author 
makes  use  of  a  property  similar  to  that  of  lo- 
garithms. In  mechanics,  Archimedes  has  left 
a  treatise  "  On  Equiponderants,  or  Centres  of 
Gravity  ;"  and,  in  hydrostatics,  a  treatise 
"  Concerning  Bodies  floating  on  Fluids."  A 
geometrical  piece  entitled,  "  Assumpta,  or  Lem- 
mata,"isextant  only  in  Latin,  and  was  published 
with  Apollonius's  Conies,  at  Florence,  in  1681, 
and  by  Graves,  in  folio,  at  London  in  1659. 
In  Labbe,  Bibl.  Nov.  MSS.  p.  257,  259,  are 
mentioned  two  MSS.  of  Archimedes,  in  Ara- 
not  yet  unpublished,  "  De  Fractione  Circuli," 
and  "  Perspectiva."  Other  geometrical  works 
of  Archimedes  are  mentioned  by  ancient  writ- 
ers, which  are  now  lost :  but  Plutarch  ex- 
pressly says,  (Vit.  Marcelli)  that,  "  though 
in  the  invention  of  machines  he  gained  the  re- 
putation of  a  man  endowed  with  divine  rather 
than  human  knowledge,  he  did  not  leave  any 
account  of  them  in  writing." 

Various  editions  have  appeared  both  of  di- 
stinct parts  and  of  the  entire  works  of  Archi- 
medes. The  book  "  De  Dimensione  Circuli" 
was  published  in  folio,  at  Paris,  in  1561  ;  at 
Leipsic  in  1602  ;  and  in  8vo.  at  Ox'ord,  by 
Wallis,  in  1676;  and  in  the  third  volume  of 
Wallis's  works,  in  1699.  This  work,  together 
with  the  book  "  De  Sphsris  et  Cylindro,"  ap- 
peared in  Paris  in  1561.  The  book  "  De 
Planis  .^quiponderantibus"  was  published  in 
4to.  at  Paris,  in  1565  ;  "  De  Cono'i'dibus  et  de 
Sphero'idibus,"  at  Palermo  in  1685  ;  "  De  iVs 
qULE  Aquis  innatant,"  with  the  commentaries  of 
Commandine,  in  4to.  at  Bologna,  in  1565;  and 
"  De  Numero  Arence,'  by  tVallis,  in  Svo.  at 
Oxford  in  1676.  Of  this  latter  work  an  English 
translation  was  published,  with  notes  and  illus- 
trations, by  G.  Anderson,  in  Svo.  at  London,  in 
1784.  The  works  of  Archimedes,  for  the  reco- 
very of  which  we  are  indebted  to  the  Greeks  who 
fled  into  Italy  after  the  taking  of  Constantino- 
ple, were  first  publisiied  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
with  the  commentary  of  Eutocius,  by  Herva- 
gius,  in  folio,  at  Basil,  in  1544,  with  a  preface 
by  Thomas  GechaufF.  An  edition  was  pub- 
lished, in  folio,  by  Commandine,  at  Venice,  in 
1588.  David  Rivakus  presented  the  world 
with  a  new  edition  in  folio,  accompanied  with 
a  new  version,  demonstrations,  and  commenta- 
ry, printed  at  Paris  in  1615,  and  reprinted  in 
1646.     The  whole  works  have  also  been  pub- 


ARC 


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ARC 


lishcd,  in  f(jlio,  by  Maurolycus,  at  Messina  in 
Sicily,  in  167  I ;  and  by  Eorclii,  at  Palermo,  in 
1685  ;  and  in  London,  in  4to.  by  Dr.  Isaac 
Barrow,  in  1675,  with  new  illustrations  and  de- 
monstrations. A  splendid  folio  etiition  of  Ar- 
chimedes has  lately,  in  1792,  issued  from  the 
Clarendon  press  in  Oxford,  with  a  new  Latin 
translation,  a  preface  and  notes,  hv  the  learned 
Torelli  of  Verona,  and  a  large  collection  of  va- 
rious readings.  The  works  of  Archimedes 
form  a  princi]>al  part  of  the  valuable  collection 
of  Greek  mathematicians,  published  in  folio"",  at 
Paris,  in  1693,  under  the  title  of"  Mathcmatici 
Vercres."  P/ut.  Fit.  Alincell.  Fabric.  Bibl, 
Grac.  lib.  iii.  c.  22.  Huiton's  Alath.  Diet. 
—  E. 

ARCHON,  Louis,  an  antiquary,  chaplain 
to  Louis  XIV.  was  born  atRiom  in  Auvergne, 
in  the  year  1645,  and  died  at  Rome  in  17  17. 
He  wrote,  in  French,  "  The  History  of  the 
Chapel  of  the  Kings  of  France,"  printed  in 
two  volumes  4to.  at  Paris  in  17  1 1  :  a  work  re- 
plete with  curious  research.  Adorcri.  Nouv. 
Diet.  Hist.—E. 

ARCHYTAS,  of  Tarcntum,  a  Pythago- 
rean philosopher,  a  mathematician  and  geogra- 
pher, was  contemporary  with  Plato,  who  was 
delivered  by  his  interposition,  when  the  tvrant 
Dionysius  threatened  him  with  death.  '  He, 
therefore,  flourished  about  four  hundred  years 
before  Christ,  and  was  not,  as  lamblichus  as- 
serts, a  hearer  of  Pythagoras,  but  one  of  his 
more  remote  followers  ;  according  to  an  ano- 
nymous writer  cited  by  Photius  (Cod.  259.). he 
was  eighth  preceptor,  in  succession,  of  the  Py- 
thagorean school.  So  high  was  his  reputation 
for  wisdom  and  valour,  that,  contrary  to  the 
law  of  his  country,  which  required  t'lat  no  per- 
son shoidd  possess  the  command  of  its  armies 
more  than  once,  he  was  chosen  general  seven 
times.  In  specidative  philosophy  Archytas  fol- 
lowed the  doctrine  of  Pythagoras.  In  morals, 
Jie  taught,  that  virtue  is  to  be  puisued  for  its 
own  sake,  in  every  condition  of  life  ;  that  all 
excess  is  inconsistent  with  virtue,  and  that  there 
is  no  pestilence  so  destructive  to  man  as  i)lea- 
sure.  Aristotle,  perhaps,  borrowed  from  him 
the  leading  idea  in  his  Ethics,  that  virtue  consists 
in  avoiding  extremes  :  it  is  more  certain,  that 
lie  was  indebted  to  this  philosopher  for  his  ge- 
neral heads  of  arrangement,  called  his  "  I'en 
Categories."  Archytas  was  an  excellent  ma- 
thematician ;  lie  discovered  the  method  of  find- 
ing two  mean  proportionals  between  two  given 
lines,  and  the  duplication  of  the  cube  by  means 
of  the  conic  sections.  The  invention  of  the 
screw  and  of  the  crane  is  ascribed  to  him,  and 

VOL.   I. 


he  is  said  to  have  contrived  several  curious  hy- 
draulic machines,  and  to  have  made  a  kind  of 
winged  automaton.  (Aul.  Cell.  lib.  x,  c.  12. 
Vitruv.  lib.  ix.  c.  3.)  Horace  celebrates  him 
as  an  eminent  geographer  and  astronomer,  and 
records,  in  a  beautiful  ode  (lib.  i.  od.  28.), 
his  sad  fate,  in  being  cast,  an  unburied  corpse, 
upon  the  Apulian  shore  : 

"  Te  maris  ct  tcrrsr  numeroque  carenlis  areiist 

Mensorcm  cohibent,  Aichyla, 
Pulvcris  exigui  propc  litiis  parva  Malinum 

Munera  ;  ncc  qvikitjiiam  tibi  prtidesl 
A'erias  tcutdbsc  doiiKis,  anintotjuc  rotundum 

Pcrcurrisse  polum,  morituro." 

Archytas,  what  avails  thy  nice  survey 
Of  Ocean's  countless  sands,  of  earth  and  sea  ? 
Ill  vain  thy  mi;^lily  spirit  once  cuuld  soar 
To  orbs  celestial,  and  their  course  explore; 
If  here,  upon  the  lempest-be.acn  strand, 
You  lie  conlin'd,  till  some  rt'ire  lib'ral  liand 
Shall  sfrow-  the  pious  dust  in  funeral  rite, 
And  wiuj  thee  to  the  boundless  realms  of  li"ht. 

I'R.tNCIs. 

With  respect  to  moral  character,  Archytas  is 
celebrated  for  great  modesty,  and  command  of 
temper.  In  his  language  he  is  said  to  have 
shown  a  degree  of  regard  to  decency,  not  often 
found  among  the  ancients,  (^lian-.  lib.  vii. 
c.  14.)  He  never  punished  a  servant  in  wrath. 
To  a  dependant  who  had  offended  him,  he 
said,  "  What  should  I  have  done  to  you  if  I 
had  not  been  angry  !"  (Cic.  de  Amic.  ^Elian. 
hb.  xii.  c.  19.  xiii.  c.  12.)  He  considered  the 
love  of  pleasure  as  a  destructive  disease  of  the 
mind.    (Cic.  de  Senectut.) 

Archytas  was  the  author  of  many  works 
and  inventions,  meiuioiied  by  various  authors  ; 
but  none  of  his  writings  are  extant  except  a 
small  treatise,  "  Ucpt  ra  Ilavro,'  i'va-ixs''  [On 
the  Universe],  in  which  Archytas  distributes  all 
things  into  ten  classes  or  categories  ;  it  is  writ- 
ten in  the  Doric  dialect,  and  was  published  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  in  8vo.  at  Venice,  in  1571  : 
st)nie  doubts,  perhaps  without  sufficient  reason, 
have  been  entertained  of  its  authenticity.  Sun- 
dry fragments,  "  On  \Visdom,"  and  "  On  the 
good  and  happy  I\Ian,"  have  been  preserved  by 
Stobsus,  and  edited  from  him  bv  Gale.  (ApuU 
Opuscula.)  Diog.  Lo'cit.  Pint,  dc  Instit.  Piicr. 
Suidas.  Fabrieius,  Bibl.  Gr.  lib.ii.  c.  13.  §.  1. 
Stanley.      Brucker. — E. 

ARCUDIO,  Peter,  a  native  of  the  island 
of  Corfu,  disiinguishcd  himself  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  scveiiteentli  century  among  the 
learned  men  oJ  It.ily.  He  studied  at  Rome  in 
the  college  of  the  Greeks,  where  he  made  great: 
proficiency  in  learning.  He  discovered  so  much 
2  z 


A  R  D 


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354 


) 


A  R  D 


•/.cal  for  tl:e  holy  see.  that  pope  Clement  VIIT. 
sent  liim  into  Russia,  to  endeavour  to  hring  that 
nation  into  obeJicnce  to  the  Roman  pontitl': 
lie  remained  tlierc  twenty  years,  but  could  ob- 
tain nothing  more  than  'some  indulgences  and 
privileges  t'oriho;e  of  that  country  who  follow- 
ed the  ritual  of  the  Romish  church.  He  un- 
dertook the  refutation  of  the  protestants,  on  tlie 
subject  of  the  sacraments,  in  a  work.  "  On  the 
Harmony  of  the  Western  and  Eastern  Churches 
in  the  Administration  of  the  seven  Sacraments," 
printed  at  Palis,  in  4to.  1672.  This  theolo- 
gian also  wrote  a  work  "  On  the  Existence  of 
Purgatory  ;"  and  another,  "  On  the  Fire  of 
Pur<'atory"  —  the  former  published  at  Rome  in 
1632  i  the  latter,  in  1637  ;  and  made  a  collec- 
tion from  t!ie  writings  of  the  Greek  divines, 
"  On  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit,"  print- 
ed in  4to.  in  1630.  His  works  are  written  in  a 
scholastic  metliod  and  style,  and  with  strong 
marks  of  bigotry  and  passion,  but  discover  ta- 
lents and  erudition.  They  are  composed  in 
Greek,  but  with  little  claim  to  Attic  elegance. 
Arcudio  was  a  hard  student ;  all  his  pleasures 
and  amusements  were  centred  in  his  library  : 
he  died  about  the  year  1632.  Fabric.  Bill. 
Gt.  lib.  V.  c  43.  ^  12.  AlcYcri.  Histoiie  de 
la  Literature  d' Italic  par  Landi,  tiric  de  Pltalien 
de  M.  7iraboschi,  tom.  v.  art.  2.  Nouv.  Diet. 
Uist.—E. 

ARCULPHUS,  a  theologian  of  France, 
flourished  about  the  year  690.  Undertaking, 
on  account  of  religion,  a  voyage  to  the  East, 
and  visiting  tlie  Holy  Land,  Constantinople, 
Alexandria,  and  other  places,  he  was,  on  his 
return  to  France,  thrown  by  a  storm  on  the 
western  coast  of  Britain,  and  was  hospitably 
entertained  by  Adammon,  an  abbot.  From  his 
conversation,  Adammon  committed  to  writing 
the  history  of  his  travels,  and  a  description  of 
the  sacred  places.  The  account  formed  three 
volumes,  which  were  published  under  the  title 
of  "  I.ibri  de  Situ  Terra:  Sajicta;,"  at  Ingol- 
stadt,  in  1619.     Cav.  Hist.  Lit. — E. 

ARDERN,  John',  an  English  surgeon  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  appears  to  have  been 
one  of  the  earliest  who  practised  his  art  upon 
any  thing  like  enlightened  principles  in  his  native 
country.  He  resided  at  Ts^ewark  from  1349  to 
1370,  when  he  removed  to  London,  whither 
his  reputation  had  already  extended.  He  seems 
to  have  been  a  man  of  experience,  and  an  able 
and  honest  practitioner  for  the  time  in  which  he 
lived.  He  has  left  a  large  Latin  volume  of  phy- 
sic and  surgery,  particularly  of  tlie  last,  of 
which  several  manuscripts  are  extant  ;  but  no 
part  has  been  printed,  except  a  treatise  "  On  the 


Fistula  in  Ano,"  translated  by  John  Read  in  1588. 
His  practice  is  chiefly  empirical,  and  not  a  little 
infected  with  tlie  superstition  of  the  age.  He 
abounds  in  recipes,  several  of  his  own  inven- 
tion, which  were  afterwards  received  into  the 
dispensatories.  He  contrived  an  instrument  for 
the  exhibition  of  clysters ;  an  operation  in  which 
he  was  particularly  skilful.  His  surgery  was 
chiefly  derived  from  Cclsus  and  Vdulwi.Freind's 
Hist,  of  Physic.  —  A. 

ARDSIIIR  (or  ARTAXERXES)  Rabe- 
GAN,  tirst  Persian  king  of  the  race  of  Sassa- 
nides,  was  the  son  of  Sassan,  a  private  man,  or 
even  common  soldier,  according  to  some,  and 
shepherd  to  one  Babek,  whose  daiighter  he  mar- 
ried ;    but  others  represent  him   as    descended 
from  the  ancient  kings  of  the  country.    Aiyshir 
was  educated  with  great  care  by  his  grandfa- 
ther Babek,  whom  the  latter  accounts  inake  go- 
vernor of  a  province  under  king  Ardavan,  or 
Artabanus.     He  was  introduced  at  court,  and 
by  his  accomplishments  greatly  ingratiated  him- 
self with  the  king,  till  at  length  he  excited  his 
jealousy,  and  was  sent  to  command  in  a  distant 
province.     On  the  death  of  his  grandfather  he 
came  to  court  again  to  ask  Iiis  government;  but 
meeting  with  a  refusal,  and  also  fearing  the  dis- 
covery of  an  intrigue  lie  carried  on  with  a  young 
woman  of  the  haram,  he  fled  hastily  into  Per- 
sia Proper,  ^^■here  his  grandfather  had  been  go- 
vernor.   Here  he  met  with  such  a  reception  from 
the  friends  of  his  family,  as  induced  him  to  take 
up  arms,  and  endeavour  to  free  Persia  from  the 
foreign  yoke  of  the  Parthians.     He  defeated  first 
the  son  of  Ardavan,  and  afterwards  the  king  him- 
self, botli  of  whom  were  slain  in  battle.     Ard- 
shir  then,  remaining  witliout  a  comjietitor,  as^ 
sumed  the  sovereigniv,  with  the  lofty  title  of 
King  of  Kings.     He  extended  his  conquests  on 
all  sides ;  and  his  authority  was  solemnly  recog- 
nised in  a  great  assembly  held  at  Balk  in  Kho- 
rasan.     No   prince    ever    wielded    the   sceptre 
with  greater  reputation.  Active  and  enterprising 
in  war,  he  was  a  friend  of  the  arts  of  peace, 
and  ruled  his  subjects  with  equal   firmness  and 
lenity.  He  rectified  all  the  abuses  that  liad  been 
introduced  under  the  preceding  dynasty,  erected 
new  cities,  brought  land  into  cultivation,  di- 
vided the  people  into  classes  under  appropriated 
instructors  and  magistrates,  and  abolished   the 
ancient  frequency  of  capital  punishments,  ac- 
cording to  a  maxim  often  in  his  mouth,   "  that 
the  sword  ought  not  to  be  emplovcd  where  the 
cane  would  answer  the  purpose."   He  destroyed 
the  lawless   independence  of  the  great  nobles, 
and  demolished  their  fortresses,  treating  them,  as 
rebels  if  they  resisted,  but  receiving  them  to  fa- 


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ARE 


vour  on  submission,  and  always  sparing  their 
followers.  Thus  he  sufFered  no  intermediate 
power  to  subsist  between  the  throne  and  the 
people.  He  made  himself  likewise  famous  for 
the  restoration  of  tlie  Magian  religion  in  its  pu- 
rity, and  the  suppression  of  idolatry  and  schism. 
For  this  purpose  he  convened  an  assembly  of 
tlie  Magi  from  all  parts  of  his  dominions,  who 
were  found  to  amount  to  eighty  thousand.  Tliese 
being  too  many  for  consultation,  a  selection 
was  made  from  them,  which,  by  repeated  dimi- 
nutions, at  length  was  reduced  to  a  committee 
of  seven,  who  fixed  the  articles  of  the  national 
faith. 

After  he  had  settled  every  thing  at  home,  he 
turned  his  views  towards  foreign  nations,  and 
obtained  some  victories  over  the  Scythians  and 
Indians.  But  he  engaged  in  a  more  dangerous 
quarrel,  by  entering  inro  a  contest  with  the 
Roman  empire,  then  governed  by  Alexander 
Sevcrus.  He  laid  claim  to  those  provinces 
of  Asia  which  had  formerly  belonged  to  the 
Persian  empire,  and  assembled  a  great  army  to 
enforce  it.  The  general  events  of  this  war  are 
related  in  the  life  of  that  Roman  cinpcror  (see 
Alexander  Severus),  and  it  suffices  to  men- 
tion that  Ardshir,  in  the  numerous  actions 
fought  with  the  Roman  legions,  lost  the  flower 
of  his  army,  and  withdrew  in  a  state  of  weak- 
ness into  his  own  territories. 

Ardshir  married  the  eldest  daughter  of  his 
predecessor  Ardavan.  She,  however,  never  lost 
the  family  hatred  against  him,  and  attempted  to 
poison  him.  Her  design  was  discovered,  and 
she  was  in  consequence  condemned  to  death, 
and  delivered  to  an  oTEcer  for  execution.  But 
as  she  declared  herself  pregnant,  she  was  con- 
cealed by  the  officer  till  her  delivery,  and  her 
infant  son  was  brought  up  privately,  without 
the  knowledge  of  its  father.  When  he  was 
some  years  old,  the  officer  ventured  to  disclose 
the  secret  to  the  king,  who  was  well  pleased 
with  his  conduct,  and  received  the  young 
prince  as  his  son  and  heir.  This  was  Sapor, 
who  succeeded  him.  Such  is  the  story  related 
by  the  eastern  writers,  which  however  has  a 
fabulous  aspect. 

Nothing  was  more  remarkable  and  praise- 
worthy in  this  great  prince,  than  his  attention 
to  keep  a  faithful  record  or  journal,  in  which  all 
his  actions  were  noted  down  with  perfect  im- 
partialitv,  and  were  read  to  him  daily.  He 
likewise  drew  up  a  set  of  maxims,  entitled, 
"  Rules  for  living  well,"  adapted  to  all  condi- 
tions of  society,  which  were  afterwards  pub- 
lished by  one  of  his  successors.  Some  of  these 
rules  liave  been  transcribed  by  historians,  and 


they  breathe  a  spirit  of  wisdom  and  benevo- 
lence. "  When  the  king  rendeis  justice  (says 
Ardshir),  the  people  pay  him  with  love  and  obe- 
dience." "  The  worst  of  princes  is  he  who  ex- 
cites fear  in  the  good,  and  hope  in  the  bad." 
"  Tlie  royal  authority  must  be  supported  bv 
military  force  ;  this  force  must  be  maintained 
by  money ;  money  can  only  spring  from  the 
culture  of  the  land ;  and  this  cannot  flourish 
witliout  justice  and  good  order." 

The  reign  of  Arclshir,  according  to  the  most 
probable  accounts,  only  lasted  fourteen  years 
from  the  death  of  Ardavan,  and  terminated 
about  A.  D.  240.  D'Herbclot.  Univcrs.  Hist. 
Gibbon. — A. 

ARET^US,  called  Cappadox  from  his 
country,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  an- 
cient Gicek  physicians.  When  he  lived,  has 
been  differently  stated  by  critics  ;  but  it  may  be 
gathered  from  his  writings,  that  it  was  between 
the  time  of  Andromachus  and  Galen,  viz.  about 
the  reign  of  Vespasian.  His  use  of  the  Ionic 
dialect  has  caused  him  to  be  referred  to  a  mucli 
earlier  period.  He  api)ears  to  have  practised  at 
Rome.  He  wrote  upon  acute  and  chronic  dis- 
eases, in  eight  books,  which  are  come  down  to 
us  in  an  imperfect  state.  They  contain  much 
excellent  description  of  the  diagnostics  and 
symptoms  of  diseases,  and  many  valuable  ob- 
servations respecting  their  cure,  from  which  he 
appears  to  have  been  a  manly  and  sagacious 
practitioner.  He  has  much  of  the  Hippocratic 
simplicity.  The  best  editions  of  his  works  arc 
Wigan's  at  Oxford,  in  1723;  and  Trillcr's 
Leyden  edition  of  1731.  republished  by  Haller, 
at  Lausanne,  in  1771.  Freind'sHist.ofP/iyiic. 
Haller,  Bibl.  Med.  Praet.—h. 

ARETE,  the  daughter  of  Arisiippus  of  Cv- 
rene,  the  founder  of  the  Cyrcnaic  sect  of  phi- 
losophers, livid  about  360  years  before  Christ. 
She  was  well  instructed  by  her  father  in  philoso- 
phy, and,  after  his  death,  professed  and  taught 
his  doctrine,  and  obtained  a  degree  of  fame 
which  entitles  her  to  a  place  among  philosophers. 
Diog.  La'crtius.  Clem.  Alex.  Strom,  lib.  iv. 
Brueker. — E. 

ARETHAS,  bishop  o^  C;vsarea  in  Cappa- 
docia,  is  know  n  as  the  author  of  "  A  C<)mmen- 
tary  upon  the  Revelations,"  which  is,  as  Mill 
judges,  (Prolcgom.  n.  1007.)  a  compilation 
from  the  works  of  Ircnsus,  Hippolytus,  Gre- 
gory Na/.ianzcn,  and  others.  Cave,  Lardncr, 
and  others  place  this  writer  about  the  middle  of 
the-  sixth  century ;  but  Casimire,  Oudin.  and 
Fabricius,  are  of  opinion  that  he  wrote  in  the 
tenth  century,  and  is  the  same  with  the  transla- 
tor of  the  writings  of  Euthymius,  patriarch  of 


ARE 


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ARE 


Constauthioplc.  The  commentary  was  pub- 
lished, togeilier  wiih  tliat  of  CEcumtnus,  in 
Greek,  at  Verona,  in  1532  and  1568  ;  and  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  by  Morel,  in  folio,  at  Paris  in 
1631.  Cav.  Hiit.  Lit.  Fabr.  E'lbl.  Grtec. 
lib.  V.  c.  17.  §  19.  Lardner's  Cred.  part  2. 
ch.  ^o. — E. 

ARETINO,  FRANCis.of  the  family  ofAc- 
colti,  a  learned  man  and  eminent  civilian  of  Italy, 
lived  in  tlic  fifteenth  century.  If  there  was  at 
this  time  only  one  Francis  Aretin  known  in  the 
republic  of  letters,  as  Bayle  has  taken  great 
pains  to  prove,  his  literary  pursuits  were  various. 
He  translated  into  Latin  Clirysostom's  Com-' 
mtntaries  on  tlic  Gospel  of  John,  and  on  the 
first  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Corintliians  ;  with 
twenty  of  his  Homilies.  He  also  translated  Into 
tlic  same  language  the  Epistles  of  Piialaris,  and 
wrote  a  treatise  "  De  Balncis  Puteolanis"  [On 
the  Baths  of  Putcoli].  On  subjects  of  law  lie 
wrote  many  books,  comments  on  the  law,  and 
law  pleadings.  Among  the  latter  are  numerous 
pleas  against  pope  Sixtus  IV.  in  favour  of  Lo- 
renzo de'  Medici  and  the  Florentines,  whom  that 
pope  hadexcominunicaled  for  the  murder  of  tlie 
archbishop  of  Pisa.  His  law  language  abounds 
with  barbarisms  ;  but  this  was  tlie  common  pro- 
fessional language  of  the  age;  and  it  has  been 
said  in  his  justification,  and  to  show  that  the 
toinmenrator  and  the  lawyer  might,  notwith- 
standing the  difference  of  tiieir  latinity,  be  the 
same  person,  that,  had  Francis  Aretin  made  his 
law-Latin  more  classical,  he  would  neither 
have  been  understood  by  his  brethren,  nor  have 
been  employed  in  his  profession. 

This  civilian  studied  at  Sienna  about  the 
vcar  1443,  and  afterwards  taught  the  civil  law 
in  the  university  of  that  city,  and  also  at  Pisa  and 
F'errara,  with  such  high  reputation  for  acute- 
ness  in  argument  and  disputation,  that  the  sub- 
tilty  of  Aretin  became  proverbial.  He  visited 
Rome  with  great  expectations,  through  the  fa- 
vour of  Sixtus  IV.  of  obtaining  some  ecclesi- 
astical dignity,  but  was  disappointed.  The  pon- 
tit  declared  that  he  would  willingly  bestow 
upon  him  the  dignity  of  cardinal,  were  he  not 
loth  to  deprive  the  public  of  so  excellent  a  civi- 
lian. He  was  honoured  with  the  rank  of  knight- 
hood. His  lectures  were  commonly  attended  by 
a  numerous  auditory  ;  and  he  valued  himself 
greatly  upon  his  popularity.  Many  of  his  scho- 
lars having  been  one  day  drawn  from  the  school 
by  a  public  spectacle,  counting  only  forty  per- 
sons in  his  auditory,  he  in  a  passion  tiirew  away 
his  book,  exclaiming,  "  Aretin  will  never  ex- 
jilain  the  mystciy  of  the  law  to  forty  people," 
and  left  the  chair  abruptly.     He  was  naturally 


of  a  severe   temper:  he  never  kept  a  servant 
more  than  a  few  months,  tor  he  said  that  new 
servants  w  ere  always  most  diligent.     At  an  ad- 
vanced age  he  was  permitted  to  retain  his  salary 
without  lecturing,  yet  he  would  sometimes  take 
the  chair  ;  and  though  his  lectures  had  lost  their 
wonted  spirit,  he  seldom  failed  of  being  well 
attended.     To  show  how  much  value  he  -set    ■ 
upon  reputation,  a  whimsical  anecdote  may  be 
added.     Findhig  some  ot  his  scholars  less  atten- 
tive to  their  character  than  he  wished,  he  took 
a  singular  method  of  giving  them  a  lesson  upon 
the  subject.      He  went  with  his  lacquey,  before 
break  of  day,  into  the  shambles  atFerrara,  and, 
breaking  open  one  of  the  boxes  which  the  butch- 
ers had  left,  carried  off  the  meat.      Two  of  his 
scholars,  whose  mischievous  pranks  were  well 
known,  were  immediately  accused  of  the  action, 
and  coinmittcd  to  prison.     Aretin  waited  upon 
the  inagistrate,  and  solicited  their  release,  con- 
fessing that  he  himself  had  been  guilty  of  the 
theft.     This  appeared  too  improbable  to  obtain 
credit ;  and  the  more  earnest  Aretin  appeared  to 
take  the  offence  upon  himself,  the  inore  confi- 
dently was  it  believed  that  the  prisoners  were 
the  offenders  ;  for  no  one  could  persuade  him- 
self,   that   a   professor  of  known    gravity   and 
\visdom  could  commit  such  an  action.     The 
suspected  culprits  were,  however,  acquitted  for 
\vant  of  evidence  against  tliem  ;  and  the  profes- 
sor, openly  declaring  the  whole  inatter,  made 
compensation  to  the  butchers,  and  entreated  his 
pupils  10  learn,  from  this  transactioai,  the  weight 
and  authority  of  a  good  character.     Panciroll. 
dc  Claris  Leg.  Into  p.      Bayk.  —  E. 

ARETINO,  GuiDo,  a  native  of  Arczzo 
in  Tuscany,  is  famous  for  Iiis  musical  discove- 
ries. He  was  a  monk  of  the  order  of  St.  Bene- 
dict, at  Pomposo  near  Ravenna,  towards  the 
beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  at  length 
becaiTie  abbot  of  the  convent  of  the  Holy  Cross 
at  Avellano,  near  Arezzo.  He  composed  two 
tracts  on  music,  entitled,  "  Micrologus"  and 
"  Antiphonarium,"  by  which  he  obtained  such 
celebrity,  as  to  be  sent  for  to  Roine  by  pope  Be- 
nedict VlII.  in  I022  ;  and  afterwards  by  pope 
John  XIX.  the  latter  of  whom  practised  with 
him  his  new  method  of  teaching  to  chant.  His 
capital  invention  was  a  new  mode  of  musical 
notation,  by  substituting  the  syllables  ///,  re,  mi, 
fa,  sol,  la,  taken  from  the  beginning  of  eacii 
heinistich  in  a  verse  of  a  Latin  hymn  to  St.  John 
the  Baptist,  to  the  six  letters  of  the  Roman  al- 
phabet formerly  used  in  the  Gregorian  chant. 
He  likewise  introduced  the  use  of  lines  and  spaces 
in  writing  music.  He  is  commonly,  too,  re- 
presented as  the  inventor  of  counterpoint,  but 


qiu^fto  e  PiETRO  ABXTIND   Toetd  Tasco, 


ARE 


(    337     ) 


ARE 


probalilv  with  liitle  reason.  Dr.  Burncy  (in  his 
"  History  of  Music,"  vol.  2.)  gives  an  elabo- 
rate analysis  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  his  dis- 
coveries. Hawkinses  Hiit.  of  Alusic.  Bur- 
ney's  Do. — A. 

ARETINO,  John,  sumamed  Tortelli- 
u  s,  a  grammarian,  who  flourished  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  librarian  and 
chamberlain  to  pope  Nicholas  V.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  i^rammatical  work  "  Do  Potestatc 
Litcrarum"  [On  the  Power  of  Letters],  and 
of  a  Life  of  Atlianasius.  Asa  man  of  Icarnii-ig, 
his  fame  is  not  considerable ;  but  he  appears  to 
have  been  of  an  amiable  temper;  and  it  has  been 
observed,  mucli  to  his  credit,  that  he  never,  like 
many  of  his  cor'cmporarics,  dishonoured  learn- 
ing by  fierce  and  injuiious  disputes.  He  had 
many  friends  among  the  learned:  Laurentius 
Valla  dedicated  to  him  his  book  "  De  Latina 
Elegantia."  Jov'tui,  Elog.  Von.  de  Hist.  Lat. 
lib.  iii.  c.  7.     Boyle. — E. 

ARETINO,  Leonard,  a  learned  Italian 
historian,  whose  family  name  was  Bruni,  was 
born  at  Arczzo  in  1370.  At  tlie  4)eriod  of  the 
revival  of  learning,  he  was  a  distinguished  or- 
nament of  the  republic  of  letters.  His  contem- 
poraries a.scribc  to  him  great  strength  of  genius, 
force  of  eloquence,  and  depth  of  learning.  His 
latinity  has  been  censured  ;  but  he  appears  to 
have  been  a  great  master  of  the  Greek  language, 
which  he  learned  under  Emanuel  Chrysoloras ; 
and  to  him  is  ascribed  the  merit  of  having  been 
one  of  the  fiist  restorers  of  the  Greek  learning 
in  Italy.  In  his  youth  he  studied  at  Florence. 
His  early  reputation  -for  talents  and  learning, 
aided  by  the  good  offices  of  his  friend  Poggius, 
procured  him  the  |)ost  of  secretary  of  the  briefs 
under  pope  Innocent  VII.  which  he  continued 
to  occui>v  wiih  reputation  througli  the  four  suc- 
ceeding pontificates.  In  141 5,  Leonard  Are- 
tin  accompanied  pope  John  XXIII.  to  the  coun- 
cil of  Constance.  'I'his  pope  being  there  de- 
posed, Aretin  thought  himself  insecure  in  that 
city,  and  returned  secretly  to  Florence,  where 
he  freely  indulged  his  taste  for  letters,  and  em- 
ployed all  the  leisure  which  he  could  command 
in  writing.  He  was  chosen  secretary  to  tlic  re- 
public of  Florence,  and  in  that  ofEce,  by  parsi- 
mony, amassed  a  large  fortune.  He  was  seve- 
ral limes  employed  by  the  republic  on  foreign 
embassies.  He  died  at  Florence  in  the  year 
1443  •  '•'''  funeral  was  celebrated  with  magnifi- 
cence at  the  public  expense ;  and,  when  his 
body  was  committed  to  the  tomb,  the  orator 
uho  pronounced  the  funeral  oration,  by  order 
of  the  magistrates,  crowned  the  coHin  wiihlau- 


Leonard  Aretin  has  left  numerous  writings, 
both  translations  and  original  compositions.  He 
translated  into  Latin,  with  great  accuracy,  se- 
veral of  Plutarch's  Lives,  and  Aristotle's  Ethics 
and  Politics.  It  is  a  blot  upon  his  memory,  that 
we  must  add  to  the  list  of  his  translations  "  A 
History  of  the  Goths,"  which  he  published  as 
an  original  work,  but  was  discovered  by  Cluis- 
topher  Persona  to  be  only  a  translation  from  the 
Greek  of  Procopius.  Another  plagiarism  must 
be  imputed  to  him  in  his  "  Three  Books  of  the 
Punic  W^ar,"  written  in  Latin,  and  published 
in  8vo.  in  1537  ;  a  work  which  is  little  more 
than  a  translation  from  Polybius,  though  the  au- 
thor denies  this  in  his  pieface.  His  original 
works  are,  in  Latin,  "  An  History  of  Ancient 
Greece,"  published  in  8vo.  at  Venice,  in  1543  ; 
"  An  Attempt  to  su])ply  in  part  the  Defect  of 
the  second  Dccad  of  Livy,"  in  two  books, 
published  in  410.  at  Augsburg,  in  1537;  "  An 
History  of  the  Transactions  of  his  own  Times 
in  Italy,"  which  contains  the  period  from  the 
year  1378  to  the  year  1440,  published  in  410. 
at  Lyons,  1539;  "An  History  of  I'lorence," 
published  in  folio  in  1476,  and  afterwards 
translated  into  Italian  ;  a  treatise  "  On  Studies 
and' Letters,"  republished  by  Naude  in  1642; 
and  "  Epistles,"  republished  at  Florence,  with 
notes  and  a  life  of  the  author,  by  ]\Iehus,  in 
8vo.  in  1 741.  'I'his  work  is  much  valued  for 
the  historical  information  which  it  contains. 
Concerning  tlie  style  of  Leonard  Aretin,  Eras- 
mus says  (in  his  Ciccronianus)  that  his  works 
are  written  neatly,  and  with  ease,  and  sometimes 
are  even  Ciceronian  ;  but  his  language  wants 
strength,  and  his  latinity  is  not  always  pure. 
foss.  de  Hist.  Lat.  lib.  iii.  c.  5.  Hawkins  de 
Script.  Rom.  p.  i.  c.  45.  p.  ii.  c.  45.  7«t'. 
£iog.  Gcsner.  Bib!.  Baylc.  Moreri.  hoin: 
Diet.  Hist.—E. 

-  ARETINO,  Peter,  surnamed  the  5r»«;j;^' 
of  Princes,  born  in  1492,  was  natural  son  of 
Luigi  Bacci,  a  gentleman  of  Arezzo  in  Tus- 
cany. Few  literary  characters  have  excited 
more  notice  during  their  lives,  and  have  less 
sustained  their  fame  after  tiicir  death.  It  was 
by  means  of  daring  and  virulent  satire,  and 
scandalous  indecency,  that  he  raised  a  reputation 
so  much  beyond  the  claims  of  his  genius.  His 
education  was  mean,  and  he  was  unacquainted  ^ 
with  tlie  learned  languages.  He  began,  like 
many  of  the  Italian  wits,  with  attacks  on  thu* 
clergy  ;  and  proceeded  to  princes  and  sove- 
reigns, whom  he  held  in  such  awe  by  his  talent 
at  ridicule,  that  some  of  the  first  potentates  in 
Europe,  with  Francis  I.  and  Charles  V.  at  their 
head,  became  his  tributaries.     When  ilie  latter 


A  R  G 


(    3iS     ) 


A  R  G 


rc-turncJ  from  his  unfortunate  and  ill-planned 
expedition  into  Africa,  lie  sent  a  gold  chain  of 
the  value  of  one  lunnhed  ducats  to  bribe  Aretino 
to  silence.  "  A  tritiing  gift  indeed  (said  tlie  sa- 
tirist) for  so  great  a  lolly  !"  His  success  made 
him  so  vain  and  insolent,  that  he  issued  a  medal, 
bearing  on  one  side  his  head  with  the  inscrip- 
tion "  The  divine  Aretin,"  and  on  tlie  other, 
his  figure,  seated  on  a  throne,  receiving  the  en- 
voys of  princes.  Some  of  the  Italian  petty 
princes,  however,  kept  him  in  order  more  efFec- 
tuallv  with  the  tlireats  of  a  cudgel,  than  their 
superiors  witii  their  offerings.  This  bold  sati  ■ 
rist  and  reformer  of  manners  was  one  of  tiic 
basest  of  flatterers  when  he  thought  it  suited  his 
interest;  and  the  desire  of  gain  seems  to  have 
been  his  princi))al  motive  both  in  praise  and  cen- 
sure. He  was  an  inordinate  and  shameless  puff- 
er of  his  own  consequence,  and  of  the  merit  of 
his  own  performances  ;  and  the  world  appears 
to  have  been  ready  to  give  him  the  credit  of  his 
assumptions.  He  wrote  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
prose  and  verse,  letters,  discourses,  dialogius,  son- 
nets, cantos,  and  comedies.  Extravagant  and  far- 
fetched conceits,  coarse  and  biting  jests,  with  a 
mixture  of  ingenious  turns  and  forcible  ex- 
pressions, compose  the  substance  of  most  of 
these  works,  which  have  now  sunk  into  de- 
served oblivion.  His  name  was  rendered  pecu- 
harly  infamous  bv  his  letters  and  sonnets,  ac- 
companying I'he  Postures,  so  celebrated  in  the 
annals  of  lewdness,  displayed  in  sLxtcen  engrav- 
ings of  Marco  Antonio  of  Bologna,  from  de- 
signs of  Julio  Romano.  His  "  Ragionamenti," 
or  Discourses,  contain  matter  little  less  offen- 
sive to  decency.  The  charge  of  atheism,  brought 
against  him,  seems,  however,  to  liave  proceed- 
ed only  from  his  satirical  strokes  against  the 
clergy;  for  no  irreligious  principles  are  to  be 
met  \\  ith  in  his  writings.  And  even  while  em- 
ployed on  his  most  licentious  performances,  he 
was  writing  the  Life  of  St.  Catherine  of  Sien- 
na, and  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  composing 
penitential  hymns,  and  other  pieces  of  piety ;  so 
little,  under  some  systems,  is  religion  connected 
with  good  morals  !  Aretin  died  at  Venice  in 
1556.  An  Italian  wit  wrote  an  epitaph  for  him, 
the  turn  of  which  was,  "  that  he  caluinniated 
every  one  except  God,  whom  he  spared  only 
because  he  did  not  know  him."  Bayle.  Mareri. 
Tirabosch'i. — A. 

ARGENS,  John-Baptist  de  Boyer, 
Marquis  of,  born  at  Ai;<  in  Provence,  in 
1704,  was  the  son  of  the  solicitor-general  to  the 
parliament  of  that  city.  His  father  wished  to 
bring  him  up  to  the  magistracy,  but  at  fifteen 
he  embraced  the  profession  of  arms.     He  passed 


a  fiery  and  inconsiderate  youth,  and,  returning  at 
length  to  liis  family,  was  obliged  by  his  father  to 
enter  at  the  bar.  The  famous  affair  of  La  Ca- 
diere  disgusting  him  with  this  profession,  he 
entered  again  into  the  inilitary  service  in  1733, 
and  was  slightly  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Kehl. 
After  the  siege  of  Philipsburg,  he  got  a  fall  from 
his  horse,  which  ever  after  disabled  him  from 
the  service.  For  some  time  he  lived  by  the  as- 
sistance of  his  pen  in  Holland.  Frederic  king 
of  Prussia,  on  coming  to  the  crown,  gave  him 
an  invitation,  and  kept  him  at  his  court  in  qua- 
lity of  chamberlain.  With  this  great  monarch 
he  lived  on  very  familiar  terms  ;  and  he  formed 
a  distinguished  personage  in  the  group  of  literati 
who  refined  and  enlivened  the  court  of  Berlin. 
At  this  place  he  passed  about  twenty-five  years, 
and  married.  He  bore  the  character  of  a  good 
husband,  friend,  and  master.  His  conversation 
pleased  by  a  natural  air  of  candour,  and  a  spark- 
ling vivacity,  with  sallies  of  great  originality ; 
yet  he  v/as  inclined  to  low  spirits,  and  was  ac- 
customed to  say,  that  he  had  dogmas  which  de- 
pended on  the  seasons.  He  returned  at  length 
to  his  native  city,  where  he  lived  as  a  philoso- 
pher till  1771,  when  he  died  unexpectedly  on  a 
visit  to  his  sister,  the  baroness  de  la  Garde,  near 
Toulon. 

As  a  writer,  the  marquis  d'Argens  ranks 
among  those  free  speculators  in  matters  of  reli- 
gion and  morals,  who,  from  the  time  of  Bayle 
and  Montesquieu,  have  been  multiplying  on  the 
continent,  so  as  at  last  to  comprise  most  of  the 
writers  whose  wit  and  vivacity  have  rendered 
tliem  fashionable.  Bayle  was  especially  the 
model  of  D'Argens  ;  but  the  man  of  fashion  was 
greatly  inferior  in  depth  and  learning  to  the 
scholar  :  yctD'Argens  had  a  prodigious  thirst  for 
knowledge,  and  his  acquisitions  were  extensive: 
he  possessed  several  languages,  had  some  ac- 
quaintance with  chemistry  and  anatomy,  and 
was  a  tolerable  painter.  His  writings  display 
erudition  and  reflection ;  but  their  style  is  too 
difFuse,  and  his  pen  had  more  facility  than  ener- 
gy. A  tendency  to  licentiousness  in  morals, 
and  a  perpetual  desire  of  attacking  religion  and 
its  establishments,  are  leading  features  in  his 
works.  The  principal  of  these  are,  i.  Hfs 
"  Jewish  Letters,  Chinese  Letters,  and  Caba- 
listic Letters"  which,  with  the  "  Philosophy  of 
Good  Sense,"  compose  twenty-four  volumes  in 
small  i2mo.  published  together  under  the  title  of 
"  The  Works  of  the  Marquis  d'Argens."  2.  A 
number  of"  Romances,"  ill  imagined  and  neg- 
ligently written.  His  own  "  Memoirs"  may  be 
regarded  as  one  of  these  ;  and  they  are  not  calcu- 
lated to  excite  a  higli    opinion  of  the  writer. 


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^.  "  Translations  from  tlie  Greek  of  Ocellus 
Lucanus,  TimKus  Locrensis,  and  the  Dis- 
course of  Julian  on  Christianity  ;"  not  executed 
with  perfect  accuracy.  4.  "  Secret  Memoirs  of 
tlie  Republic  of  Letters,"  4  vols,  a  work  which 
owed  its  ephemeral  success  principally  to  the  ti- 
tle of  "  Secret,"  and  is  now  forgotten.  The 
Jewish  and  Chinese  Letters  were  the  most  po- 
pular, and  are  now  the  best  known  of  his  pro- 
ductions.    Nouv.  Diet.  Hist, — A. 

ARGEN SON,  Marc  Rene' i-eVoyerde 
Paulmy,  Marquis  d\  one  of  the  distinguished 
characters  of  the  rtip;n  of  Lewis  XIV.  descended 
from  an  ancient  faniilv  originally  of  Touraine, 
was  born,  in  1652,  at  ^'^.■nice,  where  his  father 
was  then  the  embassador  of  France.  The  re- 
public, which  acted  as  his  sponsor  at  baptism, 
gave  him  the  name  of  Mark.  He  was  brought 
up  to  the  law,  and  admitted  a  counsellor  of  par- 
liament in  1669.  After  passing  through  various 
offices,  among  which  was  that  of  lieutenant- 
general  of  Angouleme,  and  master  of  requests, 
he  was  created  in  1 697,  by  the  interest  of  Cauni- 
martin,  whose  daughter  he  had  married,  lieute- 
nant-general of  the  police  in  Paris.  It  was  his 
conduct  in  this  office  which  conferred  on  him 
all  his  celebrity.  With  a  figure  made  to  inspire 
terror,  a  mind  firm  and  undaunted,  an  under- 
standing penetrating  and  comprehensive,  he  ma- 
naged the  vast  and  intricate  system  of  the  police 
of  Paris,  so  as  to  render  it  one  of  the  wonders 
of  tlie  brilliant  period  in  which  he  lived.  He 
provided  for  the  salubrity,  the  plenty,  the  safety, 
and  good  order  of  the  metropolis  with  such 
success,  that  the  king  was  satisfied  to  commit 
its  concerns  entirely  to  his  care ;  and  so  vigi- 
lant an  eye  did  he  keep  over  all  that  passed,  that 
a  stranger  could  not  enter  Paris  in  the  dark 
without  being  known  next  day  to  the  officers 
of  police.  Such  a  system  could  not  he  esta- 
blished or  maintained  without  a  settled  plan  of 
espionnage,  and  an  infringement  of  the  freedom 
of  society  in  many  essential  points  ;  and  indeed 
D'Argenson  was  best  calculated  for  a  delegate  of 
despotic  power.  He  was  much  attached  to  ab- 
solute authority,  could  not  endure  to  be  con- 
trouled  bv  the  forms  and  delays  of  law,  and 
thereby  frequently  incurred  the  displeasure  of 
the  parliament,  which  mad;;  several  attacks 
upon  him,  but  found  him  sheltered  by  royal  fa- 
vour. He  introduced  the  use  of  lettres  de  ca- 
chet in  the  police,  by  which  means  he  prevent- 
ed appeals  to  the  parliament,  and  kept  in  con- 
finement as  long  as  he  pleased  all  susf)ected  per- 
sons, without  giving  them  an  opportunity  of 
justifying  themselves — one  of  the  most  terrible 
engines  of  despoiij>m,  and  afterwards  the  most 


abused  !  Though  in  his  examinations  he  put  en 
a  manner  that  appalled  even  the  innocent,  and 
overawed  criminals,  he  was  not  insensible  to 
the  feelings  of  humanity,  and  generally  inclined 
to  the  most  lenient  determination.  He  greatly 
obliged  many  families  of  consequence,  by  con- 
cealing the  enormities  of  their  young  people 
from  the  king  and  the  public,  and  bringing  them 
back  to  sobriety  of  conduct  by  quiet  methods. 
His  own  advancement,  however,  was  the  point 
which  he  steadily  pursued.  This  led  him  in  the 
declining  years  of  Lewis  XIV.  to  court  the  Je- 
suits, and  serve  as  the  apparent  instrument  of 
their  persecutions,  though  he  spared  the  perse- 
cuted as  much  as  lay  in  hrs  power.  He  eter- 
nally obliged  the  duke  of  Orleans,  by  protect- 
ing him  from  the  unjust  suspicion  of  being 
concerned  with  a  Cordelier  in  poisoning  th.e  roy- 
al family.  When  the  financiering  system  of 
Law  began  to  prevail  in  the  counsels  of  the  re- 
gency, D'Argenson  favoured  it,  and  was  in  con- 
sequence made,  in  1718,  president  of  the  coun- 
cil of  linancc;  and,  in  1719,  keeper  of  the 
seals,  which  were  taken  from  D'Aguesseau.  In 
1720  the  finances  and  seals  were  put  into  other 
hands,  and  he  was  made  minister  of  state.  But 
this  was  only  a  prelude  to  his  loss'  of  credit, 
which  drove  him  to  a  retreat  in  the  exterior  of  a 
nunnery,  where  he  died  in  1721'.  He  was  a 
man  of  great  capacity,  of  consummate  know- 
ledge of  the  world,  and  of  extraordinary  ta- 
lents for  business.  His  active  lite  had  not  al- 
lowed him  to  acquire  much  general  knowledge; 
but  his  political  consequence,  and  a  taste  for 
letters,  caused  him  to  be  received  into  the  French 
academy,  and  the  academy  of  sciences.  In 
private  society  he  was  polite,  gay,  and  full  of 
pleasantry.  He  raised  his  familv  to  consequence, 
and  left  two  sons  who  occupied  high  posts  in  the 
state.  Mareri.  tiouv.  Diet.  Hist.  Mem.  dr 
Duclos.     Mem.  de  St.  Simon. — A. 

ARGENVILLE.    See  Dezallier. 

ARGOLI,  Andrew,  an  Italian  mathema- 
tician of  the  seventeenth  centurv,  was  born  at 
Tagliacozzo  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Ex- 
periencing hardships  in  his  native  country,  he 
withdrew  to  Venice,  where  his  matliemaiical 
talents  were  discerned  and  rewaaicd.  7'hc  se- 
nate of  Venice  appointed  him  professor  of  ma- 
thematics in  the  univeisity  of  Padua  ;  and  con- 
ferred upon  him  the  title  of  chevalier  in  1626. 
He  died  in  16^7  ;  and  has  left  a  treatise  "  Dc 
Diebus  Criticis,"  published  in  4to.  in  1652  ; 
and  "  Ephemerides,"  from  the  year  1620  to 
the  year  1700,  which  arc  published  in  four  vo- 
lumes 4to.     Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

ARGONNE,  DoM  BoNAVEKTCRE  d',  a 


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Chartrcux  religious,  born  at  Paris  in  1640;  in 
lii^monasiic  retirement  ;it  Gailhin,  near  Roiienj 
he  kept  up  a  correspondence  with  the  literary 
world,  in  which  his  learning  and  talents  pro- 
cured him  manv  friends.  He  wrote,  in  French, 
a  judicious  work,  "  On  reading  the  Fathers  of 
the  Church,"  printed  in  i2mo.  in  1697  ;  "Mis- 
cellanies, historical  and  literary,"  published  un- 
der the  name  of  Vigjieul  de  I\Iarville,  reprint- 
ed, with  additions,  by  the  abbe  Banier,  in 
three  volumes  i2mo.  in  1725-  This  work  is  a 
curious  and  interesting  collection  of  literary 
anecdotes,  and  of  critical  and  satirical  re- 
marks. The  author  died  in  1704.  Noiiv.  Diet. 
Hist.—?.. 

ARGUES,  Gerard  d',  a  mathematician 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  born  at  Lyons 
in  1597,  and  died  there  in  1661.  He  was  a 
friend  and  disciple  of  Descartes  :  and  the  friend- 
siiip  was  useful  to  both  ;  Descartes  instructed 
liis  friend,  and  Argues  defended  his  master. 
From  this  writer  we  have,  in  French,  "  A  Trea- 
tise on  Perspective,"  in  folio;  "  A  Treatise  on 
Conic  Sections,"  in  8vo. ;  "  The  Practice  of 
Drawing,"  in  8vo. ;  and  "  A  Treatise  on 
Stone-cutting,"  in  8vo.  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. 
—A. 

ARGYROPYLUS,  John,  a  native  of 
Constantinople,  a  peripatetic  philosoplier,  was 
one  of  the  first  Greeks  who,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  fled  from  that  city,  and  sought  an  asy- 
lum in  Italy.  It  has  been  commonly  believed, 
that  he  did  not  come  into  Italy  till  after  the  tak- 
ing of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  in  the  year 
1454 ;  but  Vespasian  Florentine,  an  author 
contemporary  with  Argyropylus,  in  his  Life  of 
Palhs  Stro'Azi,  relates  that  this  gentleman,  when, 
in  1434)  he  was  banished  from  Florence,  re- 
tired to  Padua,  and  took  with  him  John  Argy-- 
ropvlus  to  read  to  him  Greek  authors,  particu- 
larly Aristotle.  John  Argyropylus,  it  is  true, 
afterwards  went  over  to  Constantinople'  in  the 
year  1441,  when  Phiklphus  wrote  to  his  friend 
Parleoni,  wlio  was  gone  thither,  assuring  him 
that  he  had  recommended  him  to  the  learned 
Argyropylus:  but  it  is  also  true,  that  he  soon 
returned  to  Padua,  where,  in  1444,  he  assisted, 
with  the  other  professors,  at  the  admission  of 
Francis  dc  la  Kovera,  afterwards  pope  Sixtus 
IV.  to  the  degree  of  doctor  in  theology.  Hence 
it  is  certain,  that  Argyrojivlus  came  to  reside  in 
Italy  several  years  bL-fore  the  taking  of  Constan- 
tinople. In  the  year  1456,  Cosmo  de'  Wcdici 
invited  him  to  Florence  to  instruct  his  son  Peter 
and  his  nephew  Lorenzo  in  the  Greek  language 
and  philosophy.  Argyropylus  accepted  the 
charge  ;  aiid  Pliilelphus  wrote,  at  that  time,  a 


letter  10  the  Florentines,  congratulating  them 
on  the  acquisition  of  so  great  a  man.  A  little 
afterwards,  but  in  the  same  year,  as  appears  from 
the  same  letter,  Argyropykis  took  a  journey  into- 
France,  to  solicit  succour  for  some  of  his  rela- 
tions, who  had  been  made  slaves  by  the  Turks. 
On  his  return  he  went  again  to  Florence,  where 
he  taught  for  five  years.  During  this  period  he 
was,  by  the  appointment  of  the  Medicean  fami- 
ly, who  afforded  him  liberal  ]>atronage,  profes- 
sor of  Cireek  at  Florence.  Here,  at  the  request 
of  his  patron,  he  undertook  to  translate  into 
Latin  the  Physics  and  Ethics  of  Aristotle,  and 
he  executed  the  task  with  verba!  fidelity.  Theo- 
dore Gaza  had  finished  a  similar  translation,  but 
had  the  generosity  to  make  a  sacrifice  of  his 
own  interest  and  reputation,  by  throwing  it  into 
the  fire,  'i'he  plague  obliging  Argyropylus  to 
leave  Florence,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  cardi- 
nal Bessarion  bestowed  upon  liiin  the  professor- 
ship of  the  Greek  language.  He  read  lectures 
upon  Aristotle,  and  had  the  honour  of  being  the 
first  modern  Greek  who  taught  philosophy  in  that 
cit)'.  A  handsomcsalary  wasappoiiued  him  by  the 
pope  ;  but  he  was  so  fond  of  good  living,  that  it 
was  scarcely  sufficient  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
his  table.  The  unrestrained  indulgence  of  his 
appetite  proved  fatal  to  him  :  at  the  age  of  seven- 
ty he  died  of  a  fever,  caused  by  eating  melons  to 
excess.  Argyropylus  appears  to  have  been  a 
man  rather  respectable  for  his  learning  than 
amiable  in  his  manners.  In  conversation,  he 
disputed  with  keenness,  and  often  disgusted  his 
friends  by  ill-humour  arising  from  literary  jea- 
lousy. He  affected  to  despise  Cicero,  whom  he 
maintained  to  have  been  ignorant  of  the  Greek 
language  and  philosophy.  He,  nevertheless, 
possessed  great  strength  of  mind  ;  of  which  he 
gave  a  sti  iking  proof,  in  the  calm  fortitude  with 
which  he  bore  the  loss  of  a  son,  who  wasassassi- 
nated  at  Rome.  His  translations  are  valuable  ; 
they  arc  found  in  the  more  ancient  Latin  edi- 
tions of  Aristotle  ;  and  in  the  Greek  and  Latiiv 
editions  printed  at  Basil.  He  also  wrote  a  "Com- 
mentary on  Aristotle's  Ethics,"  jirinted  in  folio 
at  Florence  and  Paris  in  1541  ;  and  several  epis- 
tles and  other  smaller  pieces,  which  remain  in 
manuscript.  P.  Jov.  FJog.  Fabric.  Bib.  Greec. 
lib.  V.  c.  43.  §21.  Bayle.  Landi,  Hist.  Litt. 
d' Italic,  lib.  ix.  n.  76. — E. 

ARIARATHES  I.  king  of  Cappadocia, 
ascended  the  throne  B.  C.  362,  and  shared  it 
with  his  brother  Olophernes.  He  accompanied 
Artaxerxes  Ochus  in  his  expedition  against  the 
Egyptians,  wherein  he  greatly  distinguished 
himself.  His  brother  sui-vived  him,  but  trans- 
mitted  the   crown  to    the   son   of  Ariarathcs, 


lOANNES,    JVP^GYROPILVS. 

J\flarnJU.fcuL. 


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whom  he  had  adopted.  Bayle.  Un'ivcrs.  Hist. 
—A. 

ARIARATHES  II.  son  of  the  preceding, 
succeeded  liis  uncle  B.  C.  330.  Dining  the 
expedition  of  Alexander  the  Great  into  Asia, 
he  was  tiie  only  prince  in  Lesser  Asia  whose 
dominions  were  not  molested,  though  he  re- 
mained faithfully  attached  to  the  king  of  Persia. 
But  after  the  death  of  that  conqueror,  he  was 
attacked  by  Perdiccas,  and  defeated  in  two  suc- 
cessive engagements.  In  the  last,  according  to 
Diodorus,  he  was  slain  ;  hut  Appian  and  Curtius 
assert  that  he  was  made  prisoner,  and  inhuman- 
ly crucified,  with  all  of  the  royal  blood  whom 
rerdiccas  could  get  into  his  hands.  This  hap- 
pened B.  C.  322.      Bayli.      Unlvers.  Hist. — A. 

ARIARATHES  III.  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, took  refuge  in  Armenia  during  the  dangers 
which  attended  his  family  ;  and,  returning  after 
ilie  dcadis  of  Perdiccas  and  Eumcnes,  recovered 
liis  paternal  dominion  with  the  aid  of  the  king 
of  Armenia,  B.  C.  317,  having  defeated  and 
killed  the  Macedonian  governor  Amyntas.  He 
reigned  long  in  peace,  and  left  the  crown  to  his 
son  Ariaiamnes  II.  Bayle.   Unlvers.  Hist. — A. 

ARIARATHES  IV.  was  the  son  of  Ari- 
aramnes  II.  and  was  assumed  by  him  in  his  life- 
time to  the  partnership  of  the  kingdom.  He 
married  Stratonice,  the  daughter  of  Antiochus 
Theos.  He  maintained  a  war  against  Arsaces  I. 
the  founder  of  the  Parthian  monarchy,  who 
was  killed  in  a  battle  against  him.  After  con- 
siderably enlarging  his  dominions  in  a  reign  of 
thirty-eight  years,  he  died  about  224  B.  C. 
Bayle.     A4oreri.      Ihiivers.  Hist. — A. 

ARIARATHES  V.  son  of  the  preceding, 
married  Antiochis,  daughter  of  Antiochus  tiie 
Great,  by  which  alliance  he  was  involved  in  a 
war  with  the  Romans.  After  they  had  defeated 
his  father-in-law,  he  sent  embassadors  to  Roine 
to  sue  for  a  peace,  which  was  granted  him  on 
the  payment  of  two  hundred  talents.  He  after- 
wards assisted  the  Romans  with  men  and  mo- 
ney against  Perses  ;  and  was  in  consequence 
honoured  with  the  title  of  friend  and  ally  of  the 
republic.  In  conjunction  with  Eumenes,  king 
of  Per;;amus,  he  made  war  on  Pliarnaccs  11. 
king  ot  Pontus  ;  but  thedispute  was  accommo- 
dated by  the  interference  of  the  Romans.  A 
remarkable  circumstance  relative  to  him  was 
the  deception  practised  by  his  wife,  who,  think- 
ing herself  likely  to  continue  steril,  imjjosed 
upon  him  two  supposititious  sons.  Becoming 
atUrwards  the  real  mother  of  two- daughters  and 
a  son,  she  confessed  the  fraud  ;  and  Ariarathes 
scot  one  of  the  pretended  princes  to  Rome,  and 
<he  other  into  Ionia.     His  legitimate  son,  who 

vol..  I. 


was  first  named  Mirliridatcs,  and  aftens-ards 
took  the  family  name  of  Ariarathes,  was  educated 
in  the  Grecian  manner  ;  for  tliis  king  was  a 
lover  of  learning,  and  much  attached  to  the  study 
of  philosophy ;  whence  Cappadocia,  before 
scarcely  known  to  the  Greeks,  became  the  resort 
of  several  men  of  eminence  in  literature.  He 
was  so  much  addicted  to  study,  that  he  wished 
to  resign  his  crown  to  his  son  ;  but  the  latter 
opposed  this  intention.  The  reign  of  this  king 
is  said  to  have  extended  to  the  very  uncommon 
term  of  sixty-lwo  years  ;  for  his  deatli  is  placed 
B.  C.  162.  Bayle.  Moreii.  Univers.  Hist. — A. 
ARIARATHES  VI.  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  named  P/iilopator,  from  the  respect 
and  affection  he  showed  to  his  father.  He  be- 
gan his  reign  by  a  splendid  embassy  to  Rome, 
for  the  purpose  of  renewing  his  father's  treaty 
with  the  Roman  republic,  with  which  he  ever 
afterwards  cultivated  a  close  connection,  behav- 
ing towards  it  with  that  deference  and  submis- 
sion which  all  the  princes  of  Asia  found  it  ne- 
cessary to  observe  towards  the  lords  of  empires. 
In  order  to  avoid  giving  them  offence,  he  reject- 
ed the  offer  made  him  by  Demetrius  Soter,  king 
of  Syria,  of  his  sister,  the  widow  of  Perses  king 
of  Macedon,  in  marriage.  The  Roman  senate 
thanked  him  for  this  instance  of  regard,  which, 
however,  involved  him  in  great  troubles.  For 
Demetrius,  in  resentment  of  the  affront,  gave 
his  aid  to  Olopherncs,  one  of  tlie  supposititious 
children  of  Ariarathes  V.  who  claimed  the 
crown  as  his  right  by  seniority,  and  invaded  the 
kingdom.  At  the  instance  ot  the  Romans,  Eu- 
menes  king  of  Pergamus  joined  Ariarathes  with 
his  forces  ;  bui  they  were  botli  defeated,  and 
Ariarathes  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  kingdom. 
Olopherncs  pleaded  his  cause  so  well  at  Rome, 
that  the  senate  ordered  the  kingdom  to  besliared 
between  the  two  claimants  ;  but  Attains  king  of 
Pergamus,  who  had  succeeded  Eumcnes,  gave 
Ariarathes  such  effectual  assistance,  that  he 
completely  restored  him  to  his  dominiotis,  and 
expelled  his  competitor.  Ariarathes  afterwards 
made  war  on  the  Prienians,  who  had  aided  Olo- 
pherncs, till  the  Romans  interposed.  He  then 
joined  Alexander  Balas,  Ptolemy,  and  other 
kings,  against  Demetrius  Soter,  and  displayed 
great  courage  and  conduct  in  the  battle  in  which 
Demetrius  was  defeated  and  slain.  Some  years 
afterwards,  Ariarathes  joining  the  Romans 
against  Aristonicus,  the  claimant  of  the  king- 
dom of  I'trgamus,  )vas  killed  in  the  same  battle 
in  which  P.  Licinius  Crassus  was  utterly  de- 
feated and  taken  prisoner,  B.  C.  129.  lie  left 
his  wile  Laodice  regent  of  the  kingdom  (to 
which  the  Romans  added  Lycaonia  andCiliciu) 
3  A 


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and  guardian  of  his  six  sons.  But  ihis  detesta- 
ble mother,  in  order  to  picscrvo  licr  authority, 
poisoned  five  of  them  in  the  first  year  of  her  re- 
gency, one  of  the  youngest  only  escaping.  The 
people,  detesting  her  cruelty  and  tyranny,  put 
her  to  death;  and  her  surviving  son  succetdcd  to 
tlic  rrown.      Bayle.      Univers.  Hiu. — A. 

ARIARATHES  Vll.  son  of  the  preceding, 
married  Laodice,  sister  of  Mithridatcs  the  Great. 
Very  little  is  known  of  this  prince,  except  that 
his  ambitious  and  unprincipled  brother-in-law 
caused  him  to  be  privately  taken  ofF  by  one 
Gordius,  and  then  took  possession  of  Cappado- 
(.  ia,  under  the  pretence  of  securing  llie  rights  of 
the  two  sons  of  Ariarathcs  against  Nicomedes 
king  of  Bithynia.  The  Cappadocians,  how- 
ever, rising  in  arms,  ex-jiellcd  the  garrisons  of 
Mithridates,  and  placed  on  the  throne  the  eldest 
of  the  two  princes.   Ba\lc.  Univers.  Hist. — A. 

ARIARATHES  Vl'll.  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  obliged,  soon  after  his  accession,  to  defend 
his  dominions  against  the  invasion  of  Nicomedes 
king  of  Bithynia.  His  uncle  Mithridates 
marched  to  his  assistance,  and  the  combined  ar- 
mies drove  out  Nicomedes,  and  even  stript  him 
of  part  of  his  own  territories.  In  the  mean  time, 
Laodice,  the  mother  of  Ariarathes,  had  married 
Nicomedes  ;  and  a  peace  was  soon  after  made 
between  the  two  kings.  Mithridates,  whose 
real  intention  had  long  been  to  gain  possession 
of  Cappadocia  for  himself,  sought  a  pretext  to 
quarrel  witli  his  nephew,  and  for  that  purpose 
insisted  upon  his  recalling  Gordius,  the  murder- 
er of  his  father.  Ariarathes  rejecting  the  pro- 
posal with  abhorrence,  a  war  arose,  in  which 
Alitliridates,  suddenly  advancing  with  an  army 
to  the  frontiers  of  Cappadocia,  was  surprised 
to  see  himself  opposed  by  one  not  inferior.  This 
made  him  resolve  to  put  an  end  to  the  contest 
by  treachery ;  accordingly,  inviting  his  ne- 
phew to  a  conference  in  sight  of  the  two  armies, 
he  drew  a  dagger  which  he  had  concealed  be- 
tween the  folds  of  his  robe,  and  stabbed  Aria- 
rathes to  the  heart.  The  Cappadocians,  at  the 
sight  of  this  atrocious  deed,  were  struck  with 
so  much  terror,  that  they  dispersed  ;  and  Mi- 
thridates seised  the  kingdom  without  opposi- 
tion. This  happened,  B.  C.  92.  Bayle.  Uni- 
vers. Hist. — A. 

ARIARATHES  IX.  Mithridates  placed 
upon  the  throne  of  Cappadocia  his  own  son, 
ci"ht  years  of  age,  to  whom  he  gave  the  name 
of  Ariarathes,  and  appointed  Gordius  for  a 
guardian.  But  the  Cappadocians,  attached  to 
the  blood  of  their  ancient  kings,  called  in  t!.e 
brother  of  the  last  sovereign,  who  had  taken  re- 
fuge in  Asia  Proper,  and  proclaimed  him,  un- 


der the  name  of  Ariarathes  IX.  Mitliridatcs, 
upon  this,  invaded  the  country  with  a  powerful 
army,  and  defeated  the  new  king,  who  soon  af- 
ter died  of  grief.  He  then  replaced  his  own  son 
on  the  throne.  Another  Ariarathes  was  brouglit 
on  the  scene  by  Nicomedes,  who  was  a  youth 
suborned  to  pass  himself  as  a  third  brother  of 
the  two  preceding  kings  of  that  name  ;  and  he 
was  supported  bv  the  Roman  senate,  till  they 
were  convinced  of  the  imposture.  The  line  of 
Pharnaces,  therefore,  is  considered  as  becoming 
extinct  in  the  person  of  Ariarathes  IX.  BayU. 
Univers,  Hist. — A. 

ARIAS  MONTANUS,  a  Spanish  Bene- 
dictine monk  of  the  sixteenth  century,  highly 
distinguished  by  his  biblical  learning,  was,  ac- 
cording to  his  own  account,  a  native  of  Seville. 
His  family  was  noble,  but  so  poor,  that  he  was 
indebted  to  the  liberality  of  some  wealthy  Sevi- 
lians  for  his  education.  At  Seville  he  made  a 
rapid  progress  in  learning.  He  afterwards  re- 
moved to  the  university  at  Alcala,  where,  while 
he  studied  theology,  he  not  only  completed  his 
acquaintance  with  the  Greek  and  Latin  lan- 
guages, but  made  himself  master  of  Hebrew, 
Arabic,  Syriac,  andChaldee.  He  then  travelled 
through  France,  Germany,  Italy,  the  Nether- 
lands, and  England,  to  acquire  the  knowledge 
of  modern  languages.  After  receiving  priest's 
orders,  he  accompanied  the  bishop  of  Segovia 
to  the  council  of  Trent,  where  he  obtained  great 
reputation.  On  his  return  to  Spain,  he  retired 
among  the  mountains  of  Andalusia  to  a  pleasant 
spot  near  Aracena,  to  prosecute  his  learned  la- 
bours. His  profound  erudition  soon  rendered 
him  famous ;  and  Philip  II.  king  of  Spain  eim- 
ployed  him  in  editing  a  Polyglot  Bible.  He  re- 
moved for  this  purpose  into  the  Netherlands,  of 
which  the  duke  d'Alva  was  governor,  and  exe- 
cuted the  great  work  with  meritorious  diligence 
and  fidelity.  He  inserted  in  his  Polyglot  the 
Chaldee  paraphrases,  and  the  version  of  Pagni- 
nus,  which  he  corrected,  to  bring  it  nearer  to  the 
Hebrew  text,  To  the  Greek  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, and  the  Latin  versions,  he  added  the 
Syriac  version  in  Syriac  and  Hebrew  characters. 
Several  very  learned  dissertations,  written  by 
Arias  Montanus,  on  subjects  of  Jewish  antiqui- 
ties, are  prefixed  to  this  Polyglot :  they  abound 
with  recondite  learning,  and  have  furnished  va- 
luable materials  for  subsequent  commentaries  on 
the  Scriptures.  This  magnificent  work  was 
printed  under  the  care  of  the  editor,  by  the 
Plantins  at  Antwerp,  in  eight  volumes  folio, 
from  the  year  1569  to  1572.  The  envy  of 
inferior  scholars  was  excited  by  the  high  reputa- 
tion which  Arias  Montanus  gained  from  this 


BEKEDLC^'TViS'     AKIAS"     MONTANV^ 


£      </<-       ^^ouLtnitC  fmr 


A  R  I 


( 


) 


A  R  I 


piiWication  :  lis  was  accused  at  Rome  of  having 
followed  too  closely  tlie  cxiilanations  of"  the 
Jewish  rabbis,  and  was  obliged  to  make  a  jour- 
ney to  Rome  to  justify  himself.  Upon  his  re- 
turn into  Spain,  the  king  offered  him  a  bishop- 
ric as  a  reward  for  his  labours  ;  but  lie  declined 
the  offer,  and  contented  himself  with  a  pension 
ot  two  thousand  ducats,  and  the  office  of  chap- 
lain to  the  king.  He  spent  his  last  years  at 
Seville,  where  he  died  in  1598,  as  appears  from 
the  epitaph  on  his  tomb  in  the  church  of  St. 
James  in  that  city 

Arias  Montanus  was  remaikable  for  his  abs- 
temiousness: he  drank  no  wir.e,  and  seldom 
ate  flesh.  He  loved  solitude,  and  pursued  his 
studies  with  indefatigable  industry.  He  may 
he  confidently  noiked  among  the  first  ornaments 
of  literature  in  Spain.  His  writings  bear  evident 
marks  of  sound  sense  as  well  as  deep  erudition. 
Besides  his  "  Dissertations  on  Jewish  Antiqui- 
ties," prefixed  to  the  Polyglot,  and  published  se- 
parately, in  4to.  at  Leyden,  in  1596;  he  has 
left  in  Latin  "  Commentaries  on  several  Parts 
of  Scripture,"  published  at  Antwerp,  at  various 
times,  from  the  year  158310  1599;  "  A  His- 
tory of  Mankind,"  published  in  1593;  " -^ 
Treatise  on  the  History  of  Nature,"  in  1601  ; 
•'  A  Version  of  the  Psalms  and  Ecclesiastes," 
in  Latin  verse,  with  other  poetical  pieces  ; 
and  a  translation  of  Jonathan's  Chaldee  Para- 
phrase of  Hosea,  and  of  the  liincrarv  of  Benja- 
min Tudelensis.  Dupln.  Mareri.  'Nouv.  Diet. 
Hht.—Y.. 

ARIEH,  J.\coB  JuDAH,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  belonging  to  the  syna- 
gogue of  Amsterdam,  is  the  author  of  a  learned 
"  Description  of  the  Tabernacle."  The  work 
lias  gone  through  several  editions  in  Hebrew, 
Latin,  Spanish,  and  Flemish.  Nouv,  Diet. 
Hist.—K. 

ARIOBARZANES  L  On  the  extinction 
of  the  line  of  Pharnaccs  in  Capi)adocia,  the  Ro- 
man senate  declared  the  Cappadocians  free  ;  but 
upon  their  declaration  that  they  were  unable  to 
live  under  any  other  government  than  the  mon- 
archical, they  were  allowed  to  elect  a  king; 
and  their  choice  fell  upon  Ariobar/anes,  an 
avowed  friend  of  the  Roman  interest,  B.  C.  91. 
He  had  reigned  but  a  short  time,  when  he  was 
expelled  by  Tigranes  king  of  Armenia,  who 
replaced  on  the  throne  Ariarathes,  son  of  Mi- 
thridates.  Ariobarzancs  repaired  to  Rome,  and 
obtained  an  order  for  Sylla  to  assist  in  restoring 
him  ;  which  he  effected.  He  was  ex])elled  again, 
and  a  second  time  restored  bv  Sylla  ;  and  after 
the  deatii  of  that  celebrated  Roman,  being  a  third 
time  driven  out  by  Mithridutes,  he  was  restored 


by  Pompev,  and  rewarded  for  his  fidelity  to  the 
Romans  by  an  accession  of  dominions.  But  as 
he  was  now  advanced  in  yeais,  and  desirous  of 
ending  his  days  in  tranquillity,  he  resigned  iiis 
crown  to  his  son  of  the  same  name,  in  the  pre- 
sence ofPompey,  and  withdrew  from  public  af- 
fairs.     Univcrs.  Hist.     Bayle, — A. 

ARIOBARZA\i:S  II.  son  (or  grandson) 
of  the  preceding,  imitated  his  father  in  iiis  at- 
tachment to  the  Romans,  and  is  mentioned  by 
Cicero  as  assisting  him  while  he  was  proconsul 
of  Cilicia.  In  the  civil  war  between  Pompey 
and  Caesar,  he,  like  the  other  eastern  potentates, 
took  part  with  tlie  former ;  after  the  death  of 
that  chief,  however,  he  so  ingratiated  himself 
with  Caesar,  as  to  preserve  his  kingdom,  with 
the  addition  of  great  part  of  Armenia,  louring 
Cssar's  absence  in  Egypt,  he  was  invaded  and 
dispossessed  by  Pharnaces  king  of  Pontus ;  but 
Caesar  afterwards  restored  him.  Tiic  memoiv 
of  this  kindness  caused  Ariobarzanes  to  refuse  to 
join  Brutus  and  Cassius,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  was  declared  an  enemv  to  the  re|)u- 
blic,  and,  being  taken  prisoner  by  Cassius, 
was  put  to  death,  B.  C.  42.  Uiiivcrs.  Hist. 
Bayle.— K. 

ARIOBARZANES  III.  the  brother  and 
successor  of  the  former,  (called  bv  some  /iria- 
rathes  X.)  was  dispossessed  by  Alarc  Antony 
in  favour  of  Sisinna,  son  of  Archelaus,  pontiff 
of  Comana ;  and  regaining  his  throne,  was 
again  expelled  by  Antonv,  and  put  to  death. 
Univcrs.  Hist.     Bayle. — A. 

Kings  of  this  name  are  to  be  found  in  the  royal 
lines  of  Pontus  and  Armenia  ;  but  their  lives  af- 
ford nothing  worthy  of  record. 

ARION,  a  personage  of  great  celebrity  in  the 
poetical  story  of  antiquity,  was  a  native  of  Me- 
tliymne  in  the  isle  of  Lesbos,  where  he  attained 
high  reputation,  about  B.  C.  620,  as  a  musician 
and  poet.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of 
the  dithyrambic  measure,  and  to  have  excelled 
in  lyric  poetrv,  which  he  sung  to  his  lute.  He 
was  in  great  favour  with  Periander  king  of  Co- 
rinth, who  long  entertained  him  at  his  court, 
and  treated  him  with  distinguished  kindness. 
Thence  he  visited  Italy  and  Sicily,  practising  in 
his  profession,  and  ai  cumulating  by  it  great 
riches.  Meaning  to  return  to  Greece,  he  em- 
barked in  a  Corinthian  vessel  with  all  his  effects. 
The  sailors,  tempted  by  such  a  prey,  wiien  out  at 
sea,  conspired  to  take  liis  life,  and  were  proceed- 
ing to  throw  liim  overboard,  when  he  requested 
to  be  permitted  to  sing  one  funeral  strain  be- 
fore his  death.  They  complied  ;  and  stand- 
ing on  the  prow,  dressed  in  his  robe  of  cere- 
mony,   with  his    instrument   in  his  hand,    he 


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A  R  I 


chanted  with  a  loud  voice  his  sweetest  elegy, 
and  threw  himself  into  the  sen.  A  dolphin 
(says  the  fahie),  charmed  with  his  music,  swam 
to  him  while  floating  on  the  waves,  bore  him  up 
on  his  back,  and  carried  him  safely  to  Cape  Tae- 
narus  in  Sparta,  whence  he  returned  to  iiis  pa- 
tron Periander.  The  sailors,  who  thought  him 
dead, put  in  atCorintii,  and,  being  confoimdcd  by 
his  a|)pcarance  against  them,  paid  the  penalty  of 
thtir  cruel  purpose  with  their  lives.  ']"his  story 
seems  to  have  been  universally  credited  by  an- 
tiquity, and  has  been  a  fre<|uent  subject  of  po- 
etry and  sculpture.  Herodot.  Aulus  Gellius. 
Aforcii. — A. 

ARIOSTI,  Attilio,  an  eminent  musical 
composer  and  jierformer,  was  a  native  of  Bolo- 
gna, and  was  originally  intended  for  the  priest- 
hood ;  but  such  was  his  early  passion  for  music, 
that  he  devoted  his  whole  time  to  it,  and,  in  spite 
of  the  remonstrances  of  his  family,  resolved  to 
make  it  his  profession.  It  is  said  that  he  had  en- 
tered into  the  Dominican  order,  but  that  he  ob- 
tained adisjiensation  from  the  pope,  leaving  him 
at  liberty  to  follow  a  secular  calling.  He  con- 
tinued, however,  to  be  usually  called  Padre  At- 
tilio. He  was  an  opera-composer  at  Bologna 
and  Venice,  in  the  former  of  which  he  set  an 
act  of  Apostolo  Zeno's  "Daphne"  in  1696. 
Thence  he  went  to  Germany,  and  in  1 700  com- 
posed a  ballet,  and  an  opera  called  "  Attis,"  for 
the  electoral  princess  of  Brandenburg,  to  whom 
he  was  appointed  maestra  di  capcUa.  He  con- 
tinued to  compose  operas  and  other  pieces  for 
Italy  and  Germany,  during  some  years,  with  re- 
putation ;  and  likewise  distinguished  himself  as 
a  performer  on  the  violoncello,  and  especially 
on  an  instrument,  "either  invented  or  much  im- 
proved bv  himself,  called  the  viol  d'amore.  In 
1716  he  arrived  in  England,  and  played  on  his 
new  instrument,  the  first  heard  in  this  country. 
He  soon  left  it :  but  at  the  establishment  of  the 
royal  academy  of  music  in  1720,  he  returned  on 
an  invitation,  and  was  employed  to  compose  se- 
veral operas.  He  formed  one  of  the  celebrated 
musical  triumvirate  of  the  time  along  with  Han- 
del and  Bononcini,  but  was  obliged,  as  well  as 
the  latter,  to  give  way  to  the  superior  genius  of 
Handel.  Attilio  is  said  to  have  been  a  perfect 
harmonist,  who  had  treasured  up  much  good 
music  in  his  head,  but  had  little  invention.  By 
wav  of  relieving  his  necessities,  he  published  a 
book  of  cantatas  by  subscription  ;  and  then  took 
leave  of  England.  His  further  history  is  not 
known.  Burncys  Hist,  of  Mus.  vol.  iv.  Haiv- 
kins,  vol.  v. — A. 

ARIOSTO,  LoDovico,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Italian,  poets,  \Yas  born  in  1474 


at  Reggio  in  Lombardy,  of  a  family  allied  to  that 
of  the  dukes  of  Ferrara.  His  attachment  to 
poetry  was  shown  at  a  very  early  age  ;  for, 
while  a  hoy,  he  composed  a  drama  on  the  sub- 
ject of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe,  which  he  caused 
to  be  acted  in  his  father's  house  by  his  brothers 
and  sisters.  His  father  wished  to  compel  him  to 
study  the  law  ;  but,  after  five  years'  ineffectual 
struggle,  he  suffered  him  to  pursue  the  studies- 
most  suited  to  his  inclination.  Alphonso  duke 
of  Ferrara  invited  him  to  his  court,  and  look 
great  delight  in  his  conversation  ;  but  he  was 
the  particular  favourite  of  the  duke's  brother, 
the  cardinal  Hippolito,  to  whom  he  remained 
attached  as  long  as  he  lived,  notwithstanding 
some  occasional  causes  of  displeasure.  He  was 
thoroughly  versed  in  the  Latin  tongue  ;  and  car- 
dinal Bembo  would  have  persuaded  him  to  em- 
ploy it  in  his  compositions  preferably  to  the 
Italian,  but  Ariosto  replied,  "  that  he  preferred 
being  the  first  of  Italian  writers  to  being  the  se- 
cond of  Latin  ones."  The  bounty  of  Alphon- 
so enabled  him  to  build  a  small  house  at  Fena- 
ra,  where  he  lived  with  a  philosophical  simpli- 
city, employing  himself  in  the  composition  of 
those  works  which  have  made  his  name  immor- 
tal. His  character  was  mild  and  benevolent, 
sensible  to  all  the  charities  of  life.  He  was  af- 
fectionately attached  to  his  mother,  whom  he 
treated  with  the  greatest  respect  in  her  old  age. 
He  had  a  mistress,  whom  he  would  have  mar- 
ried, had  he  not  apprehended  losing  some  bene- 
fices which  he  possessed.  Some  indeed  assert 
that  he  was  really  married  in  his  latter  years  to 
a  widow  named  Alcssandra.  To  the  house  of 
Este  he  was  a  zealous  friend  and  faithful  re- 
tainer ;  and  the  adulation  he  bestows  on  it  in  va- 
rious parts  of  his  works  would  make  him  ap- 
pear servile  and  insincere,  were  it  not  sanctioned 
by  the  general  practice  of  his  age  and  nation. 
He  had  a  strong  passion  for  the  glory  of  his 
country,  and  often  laments  the  injuries  and  dis- 
graces Italy  had  suffered  under  the  dominion  of 
foreigners.  Few  poets  have  enjoyed  more  of 
their  fame  during  their  lives.  His  "  Orlando 
Furioso"  became  so  popular,  that  it  was  current 
even  among  the  lowest  classes;  and  various 
stories  are  told  of  the  enthusiasm  which  it  in- 
spired. Ariosto  was  once  entrusted  for  three 
years  with  the  government  of  a  province  in  the 
Apennines,  which  was  over-run  witli  smugglers 
and  banditti.  He  kept  these  licentious  men  in 
awe,  and  rendered  the  district  tolerably  quiet. 
But  one  day,  in  a  fit  of  reverie,  having  wandered 
in  his  night-gown  to  some  distance  from  the 
fortress  where  he  resided,  he  fell  into  the  hands 
of  a  party  of  free-booters.     One  of  them  knew 


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him,  and  told  tlie  rest  that  their  captive  was  the 
autlior  of  '■  Orlando."  They  immediately  fell 
at  his  feet,  icconductcd  him  to  tlie  castle,  and, 
at  parting,  fold  him  that  it  was  his  quality  of 
poet  that  caused  them  to  respect  in  him  the  cha- 
racter of  governor.  He  himself  was  higlily  sen- 
sible of  the  charms  of  his  own  verse ;  and  it  is 
said  that,  one  day  hearing  one  of  the  stanzas  of 
"  Orlando"  miserably  mangled  by  a  potter  who 
was  singing  it,  he  was  so  transported  with  rage, 
as  to  rush  into  his  shop,  and  begin  breaking  his 
earthen  ware.  When  the  poor  man  remon- 
strated with  him  on  the  injury  he  was  doing 
him,  "  You  (said  Ariosto)  complain  of  the  loss 
of  half  a  dozen  pots  not  worth  sixpence  ;  and 
you  have  spoiled  a  stanza  ot  mine  which  is  in- 
valuable !"  This  tale  is,  however,  probably  bor- 
rowed from  Plutarch,  who  tells  a  similar  one  of 
Philoxenus.  It  has  likewise  been  applied  to 
Camoens. 

We  have  not  many  incidents  of  the  hfe  of 
Ariosto,  which  passed  in  a  small  circle,  appa- 
rently with  little  gratification  of  any  other  am- 
bition than  that  of  poetical  fame,  and  not  a  lit- 
tle disquieted  by  lawsuits  and  other  subjects  of 
uneasiness.  His  health  was  delicate,  and  fre- 
quently interrupted.  He  fell  into  a  declining 
state  when  arrived  at  the  verge  of  old  age,  and 
died  with  tranquillity  in  1533,  aged  fifty-nine, 
leaving  behind  him  two  natural  sons. 

The  works  of  this  great  poet,  who  is  one  of 
the  modern  classics  of  Europe,  are  satires,  co- 
medies, sonnets,  songs,  and  small  pieces  of  poe- 
try, and  his  great  heroic  poem,  entitled,  "  Or- 
lando Furioso."  Though  the  former  were 
much  valued,  and  the  "  Satires"  in  particular  are 
reckoned  to  possess  great  merit ;  yet  it  is  from 
the  latter  only  that  the  general  estimate  of  his 
poetical  powers  is  drawn,  and  this  alone  attracts 
the  noticeof  modern  readers.  This  work,  after 
ten  years'  labour,  was  first  published  at  Ferrara, 
in  forty  cantos,  in  1516  ;  and  the  author  gave 
it  complete,  in  forty-six  cantos,  in  1532.  The 
"  Orlando  Furioso"  is  a  tissue  of  adventures  in 
love  and  arms,  slightly,  and  often  not  at  all, 
connected  by  reference  to  the  prim  ipal  hero, 
and  formed  upon  the  fictitious  manners  of  chi- 
valry, with  all  its  accompaniments  of  enchant- 
ments, transformations,  and  supernatural  events 
of  every  kind,  and  not  without  a  mixture  of 
moral  allegory.  It  has  its  tragic  and  comic 
scenes,  its  serious  and  burlesque  :  and  the  tran- 
sitions from  one  to  the  other  are  often  imme- 
diate. Thus,  as  a  whole,  nothing  can  be  more 
•wild,  incongruous  and  absurd  ;  and  it  might  be 
thought  prostituting  the  dignity  of  epic  poeti-y  to 
bestow  the  name  on  his  pLitormauce,  or  to  put 


it  in  parallel  witli  any  of  the  great  works  of 
that  class.  Yet  the  inexhaustible  invention,  the 
boundless  variety,  the  wonderful  facility,  and 
the  profusion  of  real  poetical  beauties  of  the 
most  different  kinds,  have  ever  rendered  it  a 
most  attractive  piece  ;  and  as  far  as  the  ends  of 
poetry  are  to  excite  admiration  or  pleasure,  it 
certainly  has  attained  them.  Many  even  of  the 
most  cultivated  critics  are  inclined  to  prefer  its 
wild  charms  to  the  more  regular  and  studied 
beauties  of  Tasso ;  and  perhaps,  in  general 
opinion,  it  still  stands  as  the  first  specimen  of 
Italian  heroic  poetry.  It  is  not  fiee  from  the 
licentiousness  of  its  age,  and  has  some  singular 
strokes  of  ridicule  upon  topics  thought  sacred. 
But  by  much  the  greater  part  can  offend  the  de- 
licacy of  taste  only,  and  not  tliat  of  morals. 
Editions  of  this  work  have  been  numberless, 
and  in  various  countries  ;  and  translations  and 
imitations  of  part,  or  the  whole,  in  different 
languages,  have  been  very  frequent.  Mr. 
Hoole's  translation  in  English  verse  is  much 
esteemed.  Morcrl.  Tiraboschi.  Nouv.  Diet. 
Hnt.—A. 

ARIOVISTUS,  called  by  Csesar  king  of 
the  Germans,  though  probably  only  of  those 
tribes  which  bordered  upon  Gaul,  obtained  from 
the  Roman  senate,  during  the  consulate  of  Cae- 
sar, a  confirmation  of  his  title,  with  the  apjjel- 
lation  of  friend  of  the  republic,  and  various  ho- 
nours and  presents.  He  is  represented  as  a  vio- 
lent, haughty  barbarian,  cruel,  perfidious,  and 
unjust ;  but  it  is  by  a  conqueror,  if  more  po- 
lished, not  more  principled,  than  himself.  He 
was  called  into  Gaul  to  the  assistance  of  the  Se- 
quani  (people  of  Franche  Comte),  and,  as 
usual  with  powerful  allies,  had  seised  part  of 
their  country  to  his  own  use,  and  threatened 
the  rest.  Casar,  during  his  first  campaign  in 
Gaul,  B.  C.  58,  was  applied  to  by  the  .itdui 
for  his  protection  against  Ariovistus,  who  had 
obliged  them  to  give  their  children  for  hostages, 
and  was  usurping  authority  overall  that  part  of 
Gaul.  Cssar  gladly  seised  the  opportunity  of 
interfering  in  the  dispute,  and  sent  deputies  to 
Ariovistus,  requiring  him  to  give  up  the  hos- 
tages, and  refrain  from  bringing  more  troops 
across  the  Rhine.  Receiving  a  haughty  an- 
swer, Caesar  advanced  with  his  army  to  Veson- 
tio  (Besan^on),  to  prevent  Ariovistus  froin  tak- 
ing possession  of  it ;  and,  proceeding  further, 
had  a  personal  interview  with  the  German 
chief  This  took  place  in  a  large  open  plain, 
each  leader  being  attended  with  an  equal  num- 
ber of  guards,  which  were  drawn  up  near  a 
mount,  the  immediate  place  of  conference.  Af- 
ter some  time  spait  in  dispute,  \\  ith  uo  prospect 


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of  coming  to  an  agreement,  ^lic  Germans  ap- 
proached the  mount,  and  bec;an  to  discliarge 
missile  weapons  against  the  Romans.  Ciesar 
tjuiciiy  witiidrew  to  his  men,  and,  restraining 
them  from  returning  liostilitics,  retired  to  his 
army.  Ariovistus  proposed  a  second  confe- 
rence, to  whicli  Ca?sar  refused  to  consent ;  and 
the  fierce  German  threw  into  cliains  two  depu- 
ties sent  toliim  for  a  further  discussion,  under 
pretext  of  their  being  spies.  A  pitclicd  bat- 
tle soon  after  ensued,  in  which  the  Germans 
were  defeated,  and  pursued  with  great  slaugh- 
ter as  tar  as  tlie  Riiine,  near  fifty  miles  distant. 
Ariovistus  with  difficulty  escaped  by  means  of  a 
boat  which  he  found  on  the  bank.  Two  of  his 
wives  and  one  daughter  perished  in  the  fliglu, 
and  another  daughter  was  made  prisoner.  This 
is  the  last  we  hear  of  him.  Cirsar  dc  Bell, 
Gall.   lib.  i.— A. 

ARISIVENETES,  a  Greek  pagan  writer, 
lived  in  the  fourth  century.  He  was  the  friend 
ot  Libanius,  the  rhetorician,  who  mentions 
him  in  his  orations,  and  wrote  several  letters  to 
liim.  Ammianus  Marcellinus  mentions  him 
with  respect.  He  perished  in  an  earthquake, 
which  happened  at  Nicomedia  in  the  year  35S. 
Aristasnetes  has  left  two  books  of  amatory  epis- 
tles, written  with  terseness,  elegance,  and  ten- 
derness :  they  are  adorned  with  quotations  from 
Plato,  Lucian,  Philostratus  and  others.  An 
edition  of  these  epistles  was  published  with  a 
translation  and  learned  notes  by  Mercer,  in 
8vo.  at  Paris,  in  1595,  and  was  reprinted  in 
1600  and  1 6 10.  Fabric.  Bib.  Grac.  lib.  ii. 
c.  10.  §  40. — E. 

ARISTANDER,  a  famous  soothsayer  in 
the  court  of  Philip  of  Macedon  and  of  Alex- 
ander, was  born  at  Telmessus,  a  city  of  Asia, 
concerning  which  Arrian  writes  (Exped. 
Alex.  lib.  ii.),  that  its  inhabitants  were  uni- 
versally skilled  in  divination,  even  its  women 
and  children  being  endowed  with  this  gift  by  na- 
ture. When  Philip  dieamed  that  the  queen's 
womb  was  closed  vi'ith  a  seal,  on  which  was 
engraved  the  figure  of  a  lion  ;  Aristander  ex- 
plained it  as  signifying,  that  the  queen  was 
pregnant  with  a  son  who  would  have  the  heart 
of  a  lion. 

Alexander,  either  from  policy  or  superstition, 
took  this  diviner  with  him  in  his  Persian  expe- 
dition. He  employed  him  to  perform  mysterious 
ceremonies  before  the  battle  of  Arbela.  In  the 
heat  of  the  battle,  Aristander,  habited  in  a  white 
robe,  and  carrying  a  branch  of  laurel  in  his 
hand,  cried  out  to  the  soldiers,  that  he  saw  ar.  ea- 
gle perching  on  Alexander's  head,  a  sure  omen 
oi  victory.     On  various  odier  occasions,  Aris- 


tander predicted  victory ;  and  the  event  cor- 
responded with  the  prediction,  and  was  perhaps 
in  part  produced  by  it.  Many  particulars  are  re- 
lated bv  Alexander's  historians,  which  it  is  un- 
necessary to  detail,  concerning  tlie  arts  by  which 
Aristander  wrought  upon  the  credulity  of  Alex- 
ander's soldiers,  and  perhaps  gained  an  ascen- 
dency over  the  mind  of  Alexander  himself:  this, 
at  least,  is  the  opinion  of  Quintus  Curtius, 
who  says,  that  this  monarch  gave  implicit  credit 
to  Aristander.  Q.  Curl.  lib.  iv.  c.  2,  6.  13,  15.. 
lib.  V.  c.  4.  lib.  vii.  c.  7.  lib.  ix.  c.  4.  Plitt. 
in  Alex,    Arrian,  lib.  i.  c.  8.     Bayle. — E. 

ARISTARCHUS,  a  Greek  astronomer,  was 
a  native  of  Samos,  and  probably  flourished  about 
270  years  before  Christ.  Accoiding  to  Plu- 
tarch, he  was  contemporary  with  Cleanthes, 
who  succeeded  Zeno  in  the  129th  Olympiad,  or 
264  years  before  Christ.  He  was  well  known 
as  an  eminent  astronomer  in  the  time  of  Archi- 
medes, who  speaks  of  him  in  his  Psammite,  or 
Arenarius.  Aristarchus  held  the  opinion,  which 
is  said  to  have  been  before  taught  by  Pythagoras, 
and  which  has  been  completely  established  by  mo- 
dern astronomers,  that  tlie  earth  revolves  in  an 
orbit  about  the  sun.  In  the  work  just  referred 
to,  Archiinedes  says  (Psammit.  p.  120,  &:c.  ed. 
Basil.)  :  "  Aristarchus  the  Sainian,  confuting 
these  opinions  of  the  astrologers,  laid  down  a 
certain  hypothesis,  from  whicli  it  follows,  that 
the  world  is  much  larger  than  we  have  stated  ; 
for  he  supposes  that  the  fixed  stars  and  the  sun 
are  immoveable,  and  that  the  earth  is  carried 
round  the  sun  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle  " 
Plutarch  (QuKSt.  Plat.)  observes,  that  this  opi- 
nion of  the  motion  of  the  earth  was  taught  hy- 
pothetically  by  Aristarchus,  and  dogmatically  by 
Seleucus.  Sixtus  Empiricus  (Adv.  Mathein.) 
speaks  of  Aristarchus,  the  mathematician,  as 
one  of  those  who  denied  the  inotion  of  the  uni- 
verse, but  believed  that  the  earth  moves.  With 
the  judicious  correction  of  the  passage  in  Plu- 
tarch, mentioned  above,  which  was  proposed  by 
Gassendus,  and  has  been  adopted  by  Menage, 
Fabricius  and  Bayle,  another  decisive  testimony 
arises  to  prove  that  this  opinion  was  held  by 
Aristarchus.  The  passage,  thus  corrected, 
may  be  rendered  (Plut.  de  Facie  in  orbe  Luuk)  : 
"  Bring  not  an  accusation  of  impiety  against 
us,  as  Cleanthes  thought  the  Greeks  ought  to 
have  done  against  Aristarchus  the  Samian,  as  a 
disturber  of  the  foundations  of  the  world,  be- 
cause he  endeavoured  to  explain  the  celestial  ap- 
pearances on  the  supposition  that  the  heavens 
stand  still,  and  that  the  earth  is  carried  round  in 
an  oblique  orbit,  and  at  the  saine  time  revolves 
about  its  own  axis."     Aristarchus  invented  a 


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peculiar  kind  of  sun-dial,  mentioned  by  Vitru- 
vius  (lib.  ix.  c.  9.)  The  only  work  extant  of 
Aristarchus  is,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Magnitudes 
and  Distances  of  tlie  Sun  and  Moon."  It  was 
first  published  by  Vallus,  in  folio,  at  Venice,  in 
1498  ;  afterwards  by  Wallis,  with  his  own 
notes  and  Commandine's  version,  in  8vo.  at  Ox- 
ford, in  1688  ;  and  in  the  third  volume  of  Wal- 
lis's  works,  printed  in  folio,  at  Oxford,  in  1699. 
Another  work,  "  On  the  Mundane  System," 
has  appeared  under  his  name,  but  is  generally 
understood  to  be  a  spurious  work,  written  by 
Roberval.  Fabric.  Bib.  Grtec.  lib.  iii.  c.  5. 
§  14.      Baylc.      Button  s  Math.  Dict.—  E. 

ARfSl  ARCHUS,  a  Greek  grammarian, 
who  flourished  about  160  years  before  Clirist, 
was  a  native  of  Samothrace.  ?nd  became  an  in- 
habitant of  Alexandria  under  Ptolemy  Philome- 
tor,  whose  son  lie  educated.  He  was  a  ri2;id 
critic,  and  exercised  lus  talent  upon  Homer, 
Pindar,  Aratus,  and  other  poets.  It  is  said  by 
the  ancient  commeutativrs  upon  Homer,  that 
Aristarchus  first  divided  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey 
into  books,  answering  to  the  order  and  num- 
ber of  tlie  Greek  letters.  It  was  the  practice  of 
this  bold  critic  to  condemn  those  verses  as  spu- 
rious, which  did  not  appear  to  him  to  he  worthy 
of  Homer,  and  to  mark  them  with  an  obelisk  ; 
and,  on  the  contrary,  to  distinguish  those  which 
he  thought  particularly  excellent  with  an  aste- 
rism.  (Erasmi  Adag.)  Cicero  alludes  to  this 
practice  in  two  of  his  familiar  epistles.  "  If 
these  letters  (says  he  to  Appius  Pulcher)  were 
not,  as  you  tell  me,  elegantly  written,  I  entreat 
you  to  consider  them  as  none  of  mine  ;  for,  as 
Aristarchus  insisted  that  every  verse  in  Homer 
was  spurious  which  he  did  not  approve,  so  (al- 
low me  to  jest)  1  desire  you  will  believe  what- 
ever you  find  to  be  inelegant,  not  to  be  the  pro- 
duce of  my  pen:"  [Si,  ut  scribis,  ex  literae 
non  fuerunt  disertne,  scito  mcas  non  fuisse. 
Ut  enim  Aristarchus  Homeri  versum  negat, 
quern  nonprobat;  sic  tu  (libet  enim  mihi  joca- 
ri)  quod  disertiun  non  erit,  ne  putaris  meum.  Ad 
Fam.  lib.  iii.  ep.  11.]  To  Dolabella  he  writes: 
(Nihil  enim  Romae  geritur  quod  te  putem  scire 
curare;  nisi  forte  scire  vis,  me  inter  Niciam 
nostrum  et  "\'iilinmjudicem  esse.  Profert  alter, 
ut  opinor,  duobus  versiculis  expensuni  Niciie ; 
alter  Aristarchus  hoc  cSiXt^st.  Ego,  tanquam 
criticus  antiquus,  judicaturus  sum,  utrum  sint 
ra  TToiiiTB,  an  iraefi/-f£fAi;;ji£i"ji.  Ad  Fain.  lib.  i.v. 
cp.  10.)  "  I  imagine  there  is  nothing  going 
forward  in  Rome  worth  your  attention,  unless, 
perhaps,  that  I  am  to  sit  in  judgment  between 
our  friend  Nicias  and  Vidius;  the  latter  of 
\\honi  brings  an  account  against  tlic  former  in 


two  little  verses,  which  Nicias,  a  second  Aris- 
tarchus, marks  with  the  obelisk  as  spurious: 
I,  like  an  ancient  critic,  am  to  decide,  whe- 
tlier  the  lines  belong  to  the  poet,  or  are 
interpolated."  Au^onius,  in  his  poem  enti- 
tled, "  Ludus  Scptem  Sapientum,"  where  he  is 
challenging  the  rigorous  criticism  of  Drepa- 
nius  Pacatus,  introduces  Aristarchus's  obelisk  : 

"  Ma-onio  qualcm  cultum  quisivit  Homero 
Censor  Ari'.larchus,  normaque  Zen<Hluti  : 

Pone  obelos,  igitiir,  spurioruni  stigmata  \  atuui, 
Palmu,  non  culiias,  esse  putabu  ineas." 

Ceniurc  my  work — nor  think  the  tast  loo  hard  — 
As  Aristarchus  tlie  M.Tr.iiian  bard  : 
Mark'd  with  your  obelisk,  the  honour'd  line, 
Kot  stigmalis'd,  but  grac'd  «ith  palms,  shall  sllinc. 

Cicero  makes  use  of  the  name  of  Aristarchus 
proverbially  for  a  severe  critic,  when,  in  his  ora- 
tion against  Piso,  he  tells  him,  he  is  not  Aristar- 
chus, to  affix  a  mark  to  a  bad  verse,  but  a  Pha- 
laris  to  assault  the  person  of  the  poet.  When 
he  requests  his  friend  Atticus  to  examine  his  ora- 
tions with  strictness,  he  calls  him  his  Aristar- 
chus ;  (Ep.  at  Att.  lib.  i.  ep.  10.)  ;  and  Horace 
suggests  the  same  idea  in  his  Art  of  Poetry, 
(ver.  445,  &c.) 

"  Vir  bonus  et  prudens  versus  reprehendet  incrtci, 
Culpabit  duros,  incomptis  allinet  atruin 
Transvcrso  calamo  signum  ;  ambitiosa  recidet 
Ornamcnta;   parum  Claris  lucem  dare  coget : 
Arguct  ambigue  dictum;  tnutaiida  notabit  ; 
Fii;t  Aristarchus  ;  nee  dicct,  cur  ego  auiicuiii 
Offeiidam  in  nugis  }" 

A  friendly  critic,  when  dull  lines  move  slow, 
Or  harshly  rude,  will  his  resentment  show; 
Will  mark  the  blotted  pages,  and  etfacc 
What  is  net  polish'd  to  its  highest  grace  ; 
Will  prune  th'ambitious  ornaments  away, 
And  teach  you  on  th'obscurc  to  pour  the  day  ; 
Will  mark  the  doubtful  phrase  with  hand  sc\  ere. 
Like  Aristarchus,  rig'r'n/t  and  sincere; 
Nor  say,  *'  For  trifles  why  should  1  displease 
The  man  I  love  ?" 


Aristarchus  appears  to  have  been  of  a  con- 
tentious temper  :  Suidas  relates,  that  he  had 
many  disputes  with  Crates,  tlie  grammarian,  of 
Pcrgamus.  He  is  said  to  have  starved  himself 
to  deatli.  He  left  behind  him  at  Alexandria  a  nu- 
merous school  of  critics  and  grammarians,  which 
subsisted  some  ages  afterwards.  Suidas  records, 
that  he  wrote  about  eight  hundred  books  of  com- 
mentaries :  it  is  not  therefore  u  ith  much  pro- 
priety that  authors  have  ascribed  to  him  tl;is 
fine  apology  for  not  writing  :  "  I  cannot  write 
what  1  w  ould,  and  I  will  not  write  what  I  caWr" 
Suidas.      BayU. — E, 

ARISTARCHUS,  a  dis?ipi«  and companioa 


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A  R  I 


of  the  apostle  Paul,  was  a  Jew  of  Thessaloni- 
ca.  He  accompanied  Paul  to  Ephesus,  and 
stayed  with  liim  during  the  two  years  that  he 
was  there,  partaking  the  lahours  and  difficulties 
I  if  the  apostleship.  In  the  tumult  excited  at 
Ephesus  bv  a  silversmith  against  the  Christians, 
liis  life  was  in  danger.  He  followed  Paul  from 
Epiicsus  in  his  subsequent  travels.  yJcis  xix. 
Col.  iv.    10.   Philcm.  24. — E. 

ARISTEAS,  the  Proconncsian,  an  ancient 
Greek  historian  and  poet,  is  said  by  Suidas  to 
have  bceticonteinporary  withCrossus  andCyrus, 
that  is,  to  have  lived  about  550  years  before 
Christ.  But  he  is  mentioned  by  Tatian  (Orat. 
ad  Grsc.)  as  prior  to  Homer,  and  by  Strabo 
(lib.  xiv.  p.  369.  ed.  Casaub.  1620.)  as  the  pre- 
ceptor of  that  poet:  and  Herodotus  (lib.  iv. 
c.  13,  14.),  who  was  born  484  years  before 
Christ,  speaks  of  him  as  the  subject  of  fabulous 
story  long  before  his  time.  A  poem,  in  three 
books,  on  the  war  ot  the  Arimaspes,  or  Hy- 
perboreans, is  ascribed  to  him,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  full  of  extravagant  fables.  The 
work  is  lost,  except  a  fragment  of  six  lines 
quoted  by  Longinus,  and  six  other  lines  cited  by 
Tzetzes  (Chap.  vii.  hist.  144-).  Contrary  to 
the  general  testimony  of  ancient  writers,  Dio- 
nysius  Halicarnassensis  pronounces  the  work 
ascribed  to  Aristeas  to  be  spurious.  Another 
work  is  ascribed  to  Aristeas  "  On  die  Origin 
of  the  Gods,"  which  is  also  lost.  Aristeas  is 
spoken  of  by  Strabo  (lib.  xiii.  p.  589.)  as  a 
great  sorcerer.  More  extravagant  fables  are 
rarely  to  be  found  than  are  related  by  Herodotus, 
Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.  lib.  vii.  c.  ii.  52.),  Pausa- 
iiias  (Grsc.  Descrip.  lib.  i.  v.)  Suidas  and 
others  (Aul.  Gell.  lib.  i,\.  c.  4.)  concerning 
this  wonderful  man  :  but  who  would  now  bear 
to  read  of  the  soul  of  a  man  leaving  his  body  at 
pleasure,  and  coming  out  of  his  mouth  in  the 
shape  of  a  raven  ;  of  a  man  who  was  seen  at  the 
same  time  in  different  countiies,  who  wrote  a 
poem  seven  years  after  his  death,  and  who  ap- 
peared again  three  centuries  after  he  had  written 
it  ?  Yet  such  things  were  once  believed  ;  and 
this  Aristeas  was  honoured  as  a  God  at  Meta- 
poiUum.  Fabric.  Bib.  Grac-  lib.  i.  c.  2.  Maxim. 
Tyr.  iliss.  22.  Suidas.  p'css.  de  Hist.  Gi  ac. 
lib.  iv.  c.  2.      Bayle. — E. 

ARISTEAS,  said  to  be  one  of  the  sevcntv- 
two  interpreters  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  is 
mentioned  by  Josephus  (Adv.  Apion.  hb.  ii.) 
as  an  officer  under  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king 
of  Egypt,  about  250  years  before  Christ.  A 
Greek  work,  ascribed  to  this  Aristeas,  is  extant, 
under  the  title  of  "  An  History  of  the  Interpreters 
•of  .iicripture,"  in  which,  .in  the  form  of  a  letter 


addressed  to  his  brother  Philocratcs,  the  parti- 
culars of  the  sxipposed  appointment  of  seventy- 
two  persons,  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  to  trans- 
late the  sacred  hooks  of  the  Jews,  are  related  at 
large.  A  Latin  version  of  this  work,  by  Pal- 
mcrius,  was  prefixed  to  the  Latin  edition  of  the 
bible  printed  at  Rome  in  147 1.  It  was  pub- 
lished in  Greek,  in  8vo.  at  Basil  in  1561  ;  and 
as  an  appendix  to  the  edition  of  Josephus  j)ub- 
lishcd  at  Cologne  in  1691,  with  biief  notes  by 
Fabricius.  Another  edition  was  published  in 
8vo.  at  Oxford  in  1692.  That  this  work  of 
Aristeas,  as  now  extant,  is  ancient,  may  be 
concluded  from  its  agreement  with  the  accounts 
of  the  Seventy  given  in  Josephusand  in  Eusebius, 
which  are  taken  from  Aristeas  :  and  some  mo- 
dern authors  have  concurred  with  these  and 
other  ancient  writers  in  admitting  the  truth  of 
the  narrative.  But  a  fuller  examination  of  the 
subject  by  several  learned  writers,  particularly 
Hody  (Bibl.  Text.  Orig.  Oxon.  1705,  f'ol.), 
Van  Dale  (Dissert,  super  Arist.  de  LXX.  Amst. 
1704,  4to.),  F.  Simon  (Hist.  Crit.  Vet.  Test, 
lib.  ii.  c.  2.)  and  Dupin  (Proleg.  ad  Bibl.  lib.  i. 
c.  6.  §  2,  3.),  has  produced  a  general  convic- 
tion, that  no  credit  is  due  to  the  tradition  of  the 
appointment,  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  of  se- 
venty-two interpreters  to  translate  the  Hebrew 
bible  into  Greek  ;  and  that  the  story  was  invent- 
ed by  the  Jews  of  Alexandria  ;  that  the  transla- 
tion, which  they  had  been  under  the  necessity  of 
making  after  Greek  had  become  their  common 
language,  might  be  received  with  credit  by  their 
brethren  of  Palestine,  under  the  sanction  of  royal 
authority.  With  respect  to  the  work  ascribed 
to  Aristeas,  it  is  probable,  that  it  was  written  by 
some  Hellenist  Jew  at  Alexandria,  and  not  by 
Aristeas  a  pagan  officer  in  the  court  of  Ptolemy  ; 
for,  as  Dupin  has  shown  at  large,  the  author 
every  where  speaks  as  a  Jew,  and  even  makes 
all  the  persons,  whom  he  introduces,  do  the 
same.  The  narrative  has  throughout  the  air  of 
romance,  and  is  discredited  by  several  chronolo- 
gical mistakes,  pointed  out  by  Dupin;  of  which 
we  shall  mention,  as  a  sample,  the  error  of  as- 
cribing to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  a  victory  against 
Antigonus  which  he  never  obtained,  but  which 
belonged  to  the  preceding  reign.  This  coun- 
terfeit work  was  probably  written  about  two 
hundred  years  after  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
tlelphus  ;  for  Alexander  Polyhistor,  who  wrote 
about  that  time,  mentions  a  history  of  the  Jews 
bv  Aristeas.  Dupin.  Proleg.  ad  Bib.  Fabric. 
Bibl.  Grac.  lib.  iii.  c.  12.  §  2. — E. 

ARISTEUS,  an  ancient  Greek  geometri- 
cian, lived  before  Euclid,  probably  about  350 
years  before  Christ.     Pappus  mentions  him  a« 


A  R  I 


(    369    ) 


A  R  I 


■the  author  of  five  books  upon  solids,  extant  In 
his  time  ;  and  adds  tliat  EuclitI,  who  had  a  great 
esteem  tor  all  who  iiad  improved  the  niathema- 
tieal  sciences,  followed  Aristcus  on  conic  sec- 
tions, because  he  was  not  willing  to  supplant 
the  reputation  which  that  geometrician  liad  ac- 
quired :  a  kind  of  generosity,  for  which  Ai  is- 
teus  was  more  iiukbted  than  posterity  to  Eu- 
clid. Pappus  in  Pro'hn.  lib.  viii.  Math.  Coll. 
Baylc. — E. 

ARISTIDES,  surnamed  the  Just,  one  of 
the  purest  of  all  political  characters,  was  a  native 
of  Athens,  the  son  of  Lysimachus  a  man  of 
middle  rank.  From  his  boy-hood  he  shovvrd  a 
steady,  firm,  determined  temper,  rigidly  attached 
to  truth,  and  incapable  of  all  meanness  and  dis- 
simulation. He  applied  closely  to  study,  and 
early  began  to  meditate  on  subjects  of  govern- 
ment. The  laws  of  Lycurgus  excited  his  ad- 
miration, and  gave  him  an  attachment  rather  to 
an  oligarchy  than  to  the  unlimited  democracy 
that  reigned  at  Athens.  Themistocles,  on  the 
other  hand,  who  is  said  even  at  school  to  have 
been  his  constant  antagonist,  favoured  and  flat- 
tered the  democratical  party  ;  whence  these  great 
men,  when  they  rose  to  public  offices,  were  in 
perpetual  opposition  to  each  other.  Aristides 
was  strict  in  his  notions  of  public  justice,  and 
would  not  screen  a  iriend  whom  he  thought  in 
the  wrong.  He  served  his  country  from  tire 
purest  principles  of  duty,  neither  seeking  profit 
nor  honour ;  and  his  character  was  so  well 
known  to  his  countrymen,  that  once,  when  in 
the  theatre  these  verses  of  ^schylus,  describ- 
ing Amphiaraus,  were  recited. 

To  be,  and  not  to  seem,  is  this  man's  maxim  ; 
His  niinii  reposes  on  ils  conscious  lAortli, 
And  Mants  du  other  praise. 

the  whole  audience  turned  their  eyes  on  Aris- 
tides, as  the  true  exeinplar  of  the  poet's  idea. 
At  that  time,  as  well  as  ever  since,  it  was  found 
necessary  lor  a  party-leader  to  oppose  all  the 
acts  of  his  antagonist,  whether  right  or  wrong, 
that  the  credit  acquired  by  the  former  might  not 
enable  him  more  effectually  to  practise  the  latter; 
but  Aristides  did  not  without  self-reproach 
pursue  this  rule  of  conduct ;  and  it  is  related, 
that  one  dav,  on  coming  out  of  the  assembly, 
where  he  had  strenuously  resisted  a  proposal  of 
Themistocles,  which,  at  the  same  time,  he 
thought  in  itself  useful,  he  exclaimed,  "  The 
affairs  of  the  Athenians  will  never  prosper,  till 
they  throw  both  of  us  into  the  barathruml"  (the 
dungeon  for  condemned  criminals).  Wlicn 
serving  the  office  of  public-treasurer,  he  con- 

VOL.  I. 


victed  Thcinistoclcs  and  several  otliers  of  pecu- 
lation, and  thus  raised  a  party  against  himself, 
which,  when  he  gave  in  his  own  accounts,  ac- 
cused hiin  of  misapplication  of  the  public  mo- 
ney ;  and  he  was  cleared  only  by  the  interposi- 
tion of  the  court  of  Areopagus.  Being  again 
appointed  to  tlie  same  trust,  he  suffered  the  |)eo- 
ple  concerned  with  him  topilferwithoutcontroul, 
at  the  same  tnne  keeping  a  secret  accountagainst 
them.  The  consequence  was,  thathe  was  univer- 
sally praised,  and  interest  made  on  all  sides  for 
his  continuance  in  office.  But  when  the  people 
were  about  to  ])roceed  to  election,  he  gave  them 
a  severe  rebuke,  and  told  them,  "  that  while  he 
had  served  tliem  with  fidelity,  he  was  trc-atcd 
with  calumny,  antl  incurred  their  displeasure  ; 
now  that  he  had  really  violated  his  trust,  lie 
met  with  general  applause,  and  was  reckoned 
an  excellent  citizen."  He  then  exposed  the 
frauds,  and  made  all  panics  ashained  of  their 
cortduct. 

At  the  battle  of  Marathon,  fought  B.  C.  490, 
Aristides  was  next  in  command  among  the 
Athenians  to  Miltiades,  and  he  joined  his  vote 
to  that  general's  in  favour  of  coming  to  an  en- 
gagement. He  distinguished  hiinself  in  the  field  ; 
and,  after  the  victory,  he  was  left  to  secure  the 
spoils,  which  he  did  with  the  utmost  fidelity,  re- 
serving nothing  for  himself,  but  bringing  all  to 
the  public  account.  The  following  year  he  was 
archon,  or  chief  magistrate ;  but  the  high  au- 
thority he  had  acquired  by  his  virtues  was  at 
length,  by  the  arts  of  Thcinistocles,  turned  to 
an  accusation  against  him,  and  he  was  in  con- 
sequence banished  by  the  ostracism,  a  mild, 
though  often  unjust,  expedient  in  the  Athenian 
polity,  for  teinporarily  getting  rid  of  any  politi- 
cal influence  wliich  thev  thought  dangerous  to 
their  independence.  On  this  occasion  an  inci- 
dent occurred,  which  sets  his  character  in  the 
highest  point  of  view.  A  rustic  citizen,  not  per- 
sonally acquainted  with  Ari<tides,  came  up  to 
vote  against  him ;  and,  being  unable  to  write, 
desired  the  first  person  whom  he  met  witli.  who 
happened  to  be  Aristides  himself,  to  inscribe  the 
name  on  the  shell,  whicli  was  to  signify  his  con- 
currence in  the  sentence.  "  Did  Aristides  ever 
injure  you  V  said  the  patriot.  "  I  do  not  so 
much  as  know  him  (rejilied  the  man)  ;  but  f 
am  tired  with  hearing  him  every  where  called 
the  Jii.st."  Aristides  took  the  slicll,  wrote  his 
own  name  upon  it,  and  returned  it  in  silence  to 
the  voter.  \\'lien  he  quitted  Athens,  he  lificd 
his  hands  towards  heaven,  and  praved  that  the 
Athenians  might  never  see  the  dav  which  should 
compel  them  to  remember  Aristides. 

VVhilc  ill  exile,  he  employed  himself  in  cxcit- 


A  R  I 


(     370     ) 


A  R  I 


ing  the  Greeks  to  defend  their  liberties  against 
tlie  Persian---,  who  were  threatening  a  new  inva- 
sion. As  Xerxes  approached,  the  Athenians  re- 
talfcd  all  their  exiles,  and  Aristides  with  them, 
wiiose  absence  they  began  to  lament.  On  his 
return,  he  suspended  all  political  animosities  in 
this  season  of  common  danger  ;  and  under- 
standing that  it  was  the  wish  of  Themistocles 
to  lig'ic  the  Persian  navy  in  the  straits  of  Sala- 
mis,  he  repaired  to  him  in  private,  proposed  an 
oblivion  of  all  past  niisuiukrstandings,  highly 
commended  his  intentions,  and  promised  to  as- 
sist him  with  all  his  influence  in  carrying  tlicm 
into  execution.  Some  time  after  the  victory  at 
Salamis,  Themistocles  acquainted  the  people  of 
Athens,  that  he  had  a  project  liighly  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  their  stale,  but  that  it  was  of  a  na- 
ture which  forbade  the  public  communication  of 
it.  'I'hcv  directed  him  to  disclose  it  to  Aristides. 
It  was  a  scheme  for  burning  the  whole  confede- 
rate fleet  of  Greece,  exxept  their  own  ships, 
which  would  leave  Athens  complete  mistress  of 
the  sea.  Aristides  reported  to  the  citizens  that 
nothing  could  be  more  advantageous  than  the 
scheme  of  Themistocles,  and  nothing  more  un- 
just. The  people  thereupon  determined  that  it 
should  be  thought  of  no  further.  It  was  equally 
to  the  hionour  of  Aristides  that  he  was  made  the 
referee  on  diis  occasion,  and  to  the  Athenians 
that  thev  came  to  such  a  determination  !  Before 
the  battle  of  PlatKa,  Aristides  was  of  tlie  great- 
est .service  in  preserving  concord  between  the 
confederates,  and  in  persuading  his  own  coun- 
trymen, elevated  with  their  former  successes,  to 
submit  to  the  superiority  of  the  Spartans.  In 
thecotnbathe  acquitted  himself  with  great  reso- 
lution ;  and  after  the  victory  he  terminated  a  dan- 
gerous quarrel  concerning  the  honour  of  the 
cay,  by  giving  up  the  claim  of  the  Athenians  to 
that  of  the  Piatscans  ;  in  which  he  was  followed 
by  the  Lacedjemonians.  ^Vhen  Athens  was  re- 
built, he  was  the  hist  to  promote,  in  favour  of 
the  people  at  large,  who  had  deserved  so  well  of 
the  state,  a  decree  which  gave  all  the  citizens  a 
share  in  the  administration,  and  enjoined  that  the 
archons  should  be  chosen  out  of  the  whole 
body. 

The  war  with  the  Persians  continuing,  Aris- 
tides was  sent  with  Cimon,  the  son  of  Mihiades, 
to  command  the  Athenian  forces  in  the  confede- 
rate army.  Their  behaviour,  contrasted  with 
the  haughtiness  of  Pausanias  the  Spartan  gene- 
ral, so  won  upon  the  rest  of  the  allies,  that  all 
the  other  states  concurred  in  bestowing  the  supe- 
riority of  rank  upon  Athens.  A  signal  proof  of 
the  high  character  of  Aristides  throughout  all 
Greece  for  integrity  and  justice,  was  given  by 


the  unanimous  nomination  of  him  to  lay  a  pro- 
portionate assessment  upon  all  the  states,  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  a  conitnon  fund  towards  the 
expense  of  the  war.  This  delicate  cominissioa 
he  executed  with  such  wisdom  and  impartiality 
as  to  give  universal  satisfaction.  After  this  af- 
fair was  concluded,  lie  caused  all  the  confede- 
rates to  swear  solemnly  to  the  articles  of  alli- 
ance. It  must  have  been  some  very  evident  and 
urgent  necessity,  which  afterwards  induced  hiin 
to  advise  the  Athenians  to  extend  their  o\vn  au- 
thority beyond  the  prescribed  limits,  and  suffl-r 
the  consequences  of  the  perjury  to  fall  up''>n 
himself.  When  'I'heinistocles  fell  under  the 
displeasure  of  the  ruling  party,  Aristides  refused 
to  concur  in  a  capital  prosecution  of  him  ;  and^ 
on  his  banishment,  he  was  so  far  from  triumph- 
ing over  an  old  enemy,  that  he  ever  afterwards 
spoke  of  him  with  increased  respect. 

It  was  common  in  that  age  for  men  %vho 
had  borne  the'  highest  public  offices,  to  add  no- 
thing to  their  jirivate  fortunes  :  but  no  man 
ever  carried  farther  this  proof  of  disinterested- 
ness than  Aristides.  He  was,  indeed,  so  re- 
markably poor,  that  when  his  rich  relation, 
Callias,  underwent  a  prosecution  on  some  ac- 
count, the  orator  who  pleaded  against  him,  in 
order  to  excite  the  indignation  of  the  audience, 
remarked  upon  the  scandalous  indigence  in 
which  he  suffered  Aristides  and  his  family  to 
live,  though  he  was  so  able  to  assist  them.  And 
Callias,  in  his  vindication,  was  obliged  to  sum- 
mon Aristides  to  testify  that  he  had  several  times 
offered  hi:ii  considerable  sums,  which  he  had 
refused  to  accept,  saying,  "  that  it  better  be- 
came Aristides  to  glory  in  his  poverty,  than  Cal- 
lias in  his  riches  ;"  which,  indeed,  appear  ta 
have  been  dishonourably  acquired. 

This  truly  great  man  died  about  467  years 
B.  C.  as  some  say,  in  Pontus,  whither  he  was 
sent  on  public  business  ;  according  to  others, 
at  Athens,  in  an  advanced  age.  His  funeral 
was  coi\ducted  at  the  public  expence  ;  and  the 
Athenians,  grateful  after  his  death,  bestowed  a 
pension  and  an  estate  in  land  on  his  son  Lysima- 
chus,  and  portioned  his  daugiiters  out  of  tlie 
public  treasury.  PlutarcVi  Life  of  Aristides. 
Untvcrs.  Hist. — A. 

ARISTIDES,  ^Lius,  the  Sophist,  a  na- 
tive ot  Adrianum  inBithynia,  a  disciple  of  Pole- 
mo  the  rhetorician,  of  Smyrna,  of  Herodes  at 
Athens,  and  of  Aristocles  at  Smyrna,  flourish- 
ed in  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century,  in 
the  time  of  the  emperors  Antoninus  Pius,  Au- 
relius  and  Commodus.  He  was  an  orator  of 
great  skill  and  ability ;  and  has  left  many  ora- 
tions, which  appear  to  have  been  studied  with 


A  R  I 


( 


371 


) 


A  R  I 


rmich  care  and  diligence.  The  subjects  are 
laudatory,  in  praise  of  Jupiter,  Minerva,  Nep- 
tune, Bacclius,  and  other  divinities,  of  illus- 
trious men,  of  great  cities  and  states,  &c.  : 
giatulatory,  as,  on  the  restoration  of  Smyrna 
after  an  earthquake:  suasory,  to  the  Athenians, 
to  incite  them  to  assist  the  Spartans  and  Tlie- 
bans  ;  to  the  Smvrnffians,  to  persuade  them  to 
abolish  licentious  comedies ;  to  the  states  of 
Asia,  recommending  mutual  harmony  ;  to  the 
Rhodians,  to  the  same  purport,  &c. :  apologetic, 
in  defence  of  Pericles,  Miltiades,  Cimon,  and 
Themistocles  ;  of  himself,  against  the  charge  of  ' 
vanity,  and  for  not  declaiming  more  frequently, 
•&c.  Among  his  works  are  also  found  an  epis- 
tle "  On  the  Causes  of  the  Increase  of  the 
Nile,"  in  which  the  several  explanations  given 
of  this  pliKnnmenon  are  set  aside,  and  it  is 
ascribed  wholly  to  the  immediate  power  and 
providence  of  God  ;  and  an  excellent  treatise 
"On  popular  and  simple  Diction,"  exemplified 
from  Demosthenes  and  Xeno]ihon.  This  piece 
was  edited,  in  folio,  by  Aldus,  among  the  Greek 
Rhetoricians,  at  Venice,  in  1508.  Of  the  ora- 
tions of  Aristides,  that  entitled  "  Panathenaica," 
in  praise  of  Athens,  written  in  imitation  of 
Isocrates,  is  annexed  to  H.  Stephens'  edition  of 
Isocratcs,  published  in  1593.  The  entire  works 
of  this  orator  were  published  in  Greek,  in  fo- 
lio, at  Florence,  in  151 7  ;  and  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  in  three  volumes  i2mo.  by  P.  Stephens, 
in  1604  ;  at  Upsal,  by  Norman,  in  1677  ;  and 
by  Jebb,  in  two  volumes  4to,  at  Oxford,  in 
1722.  Large  extracts  from  the  Orations  of 
Aristides  are  to  be  found  in  Photius  (Cod. 
247)- 

The  orations  of  Aristides  are  written  with 
laboured  accuracy,  and  abound  with  fine  moral 
sentiments.  They,  at  the  same  time,  afford 
many  proofs,  that  the  author  was  credulous  and 
superstitious.  Several  of  his  orations  called  sa- 
cred, relate  the  communications  wjiich  he  had 
with  the  gods  by  dreams.  In  an  oration, 
which  reprehends  some  of  the  sophists  of  his 
time,  he  is  supposed  to  compare  them  to  the 
Christians  :  and  though  they  are  not  expressly 
mentioned,  it  is  probable  that  he  refers  to  them 
under  the  title  of  "  the  impious  people  in  Pales- 
tine, who  acknowledge  not  the  gods  ;"  for  thev 
were  commonly  charged  with  impiety  by  the  pa- 
gans', because  they  did  not  worship  their  divi- 
nities. 

From  these  orations,  and  others  of  the  same 
class,  we  are  enabled  to  form  a  clear  idea  of  the 
nature  of  the  profession  of  sophists,  or  rhetori- 
cians, and  of  the  manner  in  which  these  de- 
claimcrs  amused    their    pupils  and  the  public. 


The  office  was,  under  the  Roman  emperors,  a 
regular  national  establishment :  and  the  profes- 
sors, whose  occupation  it  was  to  instruct  the 
youth  in  rhetoric,  and  to  deliver  public  harangues 
on  various  subjects,  fictitious  or  real,  received, 
from  the  time  of  Vespasian,  a  regular  annual 
stipend,  whicli  has  been  computed  at  ten  th.ou- 
sand  Attic  drachmas,  or  320I.  How  much  in- 
fluence these  orators  had,  not  only  over  their  pu- 
pils and  hearers,  but  even  over  the  emperors 
themselves,  may  be  seen  in  an  anecdote  related 
concerning  Aristides  by  his  biographer  Philo- 
srratus.  (De  Vit.  Sophist,  lib.  ii.'c.  9.)  When 
Smyrna  had  been  overthrown  and  almost  de- 
stroyed by  earthquakes,  Aristides  so  pathetically 
represented  their  calamitous  situation  in  a  letter 
to  the  emperor  Antoninus,  that  he  could  not  re- 
frain from  tears,  and  immediately  issued  an  order 
to  restore  the  citv.  The  inhabitants  thought 
themselves  so  much  indebted  to  Aristides  for  this 
benevolent  service,  that  they  honoured  him  as 
the  founder  of  their  new  city,  and  erected  in 
their  forum  a  brass  statue  to  his  memory.  A 
declaimer  by  profession,  if  he  possessed  talents 
and  merit,  such  as  appears  to  have  belonged  to 
Aristides,  might  be  pardoned,  if  he  were  not 
wholly  free  from  vanity,  the  weakness  which 
his  daily  occupation  tended  to  nourish.  When 
Marcus  Aurclius  came  to  Smyrna,  Aristides  ne- 
glected, for  three  days,  to  pay  his  respects  to  the 
emperor.  Upon  his  appearance,  the  emperor, 
who  had  before  made  inquiry  after  him,  asked 
him,  "  How  had  it  happened  that  he  had  so  long 
delayed  his  visit  ?"  "  I  was  busv  (he  rejilied) 
in  a  work,  upon  wliich  my  mind  was  so  in- 
tensely occupied,  that  it  could  not  easily  be  dis- 
engaged." Aurelius,  not  perceiving,  or  more 
probably  overlooking,  the  affectation  of  this  apo- 
logy, politely  im]iuted  it  altogether  to  ingenuous 
simplicity,  and  lequestcd  Aristides  to  api)oint  a 
time  when  he  might  be  gratified  widi  hearing 
him  declaim.  "Let  it  be  to-morrow,  if  you 
please  (says  Aristides) ;  only  I  must  entreat  tliat 
my  friends  may  be  present,  to  applaud  and  clap 
their  hands  with  all  their  might."  "  That  (re- 
plied the  emperor,  smiling)  must  depend  upon 
yourself."  The  emperor  was  not  perhaps 
aware  that,  besides  the  gratification  which  the 
orator  would  receive  from  the  plaudits  of  his  au- 
dience, they  were  become,  through  habit,  a  ne- 
cessary accompaniment  of  his  harangues,  with- 
out which  his  spirits  would  flag,  and  his  elo- 
quence fail.  Aristides,  doubtless,  valued  there- 
[jutation  which  he  had  acquired  as  an  eloquent 
speaker ;  but  he  valued  it  only  in  connection 
with  virtue.  "  No  man,"  savs  lie  in  one  of  his 
orations  (Orat.  cont.  I'rod.  iMyst.},  can  be  so 


A  R  I 


(    372     ) 


A  R  I 


stupid  as  to  despise  fame,  if  it  be  the  reward  of 
eloquence  and  a  life  of  virtue,  and  1  do  not  de- 
sire to  obtain  it  by  any  other  means."  And,  in 
another  place  (Orat.  Plat,  secunda.)  :  "  I  had 
rather  be  master  of  eloquent  speech,  with  a  so- 
ber and  virtuous  life,  than  enjoy  a  thousand 
times  the  wealth  of  Darius  the  son  of  Hys- 
taspes."  '  Such  a  man,  with  all  his  errors  and 
weaknesses,  must  be  respected  as  an  ornarnent 
to  the  age  in  which  he  lives.  Philostr.  Fit.  So- 
J>hist.  Suidas.  Fabric.  Bib.  Grtsc.  lib.  iv. 
c.  30.  §  4,  5.  Lardner^s  Heathen  Testimonies, 
c.  20. — E. 

ARISTIDES,  an  eminent  painter,  a  native 
of  Thebes,  and  contemporary  with  Apelks, 
flourished  about  B.  C.  340.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  painted  mind,  and  expressed 
the  affections  and  passions.  A  famous  picture 
of  this  kind  was  that  of  a  mother,  in  a  cap- 
tured town,  mortally  wounded,  and  her  infant 
seeking  the  breast ;  in  which  the  mother  seemed 
apprehensive  lest  the  child  should  suck  blood  in- 
stead of  milk.  Alexander  carried  this  piece  to 
Pella  in  Macedon.  Aristides  also  painted  a 
battle  with  the  Persians,  comprehending  one 
hundred  figures.  At  Rome  was  a  Bacchus  and 
Ariadne  by  liis  hand,  part  of  the  plunder  of  Co- 
rinth. Concerning  this  picture  it  is  said,  that 
when  Mummius  put  up  the  spoil  of  that  city  to 
auction.  Attains  king  of  Pergamus  bought  it 
at  a  price  whicli  so  much  surprised  the  Roman 
general,  that,  suspecting  some  secret  value,  of 
which  he  was  ignorant,  he  annulled  the  bar- 
gain, to  the  great  displeasure  of  Attalus,  and 
reserved  the  v^ork  for  the  temple  of  Ceres  at 
Rome.  Attalus  for  another  piece  of  this  mas- 
ter is  related  to  have  given  one  hundred  talents. 
}n  the  Capitol  was  an  old  man  vvith  a  lyre  teach- 
ing a  bov  to  play,  by  Aristides.  A  sick  man  of 
his  painting  was  greatly  admired.  Expression 
seems  to  have  been  his  distinguishing  excel- 
lence. In  colouring  he  was  somewhat  hard. 
Plinii.  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  xxxv.— A. 

ARISTIDES,  an  Athenian  philosopher  of 
the  second  century,  became  a  convert  to  tlte 
Christian  faith.  He  was  an  eloquent  teacher" 
of  philosophy,  and  after  his  conversion  re- 
tained the  profession  and  habit  of  a  philosopher. 
In  this  habit  he  presented,  at  the  same  time  with 
Quudvatus,  "  An  Apology  for  the  Christian 
Faitli"  to  the  emperor  Adrian.  Of  this  work 
Jerom  speaks  as  a  monument  of  the  writer's  in- 
genuity :  in  another  place  lie  observes,  that  it 
was  interspersed  with  sentences  froin  tlie  philo- 
soplicrs  ;  2, id  that  Justin  imitated  it  in  the  Apo- 
logy whicli  he  presented  to  the  emperor  Anto- 
aiuiis  Pius.     It  is  to  be  lamented,  that  nothing 


remains  from  the  pen  of  this  Christian  philoso- 
pher. Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iv.  c.  3.  Hieron. 
de  Fir,  III.  c.  20.  Id.  ad  Magn.  ep.  84.  Lard- 
ner's  Credibility,  part  ii.  c.  28.   §  2. — E. 

ARISTIPPUS,  a  Grecian  philosopher,  the 
founder  of  the  Cyrenaic  sect,  was  born  at  Cy- 
rene  in  Africa,  and  flourished  about  400  years 
before  Christ.  In  his  youth,  when  lie  was  at- 
tending the  Olympic  games,  he  heard  such 
particulars  concerning  tiie  wisdom  of  Socrates, 
and  his  method  of  instructing  youth,  as  inspired 
him  with  an  ardent  desire  of  becoming  one  of  his 
disciples.  Leaving  his  native  city,  where  he 
had  large  possessions,  he  took  up  his  residence 
at  Athens,  and  attended  the  school  of  Socrates.. 
At  first  he  was  much  delighted  with  the  doctrine 
of  a  master  who  professed  to  prescribe  the  true 
remedy  for  the  ills  of  life,  and  to  conduct  his 
followers  to  happiness  on  the  path  of  wisdom  : 
but  he  soon  found  tlie  moral  system  of  Socrates 
too  severe  to  suit  his  inclinations,  and  indulged 
himself  in  a  luxurious  and  effeminate  manner  of 
living.  His  behaviour  displeased  Socrates,  and 
gave  occasion  to  an  excellent  Lecture  on  Plea- 
sure, preserved  by  Xenophon  (Mcmorab,  lib. 
ii.).  The  expensive  habits  wliich  Aristippus 
formed,  excited  a  desire  of  gain,  which  induced 
him,  while  he  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  to  open 
a  school  of  rhetoric  ;  and  he  was  the  first  of  the 
Socratic  school  who  took  money  for  teaching. 
Socrates,  who  remarked  his  extravagance,  ask- 
ed him  how  he  came  to  have  so  much  ?  "  How 
came  you  (he  replied)  to  have  so  little  ?"  From 
the  profits  of  his  own  school  of  rhetoric  he  sent  So- 
crates, probably  in  hopes  of  silencing  his  reproofs, 
a  present  of  twenty  mins,  or  about  64I.  Socrates, 
however,  returned  the  present,  saying  that  his 
dsmon  forbade  him  to  receive  it.  From  this 
time  Aristippus  alienated  himself  from  his  mas- 
ter, and  soon  afterwards  left  his  school,  and 
witiidrew  from  Athens. 

No  longer  the  pupil  of  wisdom,  but  of  plea- 
sure, Aristippus  now  visited  the  island  of  ^gi- 
na.  At  the  annual  festival  of  Neptune  the  ce- 
lebrated Lais,  accoiding  to  her  usual  practice,. 
was  present  ;  and  the  philosopher  became  a 
captive  to  her  charms,  and  accompanied  her  to 
Corinth.  (Cic.  Ep.  Fam.  lib.  ix.  cp.  26.  Atha;n. 
lib.  V.  p.  2x6.  xii.  p.  554.  xiii.  p.  559.  ed.  Ca- 
saubon,  1612.)  On  the  passage,  a  storm 
arising,  at  which  he  appeared  terrified,  one 
of  the  crew  said  to  liim  :  "  Why  are  you 
philosophers  more  afraid  than  we  .'"  "  Because 
(says  he)  we  liave  more  to  lose."  (./Elian> 
Hist.  Van  lib.  ix.  §  20.  Aul.  Gell.  lib.  xix. 
c.  I.)  At  Corinth  Aristippus  devoted  himself 
to  voluptuousness,  and  apologised  for  his  con- 


A  R  r 


(    373     ) 


A  R  1 


duct  by  saying,  "  that  it  was  not  pleasure  that 
was  criminal,  but  being  the  slave  of  pleasure." 
In  a  voyage  which  Aristippus  made  into  Asia 
from  Corinth,  the  vessel  was  -hipwrecked  on 
the  island  of  Rhodes.  Accidentally  observing, 
as  he  came  on  shore,  a  geometrical  diapram 
drawn  upon  the  sand,  he  said  to  his  comj)an!ons, 
*'  Jake  courage,  1  see  the  footsteps  of  men." 
(Vitruv.  Arch.  lib.  vi.  Diod.  Sic.  lib.  xiv.) 
When  they  arrived  at  the  principal  town  of  the 
island,  the  philosopher  soon  procured  a  hospi- 
table reception  for  h.imself  and  his  fellow-tra- 
vellers ;  herein  confirming  one  of  his  own 
aphorisms:  "  If  you  ask  wliat  advantage  a  man 
of  letters  has  above  one  that  is  illiterate  ;  send 
him  among  strangers,  and  you  will  see."  From 
Asia  Aristippus  probably  returned  to  Corinth, 
and  thence  to  ^gina  ;  for  Plato  (Phadon.) 
says,  that  he  remained  at  .^gina  till  the  death 
of  Socrates. 

It  was,  perhaps,  about  this  time  that  Aristip- 
pus instituted  his  school  at  Cyrene,  which,  from 
the  place,  was  called  the  Cyrenaic  sect;  al- 
though it  must  be  owned,  that  we  have  little 
certain  information  concerning  this  school,  either 
during  the  life  of  its  founder  or  after  his 
death. 

At  the  period  when  tl;e  court  of  Dionysius 
the  tyrant  of  Sicily  was  the  general  resort  of 
philosophers,  Aristippus  appeared  in  the  train  of 
that  prince  ;  and  the  easy  gaiety  of  his  manners, 
and  the  convenient  suppleness  of  his  system, 
gave  him  an  advantage  over  all  his  brethren  in 
managing  the  humours  of  the  tyrant.  When 
he  first  came  to  Syracuse,  Dionysius  asked  him 
"  A\  hy  he  visited  his  court?"  Aristippus  re- 
plied, "  To  give  what  I  have,  and  to  receive 
what  I  have  noti"  At  a  public  festival,  when 
Dionysius  required  all  the  guests  to  appear  in 
pur[)!c  robes,  Plato  refused  ;  but  Aristippus  a- 
dorncd  himself  with  a  rich  and  splendid  dress, 
and  danced  with  all  the  ease  of  a  courtier.  By 
that  huppv  versatility  which  enabled  him  to 
accommodate  himself  to  every  circumstance,  so 
that 

"  Oiiiiiis  Aristippum  decuit  color,  et  status  ct  res — 


Yet  Aristippus  every  dres^  became, 
In  all  atTairs,  in  every  state,  the  same. 

HoR.  Ep.  i.  1" 


23. 


he  never  failed  to  plersc  the  tyrant.  The  inte- 
rest which  he  possessed  in  the  royal  favour  ex- 
cited the  envy  of  his  brethren  ;  and  the  freedom 
with  which  he  ridiculed  their  singularities,  pro- 
voked their  resentment.  ^VIlcn,  or  from  what 
cause,  Aristippus  left  Syracuse,  is  not  known ; 


nor  is  it  certain  whether  he  went  back  into  his 
own  country.  The  Socratic  Epistles,  by  which 
we  are  informed  that  his  daughter  Arete  wrote 
to  him  to  request  his  return,  and  that  he  fell 
sick  and  died  at  the  island  of  Lipara  on  his  re- 
turn home,  are  probably  spurious.  The  last 
incident  concerning  him,  which  deserves  ircdit, 
is,  that  j^lschines,  after  his  return  from  Sicily, 
found  Aristippus  teaching  at  Athens  :  this  was, 
perhaps,  about  the  year  366  before  Christ. 

To  repeat  all  the  dull  or  loosejests  which  arc 
fathered  upon  Aristippus,  cainiot  be  necessary. 
A  few  smart  repartees  and  good  maxims,  which 
have  been  transmitted  under  his  nanv_',  inay  be 
acceptable.     Polyxenus,  a  friend  ot  Aristippus, 
happening  to  call  upon  him  when  great  prepa- 
rations were  making  for  an  entertainment,  en- 
tered into  a  long  discourse  against  luxury  :  Aris- 
tippus grew  tired  with  his  harangue,  and  invited 
him  to  stay  and  sup  with  him  :  Polyxenus  ac- 
cepted the   invitation  :  "  I   perceive  then    (said 
Aristippus)  it  is  not  the  luxury  of  my  table  that 
offends  you,  but  the  expense."    Being  asked  by 
Dionysius,    why  philosophers    frequented    the 
houses  of  the  great,  but  not  the  great  those  of 
philosophers;  he  replied,  "  because  philosophers 
know  their  wants,   but  the  great  did  not  know 
theirs."     To  one  who  had  asked  what  he  had 
gained   by  philosophy,   he  answered,    "  Confi- 
dence to  speak  freely  to  any  man."     Being  re- 
proached with   his   expensive   entertainments ; 
"  If  this  be  wrong  (he  said),  why  is  so  much 
money  lavished  upon  the  feasts  of  the   gods  r" 
A  wealthy  citizen  complaining  that  Aristijipus, 
in  asking  five  hundred  crowns  to  instruct  his 
son,  had  required  as  much  as  would  purchase  a 
slave ;  "  Purchase  one  then  with  the  money 
(said  the  philosopher), and  you  will  be  master  of 
two."     To  one  who  was  boasting  of  his  skill 
and  activity  in  swimming,  he  said,   "  Are  you 
not  ashamed  to  value  yourself  upon  that  which 
every  dolphin  can  do  better  <"   In  the  midst  ot 
a  dispute  with  his  friend  /Eschincs,  when  both 
were  growing  warm,  "  Let  us  give  over   (he 
said)  before  we  make  ourselves  the  talk  of  ser- 
vants ;  we  have  quarrelled,  it  is  true,  but  I,  as 
your  senior,  have  a  right  to  make  the  first  mo- 
tion   towards    reconciliation."     yEschines   ac- 
cepted tlie  proposal,  and  acknowledged  his  f  1  icnd's 
superior  generosity.     "  Philosophers  (said  Aris- 
tippus) excel  other  men  in  this,   that,  it  there 
were  no  laws,  they  would  live  honestly. — It  is 
better  to  be  poor  than  illiterate ;  for  the  poor 
man  wants  only  money,  the  illiterate  man  wants 
that  which  distinguishes  man  from   the  brute. 
The  truly  learned  are  not  they  who  read  much, 
but  they  who  read  what  they  are  able  to  digest  . 


A  R  I 


(    374    ) 


A  R  I 


as  tlie  liealthfiil  man  is  not  he  who  eats  most, 
but  he  wlio  eats  what  nature  requires.  Young 
people  shoulil  be  tauc;ht  whatever  mav  be  useful 
to  them  when  they  become  men."  Horace  al- 
ludes to  a  talc  concerning  Aristippus,  that,  on 
his  jounicv  through  Libya,  he  ordc--rcd  his  ser- 
vants to  throw  away  his  money  in  order  to 
lighten  their  burden  (Hor.  Sat.  lib.  ii.  3.  99.)  : 
but  this  story  can  hardU-  be  credited  of  a  man 
who  appears  to  have  been  always  fond  of  wealth 
and  splendor. 

Aristippus  was  the  man  of  pleasure  in  prac- 
tice, and  the  preceptor  of  pleasure  in  profession. 
Like  Socrates  he  dismissed  from  his  doctrine 
those  speculations  which  have  no  concern  with 
the  conduct  of  life  ;  but  he  by  no  means  adhered 
to  the  pure  system  of  morals  which  he  had 
learned  in  the  school  of  that  precejnor  of  vir- 
tue. The  fundamental  jirinciple  ot  his  doctrine, 
as  for  as  it  can  be  learned  from  the  imperfect  ac- 
counts of  it  which  remain,  was,  that  pleasure 
is  the  ultimate  object  of  human  pursuit;  and 
that  it  is  only  in  subserviency  to  this  that  wealth, 
fame,  friendship,  or  even  virtue,  is  to  be  desired. 
The  business  of  philosophy  lie  understood  to 
be,  to  regulate  the  senses  in  such  manner  as 
will  render  them  most  productive  of  pleasure. 
Happiness  he  defined  to  be  the  aggregate  of  all 
the  pleasures  enjoyed  through  life.  He  held  the 
pleasures  of  the  body  to  be  superior  to  those  of 
the  mind  ;  yet  he  did  not  exclude  the  latter,  noi 
derive  all  enjoyment  from  tlie  selfish  gratifica- 
tion of  the  senses.  He  admitted  that  pleasure 
might  be  derived  from  the  happiness  of  others, 
and  that  we  ought  to  rejoice  in  the  prosperity  of 
our  country.  (Diog.  Laert.  Cic.de  Fin.  lib.  ii. 
c.  71.  lib.  v.  c.  128.  Tusc.  Qiiaest.  lib.  ii. 
c.  6.  iii.  13.  De  OfF.  iii.  33.  -(Elian,  lib. 
xiv.  §  6.)  Though  his  doctrine  corrupted 
the  Socratic  stream,  it  retained  some  tinc- 
ture of  the  pure  fountain  from  which  it  flow- 
ed ;  and  it  is  probable  that  Aristijipus  him- 
self always  retained  a  high  respect  for  the  cha- 
racter of  his  master  ;  for  it  is  related,  that, 
when  the  death  of  Socrates  was  the  subject  of 
conversation,  he  said,  "  My  only  wish  is,  that 
I  may  die  as  he  did." 

The  school  of  Aristippus,  at  Cyrene,  was 
continued  in  succession  by  his  daugliter  Arete, 
Kegesias,  Anicerris,  Theodorus,  and  Bion,  and 
about  an  hundred  years  after  its  birth  expired  ; 
partly  owing  perhaps  to  the  freedom  with  which 
its  professors  lived  as  well  as  taught :  but  chiefly 
to  the  rise  of  the  Epicurean  sect,  which  gave  a 
more  philosophical  and  less  exceptionable  form 
to  the  doctrine  of  pleasure.  Diog.  La'crt.  Vit. 
Ariit.     Stanley,     Bmcker. — E. 


ARISTO  OF  Chios,  a  Greek  philosopher 
of  the  Stoic  sect,  flourished  about  260  years 
before  Christ.  He  was  an  intimate  associate  of 
Perseus  the  son  of  Demetrius,  and  with  him  at- 
tended upon  the  lectures  of  Zeno.  From  his 
persuasive  powers  of  eloquence  he  was  called 
the  Siren.  Offending  his  master  by  his  volup- 
tuous manner  of  life,  he  went  over  to  the  schot)! 
of  Polemo,  and  afterwards  attempted  to  insti- 
tute a  sect  of  his  own.  He  dismissed  from  his 
plan  of  instruction  both  logic  and  physics  ;  the 
former  as  useless,  the  latter  as  above  our  com- 
prehension. Syllogisms,  he  said,  \\  ere  like  cob- 
webs, artificially  constructed,  but  too  fine  to  be 
useful.  In  opposition  to  Arcesilaus,  who  taught 
the  doctrine  of  uncertainty,  lie  strenuously  main- 
tained, that  the  wise  man  does  not  opine  but 
know.  In  order  to  refute  this  tenet,  Perseus 
engaged  one  of  twin  brothers,  who  strongly  re- 
sembled each  other,  to  lodge  a  deposit  in  his 
hands,  which  the  other  afterwards  demanded, 
and,  after  some  hesitation  on  the  part  of  Aristo, 
received  ;  whence  Aristo  was  taught,  that  he 
might  form  an  o]Mnion  without  possessing  know- 
ledge. In  morals,  this  j)hilosopher,  according 
to  the  representation  of  Cicero,  carried  the 
Stoic  doctrine  beyond  the  line  of  his  master  ;  not 
only  asserting,  that  virtue  alone  constitutes  the 
supreme  good,  but  that  in  other  things  there  is 
no  difference  (Cic.  de  Fin.  lib.  iv.  c.  27.), 
which  can  make  one  more  to  be  desired  than 
another.  According  to  Diogenes  Lacrtius,  he 
went  still  farther,  and  applied  the  doctrine  of  in- 
difference even  to  moral  actions  ;  teaching,  that 
all  actions  are  alike,  and  that  to  a  wise  man  it 
is  the  same  thing,  whether  he  perform  the  part 
of  an  Agamemnon  or  a  Thersites,  provided  on- 
ly that  he  perform  it  well.  Seneca  charges  Jiim 
with  rejecting  the  preceptive  part  of  philosophy 
respecting  tlie  particular  duties  of  life,  and  con- 
temning it,  as  belonging  rather  to  the  pedagogue 
than  the  philosopher  ;  "  as  if  (says  that  moral- 
ist) the  philosopher  were  any  thing  else  than  a 
predagogue  of  human  kind."  (Ep.  89.  94.)  If 
Aristo  discouraged  the  use  of  moral  aphorisms 
and  maxinxs,  he  sliglited  one  of  the  most  ])ower- 
ful  instruments  of  moral  discii)line.  "Precepts," 
observes  Seneca  (Ep.  94-),  "  come  by  them- 
selves with  great  weiglit  upon  the  mind,  whe- 
ther they  be  woven  into  a  verse,  or  reduced  to  a 
concise  sentence  in  prose."  Concerning  the 
Divine  Nature,  Aristo  taught  that  it  is  incom- 
]M-chensil)lc.  He  despaired  of  being  able  to  un- 
derstand the  greatness  of  God  (Minuc.  Felix, 
p.  154-);  and  not  only  thought  that  the  nature  of 
God  cannot  be  comprehended,  but  doubted  whe- 
ther the  Gods  have  perception  or  animal  life 


A  R  I 


(    375    ) 


A  R  I 


(Cic.  de  Nat.  Dcor.  lib.  i.  c.  14.) — a  doctrine 
which,  evidently,  in  effect,  denies  the  existence 
of  Deity.  An  important  observation  is  ascribed 
10  this  philosopher,  which  might  have  taught 
others  to  avc;id  that  obscure  and  ambiguous 
language  which  has  occasioned  so  much  con- 
lusi(.in  and  dissuntion  :  "  Plnlo^ophers"  (says 
he)  injure  instead  of  benefiting  their  disciples,  if 
what  is  well  meant  be  ill  interpreted;  thus  it  i-., 
that  the  pupils  of  Aristippus  became  dissolute, 
and  those  of  Zeno  morose."  Aribto  invcij^hed 
against  Arccsiiaus,  yet  was  himself  addicted  to 
pleasure  even  in  his  old  age.  His  death  is  said 
to  have  been  occasioned  by  the  scorching  of  his 
bald  head  bv  the  sun.  Dio^.  Ldert.  Stanley. 
Bruckcr. — E. 

ARISTO,  a  Peripatetic  pliilosopher,  a  native 
of  the  island  of  Ceos,  filled  the  Aristotelian  chair 
about  230  years  before  Christ,  the  fourth  in 
succession  from  the  celebrated  founder  of  the 
school.  Cicero  describes  him  as  a  neat  and 
elegant  orator,  but  as  deficient  in  that  dignity 
and  authority  which  are  expected  in  a  jihiloso- 
pher.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled, 
"  Amatory  Similes,"  cited  by  Athenaeus.  Cic. 
tic  Fin.  lib.  V.  c.  5.  Athen.  lib.  x.  p.  419.  lib. 
xii.  p.  546.      Stanley. — E. 

ARISTO,  TiTus,  a  Roman  lawyer  of 
great  talents  and  merit,  lived  in  the  time  of  Tra- 
jan, about  the  year  1 10.  We  know  nothing  of 
this  excellent  man  except  from  two  epistles  of 
the  younger  Pliny,  who  speaks  of  him  as  the 
object  of  his  peculiar  esteem  and  affection,  who 
was  excelled  by  none  in  learning,  or  in  purity 
and  dignity  of  character.  "  How  consummate 
(says  Pliny)  is  his  knowledge  of  every  branch 
of  the  law !  How  intimately  is  he  acquainted 
with  history,  biography,  and  antiquities  ! 
There  is  nothing  you  can  desire  to  learn  which 
he  is  not  able  to  teach.  For  my  own  part, 
whenever  I  am  desirous  to  examine  any  point 
of  recondite  learning,  I  have  recourse  to  his 
stores  of  knowledge  as  my  treasury.  What 
.sincerity,  what  dignity  is  there  in  his  conversa- 
tion !  What  gracefid  modesty  in  his  delibera- 
tion !  Notwithstanding  the  quickness  of  his  ap- 
prehension, he  frequently  pauses  and  hesitates, 
examining,  distinguishing  and  weighing  with 
great  acuteness  of  discernment  and  strength  of 
judgment  the  various  arguments  on  any  topic, 
and  tracing  them  back  to  their  first  principles. 
Added  to  this,  how  temperate  is  his  diet  !  how 
plain  his  dress  !  how  simple  his  manner  of  liv- 
ing! When  I  enter  his  apartment,  and  see  him 
upon  his  couch,  I  have  before  mc  an  image  of 
ancient  frugality.  All  this  is  adorned  by  a  noble 
greatness  of  miud,  \vhich  refers  nothing  to  iliow, 


but  every  thing  to  virtue,  and  which  reeks  its 
reward,  not  in  popular  applause,  but  in  the 
consciousness  of  having  acted  well.  In  short 
you  will  not  easily  find  among  our  professed 
philosophers,  wh.o  assi.me  the  outward  garb  of 
wisdom,  any  one  who  deserves  to  be  brought 
into  comparison  with  tliis  worthy  man.  He 
does  not,  it  is  true,  frequent  tlje  schools  or  the 
porticos  ;  nor  does  he  entertain  the  leisure  of 
others  and  his  own  with  long  disputations  :  but 
his  talents  are  more  usefully  employed  at  the  bar, 
and  in  public  business ;  assisting  many  in  the 
capacity  of  an  advocate,  and  still  more  in  that 
of  a  friendly  advi.->cr  :  nor  ought  he  10  yield  to 
any  one  tlic  first  place  in  chastity,  piety,  probity 
and  fortitude."  In  the  sequel,  Pliny  proceeds 
to  describe  to  his  friend  the  patience  with  which 
Aristo  was,  at  that  time,  enduring  a  painful 
disease,  which  threatened  his  life.  We  must,, 
however,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  his  pane- 
gyrist, pronoimce  it  a  material  deduction  from 
the  mei  it  of  this  valuable  man,  and  certainly  no 
proof  of  liis  heroism,  that  in  this  illness  he  called 
his  friends  to  his  bed-side,  and  entreated  them  to 
ask  his  physicians  what  turn  they  apprehended 
his  distemper  would  take  ;  that,  if  they  pro- 
nounced it  incurable,  he  might  voluntarily  put 
an  end  to  his  life.  He  added,  indeed,  that  if 
there  were  hopes  of  his  recovery  he  would  wait 
the  event  with  patience,  because  he  thought  it 
due  to  the  tears  and  entreaties  of  his  wife  and 
daughter,  and  to  the  importunity  of  his  friends, 
not  voluntarily  to  destroy  their  hopes,  if  the  case 
was  not  entiiely  desperate.  It  would  surely 
have  been  more  heroic  and  meritorious  to  have 
resolved,  at  all  events,  to  wait  the  course  of  na- 
ture with  fortitude.  In  another  letter,  which  is 
addressed  to  Aristo  himself,  Pliny  highly  com- 
mends his  skill  in  the  law,  and  requests  his  opi- 
nion on  a  case  of  difficulty.  Aristo  probably 
recovered  from  his  dangerous  illness  ;  but  the 
time  and  manner  of  his  death  are  unknown. 
Aulus  Gcllius  speaks  of  him  as  the  author  of 
many  books,  and  mentions  one  of  his  woiks, 
in  which  he  had  read,  that  all  manner  of  theft 
was  allowed  among  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
Plin.  Epist.  lib.  i.  ep.  22.  lib.  viii.  ep.  14. 
Jul.  Celt.  lib.  xi.  c.  18.   Bayie.—E. 

ARISTOBULUS  I.  a  king  of  the  Jews, 
the  son  of  Hvrcaniis,  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  priesthood,  and  was  the  first  Jewish  high- 
priest  who  wore  a  crown.  His  conduct  dis- 
graced both  his  regal  and  sacerdotaf  character. 
He  associated  Antigonus,  his  elder  brother, 
with  him  in  the  government;  but  kept  his  two- 
younger  brothers  in  prison,  together  with  his 
motlicr,  whom  he  starred  to  death.     To  com- 


A  R  I 


(     376    ) 


A  R  I 


jilctc  liis  crimes,  he  afterwards,  througli  the 
false  accus.-itii)ns  of  his  queen  Salome,  put  An- 
ticonus  tmleath.  He  adileJ  to  his  dominions  a 
part  of  Ituria,  and  compelled  the  inhahitants  to 
leccive  the  Jewish  religion.  He  died,  with 
great  remorse,  in  the  year  104  hcfore  Christ, 
alter  having  reigned  only  one  year.  Joseph. 
Ant.  lib.  iii.  c.  18,  19.  Sulp.  Scv.  lib.  ii. — E. 
ARISTOBULUS  II.  a  king  of  the  Jews, 
was  the  son  of  Alexander  Jannajus.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  his  mother  Alexandra,  in  the 
year  69  before  Christ,  he  dispossessed  his  brother 
Hvrcaniis  of  the  kingdom,  and  permitted  him 
only  to  retain  the  office  of  high-priest.  Aretas, 
king  of  the  Arabians,  taking  the  part  of  Hy  rea- 
lms, besieged  Aristobulus  in  the  temple  of  Je- 
rusalem. On  the  part  of  Aristobulus  appeared 
Scaurus,  lieutenant  of  Pompev,  who  defeated 
his  enemies.  Both  Hyrcanus  and  Aristobulus 
applied  to  Pom|)cy,  who  was  then  at  Damas- 
cus, entreating  his  assistance.  Pompev  espoused 
the  cause  of  Hyrcanus,  and  laid  siege  to  Jeru- 
salem, which  he  took  in  the  63d  year  before 
Christ.  He  sent  the  king,  and  his  sons  Alexan- 
der and  Antigonus,  prisoners  to  Rome.  Aristo- 
bulus, however,  with  his  younger  son,  escap- 
ed ;  and,  returning  to  Judaja,  he  collected  an 
army  to  support  him  upon  the  tlirone  ;  but  lliis 
attempt  proved  unsuccessful,  and  he  was  again 
carried  prisoner  to  Rome.  Julius  Cassar,  soon 
after,  in  expectation  of  his  services  in  Asia, 
gave  him  his  liberty  ;  but  the  partisans  of  Pom- 
pev poisoned  him.  He  was  a  wise  and  coura- 
geous prince,  but  the  hatred  of  Pompcy  proved 
destructive  to  him.  Josep/i.  Ant.  lib.  xiv. 
c.  I,  2. — E. 

ARISTOBULUS,  an  Alexandrian  Jew, 
who  flourislied  about  120  years  before  Christ, 
was  preceptor  of  Ptolemy  Euergetcs,  eldest  son 
of  Ptolemy  Pliilometor,  king  of  Egvpt.  He 
bore  the  character  of  a  peripatetic  philosopher, 
and  united  the  study  of  the  Aristotelian  system 
with  that  of  the  Mosaic  law.  Eusebius  speaks  of 
him  as  a  favourite  ofPtolemy,  and  cites  a"  Com- 
mentary on  theBooks  of  Moses,"  which  was  in- 
scribed to  that  prince.  In  this  work  the  author 
asserts,  that  one  part  of  the  law  had  been  trans- 
lated into  Greek  in  the  time  of  Alexander,  and 
that  the  whole  svas  translated  under  tlie  care  of 
J^cmetrius  Phalerseus  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus.  But  this  commentary  was  not 
written  till  i  20  years  after  the  reign  of  that  king. 
Dem.ctiius  Phaleraus  could  not  have  the  care  of 
the  Septuagiiit  translation  according  to  this  ac- 
count :  for,  during  all  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  he  was  in  a  state  of  exile  ;  that 
prince  eatcrtaiuiiig  a  settled  emnity  against  liim 


for  having  advised  his  fatiier  to  choose  anotlict 
successor.  It  is  therefore  probable,  that  Aristo- 
bulus either  himself  invented  the  story  of  the 
seventv  interpreters,  or  borrowed  it  from  Aristcas 
(Seethe  article  Ariste.\s),  inordcr  to  give  the 
Septuagint  translation  greater  credit  with  his  bre- 
thren in  Palestine.  This  suspicion  is  confirmed 
by  another  citation  in  Eusebius  from  this  work, 
of  sundry  verses  of  Orpheus,  in  which  mention 
is  made  of  Moses  and  Abraham.  T'hese  verses 
arc  also  found  in  the  works  of  Justin  Martyr, 
but  with  such  variations  as  render  their  autlien- 
ticity  doubtful.  Froin  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(Stromat.  lib.  i.)  we  learn,  that  Aristobulus  was 
desirous  of  deriving  the  Greek  philosophy  from 
a  Hebrew  origin,  and  establishing  an  opinion, 
tliat  Pythagoras,  Plato,  and  other  Greek  philo- 
so])hers,  were  acquainted  with  the  Jewish  Law. 
We  may  therefore  reasonably  suspect  that  Aris- 
tobulus, to  gratify  his  own  vanity  and  that  of 
his  brethren,  and  to  give  the  Scriptures  of  his 
nation  credit  with  his  jirince,  forged  these  verses. 
On  the  whole  we  must  leave  Aristobulus  under 
the  susjiicion  of  having  practised  ))ious  frauds. 
Euseb.  Prap.  Ev.  lib.  vii.  c.  13.  lib.  viii.  c.  8, 
9.      Dupin,  Prelim.   Brmkcr. — E. 

ARISTOGITON  was  a  citizen  of  Athens, 
whose  name  is  rendered  celebrated  by  the  deed  of 
tyrannicide.  The  story  is  related  by  authors 
with  considerable  varietv  ;  but  the  following 
narration  seems  nearest  the  truth.  Harmodius, 
a  very  beautiful  youth,  was  beloved,  according 
to  the  Greek  custom,  bv  Aristogiton,  a  young 
man  of  an  obscure  condition.  Hipparchns,  the 
son  of  Pisistratus,  who,  with  his  brother  Hippias, 
then  ruled  the  Athenian  stare  with  an  unconsti- 
tutional authority,  was  a  rival  in  the  love  of 
Harmodius  ;  and,  meeting  with  a  repulse,  treated 
him  with  public  insult.  The  two  friends, 
thereupon  (B.  C.  516,)  plotted  the  death  of  both 
the  tyrants,  with  the  restoration  of  liberty  to  the 
people  of  Athens.  They  engaged  several  of 
their  acquaintance  in  the  conspiracv  ;  but  upon 
some  suspicion  of  its  discovery,  they  began  to 
act  before  they  were  prepared.  They  fell  upon 
Hipparchus,  and  dispatched  him  ;  but  the  peo- 
ple not  seconding  them,  Harmodius  was  killed 
by  the  guards,  and  Aristogiton  secured.  Hip- 
pias made  a  severe  inquisition  into  the  plot,  and 
put  Aristogiton  to  the  torture  in  order  to  force 
him  to  declare  his  accomplices.  He  named  the 
most  intimate  friends  of  Hippias  one  after  ano- 
ther, who  vi'ere  immediately  put  to  death  ;  after 
which,  on  being  asked  by  the  tvrant  if  there 
were  no  more,  "  There  now  remains  (said  Aris- 
togiton with  a  smile)  only  yourself  woithv  of 
death."     Lesna,  a  common  courtezan,  said  by 


A  R  I 


((  yn.  )) 


A  R  I 


^me  to.  ha.ve  been-  the  mistress  of  Harmqclius,, 
behav.ed'  with  eq;ial  intrepiditv  ;  for,  fearing 
kst  the  fence  ot  tonjicms  might  extort  a  con- 
fesEion.fiom  her,  slie  bit  off  lier  tongue  and  spit 
it  Quf.  Hippies  was  expelled  three  years  alter 
tlii,s,cvent,  and  thq  former  coiistitutjon  of  Athens, 
vas,  rcsjcred,  Xhp  Athenians,  ever  extreme;  in, 
thpii;  aftaehijnqnts,  paid  the  most  urihoiindcd  ho- 
i)Ouis  to  the  meinijry  of  Hiior.odiusa,r.d  Aiisto- 
gicoii  ;  camming  tljeii.  srafues,  by  Praxiteles,  to  be- 
phued.  ii)  tiiC  foiuiji,  sin^Jng  hyjnns  to  ihcir 
P5aisi;  m  the  Panatheiiaj^,  ajid.  decreeing  that  no 
slayje  should  ever  bear  their  namqs.  ItmigJu.bu 
politic  thgji  to  work,  upon  the  patriotic  sjjirit  ; 
liut  neitlier  tlic  clj^raqters  nor  mofiv,es  of  these- 
conspirators  appear  to, hayc  deserved  such  tcsti- 
moi.ies  of  respect.  Herodotus,  Thutyci'dcs, 
^lutarch.      Umvci'S.  Hist- — A. 

ARIi^TOAilvN-ES,  qneofthofclicroic  cha- 
rgcrers,  iii  ^.sniall;s{me,  v. hich  liberty  alone  can 
pjcdiice,  was  the  son  of  2\'Jcomcdcs,.  descend- 
ed from  the  royal  faiyiily  of,  Messenc^  Ijidig- 
nant  at  the  giievous  servitude  under  wliicli  tl]e' 
Messenians  were  heid  by  tjie  Spartans,  he  ex- 
dted  them  to  take  up  arms,  in  conjunction  with 
the  Argi', cs.  and  Arcadians;  and  thus  com- 
irier.ccd  the  second  Messcnian  war,  B-.  C.  685. 
In  the  fir  t  battle  the  Spartans  were  defeated ^ 
and  Aristomenes  gained  so  much  reputation, 
that  hi  J  countrvrnen  unanimously  saluted  hirn, 
king.  He  declined,  however,  thiS' title,  and  w-as 
contei-ftd  wjtii  that  of  general;  Soon  after,  he 
performed  a  daring  exploit,  the  object  of  v^hich 
seems  to  have  been  to  rouse  the  superstitious 
fears  of  the  Spartans.  He  entered  their  city  by 
night  in  disguise,  and  hung  up  a  shield  in  the 
temple  of  Minerva,  with  an  inscription,  im- 
porting that  Aristomenes  dedicated  this  ofl'er- 
ing  to  thegciidcss  out  of  tlie  .-^poiis  of  the  Spar- 
tans. Again  taking  the  field  with  a  more  nu- 
merous confederate  army,  he  gave  the  Laccdie- 
nionians  a  secor^l  and  blocdy  defeat ;  and  af- 
tfrwardi  took  and  pillaged  one  of  tl»eir  towns, 
and  repulsed  with  great  slaughter  a  body  of 
troops  sent  to  recover  it.  In  this  action  he  had 
a  spear  thrust  through  his  thigh  ;  but,  when 
cured  of  his  wouixl,  lie  marched  to  invest  Spar- 
ta itself,  whence,  however,  he  retreated  with'.iut 
success.  Jii  the  third  year  of  the  war  the  Spar- 
tans entered  the  A'lessenian  territory  witiia  great 
force ;  and  another  engagement  ensued,  in  which, 
through  the  treachery  of  Aristocrates  king  of 
Arcadia,  the  iVIcssenians  were  overthrown  with 
the  loss  of  the  greatest  part  of  their  armv. 
Aristomenes  was  now  reduced  to  fortify  a  few 
places,  and  give  up  the  rest  of  the  country  to 
the  enemy.     Yet,  stiJl  resolved  not  to  submit, 

VOL.   I. 


be    collected   a    sinall-  band    of  chosen    mefl, 
with  which- he  continuajly  harras.sed  the  Spar- 
tans, and  even  made  inrcad.s  into  Lacpniav     He; 
\yasat  length  surrounded  and  made  pviscner,  to- 
the  gjcat  joy  of  tiie  Spartans,  wJ-o  thruw  himi 
ijito  a  deqp  cavern,  in.  the  midw-  of,  the  wounded- 
and  dying..    Three  diiViS^he  continued  in  this  si-- 
tjjutioii,  ajmo&r  faniisjied,  and  poisqned  bw  the; 
stpnch.of  piitrid  carca.ses;  when,  hearing;  near- 
hirn  a^ fox  preying  upon.a  dead  body,  he,  s^z«.-tli 
it  by  a  liind  leg,  audi   sufiiiring;  it.  to   struggle: 
away^  foilQwtjd  till  it  led  to  a  small  holetlirongli. 
which  light  was  discerned.     This- aperture  he,, 
with  grca,t  labour,  Oilargcd.  by   hi.'j  hands- and 
nails,  till   it  afforded:  him  a  passage  thfiough.;. 
and,,  before  h^  was  missed,  he  had  got-  to  his 
couritrymeii, at  their  post  on  niount.Erai     He- 
sooiv  rei;e>\ed  his  ravages  among, the- esncmvi,, 
ajid  ci;mpellcd  thtniro  a  truce  ;  but,  during;  its: 
continuance,  he  was  perfidiously  seized  by  soma: 
Cietans  inthe-  Sjervice;- of  Sparta,  and  hurrjedi 
away, captive.     The  Cretansj  seven  in  number., 
slopping  with;  him-  at  the  house  of  a  widow- 
yyjth    one  dauglitcr,  suffered'  theni.'^elves  to  be 
overcome  by  wine.     When  they  wera  in  this, 
state,  the  woipen,  cutting  the  thongs  with  which, 
yyristomenes  was  fastened,  -'>et  him  at  libeftw 
He  then, slew,  a|l  his  gusids,  and  retuKned:  to 
Era  with  the  mother  ajid  daughter,  the  Utter,  of-; 
whom  he  married  to  hisson.     Eia  was- sooni 
after  betrayed  into  tho  hands-  of  the  Spartans;, 
but  Aristomenes,  forming  his  men  into  a  co- 
lumn, marclicd  directly    to    the    eiiemv's  line,, 
which  opened  to  the  right  and  left,  and  let  him, 
pass  without  molestation.     The  Arcadians  re- 
ceived him  and  his  small  band  with  great  kind- 
ness ;  when  he  proposed  to  the  assembled. people- 
a  bolder  ex])loit  than  anv  he  had  yet  undertaken. 
"  I  have  still  left  (said  he)  five  hundreil  brave- 
soldiers  who  will  follow  me  any  wliither.  Now 
the  Sj)artans  are  employed  in  the  pillage  of  Era, 
if  you  assist  me,   1  will  inarch  straight  to  Lace- 
dsmon  and  surprise  it,"  This  proposal  was  re-  • 
ccivcd  with    great    applause,   and  would   have 
been  executed,  had  not  the  Arcadian  king  found 
pretences  to  delay   it  till  he   sent  to  Sparta  to 
put  them  on  their  guard.      His  treachery,  liow- 
ever,  was  discovered,  and  the  enraged  people 
stoned  him  to  death.     The  Messenians,  imder 
the  conduct  of  the  son  of  Aristomenes  and  ano- 
ther leader,  passed  over  to  Sicily,  where  they, 
founded   the   city   of  Messina.     Aristomenes, 
however,    roinair;ed   in   Greece,    .still   planning 
great  designs  against  the  power  of  the  Spartans  ; 
when  death  freed  them  from  the  most  inveterate 
enemy  they  had  ever  experienced.     The  inde- 
pendence of  his  country  expired  w  ith  him.  TJic 
3c 


A  R  I 


(     373     ) 


A  R  I 


liigh  rlmractcr  he  tr.aintulned  in  Greece  ap- 
peared in  the  great  niatclies  he  procured  for  his 
daughters  ;  in  relation  to  which  it  is  said,  that  a 
person  at  the  head  of  affairs  in  Rliodcs,  hav- 
ing ronsuhed  t!ic  oracle  at  ]])clphos  whom  he 
should  marry,  and,  being  directed  to  pay  his 
court  CO  the  daugliter  of  the  most  worthy  of 
the  Greeks,  the  answer  was  understood  to  al- 
lude to  the  dauglircr  of  Aristomenes,  whom, 
in  consequence,  he  espoused.  It  was  on  a  visit 
to  this  son-in-law  that  Aristomenes  died,  and  a 
inagniticent  tomb  was  erected  for  him  in  Rhodes. 
Diodoiiii  Sicul.  Pansanias.  Univcrs.  lint. — A. 
ARISTOPHANES,  one  of  the  most  fa- 
mous of  the  Grecian  comic  poets,  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.  C. 
contemporary  with  Sophocles,  Socrates,  Euri- 
pides, and  some  of  the  greatest  men  in  Greece. 
It  is  not  well  knowMi  what  was  liis  native  coun- 
try ;  but  he  settled  at  Athens,  where  he  was  ad- 
mitted a  dcni7.cn,  and  held  in  high  estimation. 
He  displayed  great  talents  for  poetry  at  an  early 
age ;  and,  when  he  grew  up,  addicted  him- 
self to  the  Old  Comedy.,  the  characteristic  of 
which  was,  introducing  real  personages  by 
name  on  the  stage,  in  ord^r  to  make  them  the 
objects  of  invective  or  ridicule.  Aristophanes 
seems  at  first  to  have  employed  this  dangerous 
power  for  the  correction  of  abuses  in  the  state. 
He  was  equally  an  enemy  to  corruption  and 
usurpation  in  the  great,  and  to  the  follies  and 
vices  of  the  people,  whom  he  lashed  without 
.scruple,  regardless  uf  their  sovereign  autliority. 
Nor  does  it  seem  improbable  that  he  was  an 
useful  instrument  in  reforming  many  things  wrong 
in  the  administration.  But  party  and  personal  en- 
mity operated  upon  him  as  they  have  done  upon 
almost  all  public  satirists  ;  and  the  lovers  of  vir- 
tue will  never  forgive  him  for  his  malignant  at- 
tack upon  the  reputation  and  life  of  Socrates. 
His  comedy  of  "  The  Clouds"  was  written 
•expressly  against  that  exiellent  man,  whom  he 
endeavours  to  turn  into  ridicule  by  buffoonery, 
while  at  ths  same  time  he  loads  him  with  the 
most  serious  accusations.  This  piece,  though 
at  hrst  it  displeased  the  people,  yet  is  imagined 
in  the  end  to  have  contributed  a  large  share  to- 
wards preparing  the  Athenians  for  that  unjust 
-decree  which  deprived  the  age  of  its  best  orna- 
ment. His  calumnious  attacks  upon  eminent 
persons  gave  rise  to  a  law,  procured  by  Alci 
blades,  against  marking  out  any  character  by 
name  in  comic  representations  ;  and  this  was  the 
origin  of  the  ATuldle  Comedy,  wherein  the  sa- 
tn-e  was  concealed  under  the  mask  of  fiction. 

Whatever  might  be  thought  of  the  morality 
of  Aristophanes,  no  man  could  be  more  the 


object  of  popular  admiration.  In  ages  much 
better  qualified  to  judge  of  his  general  merits 
than  any  modern  times  can  be,  he  was  tiiought 
to  unite  all  the  peculiar  elegancies  of  the  Attic 
]Musc  with  an  inimitahle  talent  for  wit  and  hu- 
mour. The  sweetness  and  purity  of  liis  style  so 
ingratiated  him  with  Plato,  though  so  intimate 
a  disciple  of  Socrates,  that  in  an  epigram  he 
represents  the  Graces  searching  for  a  durable 
mansion,  and  at  length  fixing  it  in  the  mind  of 
Aristopliane:;  ;  and  the  most  eloquent  of  the 
Greek  fathers  of  the  church,  St.  Chrysostom, 
is  said  always  to  have  laid  him  under  his  pil- 
low. Yet  it  is  certain  that  his  wit  often  dege- 
nerates into  mere  scurrility,  that  his  humour  is 
often  extravagance  and  bufl'oonery,  and  that  he 
frequently  violates  decency  in  the  grossest  man- 
ner. In  these  points,  it  is  true,  one  age  and 
nation  cannot  perfectly  enter  into  the  feelings  of 
another  :  yet  there  are  principles  of  decorum 
which  belong  to  all ;  and  many  of  the  ancients 
felt  and  censured  the  faults  of  Ariitophanes. 
Little  is  known  concernins:  the  incidents  of  his 
life,  but  he  is  supposed  to  have  lived  to  a  great 
age.  He  is  said  to  have  written  fifty-four 
comedies,  of  which  only  eleven  remain,  "The 
Clouds"  being  one.  "  Plutus"  is  one  of  tlie 
most  esteemed.  The  best  editions  f)f  Aristo- 
phanes are  those  of  Kuster,  Bergler,  and  Brunck. 
Fossius,  Poet.  Grac.  Lii.  Gyrald.  Moreri. 
Noiiv.  Diet.  Hist. — A. 

ARISI'OTLE,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
philosophers  of  ancient  Greece,  the  founder  of 
the  Peripatetic  sect,  the  son  of  Nicomachus  and 
Phsestias,  was  born  at  Stagvra,  a  town  of 
Thrace,  upon  the  river  Strvmon,  in  the  first 
year  of  the  99th  Olympiad,  or  384  years  be- 
fore Christ.  (Diog.  Laert.  Dionys.  Hal. 
Epist.  ad  Ammreum.)  From  the  place  of  his 
birth  he  is  called  the  Stagy  rite.  Both  his  pa- 
rents dying  in  his  childhood,  Proxenus  of  Atar- 
na  in  Mysia  took  the  charge  of  his  education. 
The  respect  which  Aristotle  afterwards  showed 
to  the  memory  of  his  master,  by  educating  and 
adopting  his  son,  is  a  sufficient  proof  that  this 
charge  was  faithfully  executed.  It  is  related  by 
^lian  (Var.  Hi  t.  lib.  v.  c.  9.),  and  by  Athe- 
nceus,  on  the  authority  of  an  epistle  of  Epicu- 
rus (Deipnosoph.  lib.  viii.  p.  3S4-)5  that  Aris- 
totle in  his  youth  addicted  himself  to  pleasure, 
and  wasted  his  whole  patrimony  ;  that  he  af- 
terwards went  into  the  army  ;  and  that,  not 
finding  this  mode  of  Kfe  suited  to  his  inclina- 
tions, he  professed  medicine,  and  practised  phar- 
macy at  Athens,  till  accident  directed  his  atten- 
tion to  philosophy.  But  the  credit  of  this  story 
is  ill-supported ;  and  it  contradicts  the  accounts 


9 


Oii^t  tot  ^riltovhams  tivuina.  over  a,  his  enimAcharnan 
JXtultam,  iCcAcram.  in  uiridem  contulit  ante  comam  . 

Qj^d^tio  incft  Scfiftis  ^a.cchtij,SAl£  vluftma  auantum  , 
J\f^ro,  ata.  horrihili,fahult  vlcna.  somit  ■ 

O  vmcHans  ATumi,  Grais  am  morxhus  tveta . 
Clwa.notA,  ripens  cornice,  ii^ixA  notas 


\jriinjks  itjtfiiccf-^ 


IX 


A  R  I 


(     379     ) 


A  R  I 


of  Diogenes  Lui/riius,  who  says,  that  it  is  cer- 
tain thai  Aiistotle  became  a  discii'lc  ot  Plato  at 
seventeen  years  of  age  ;  an  account  confirnitd 
bv  other  writers.  (Dionys.  Ha!,  Syncclhis. 
Conf.    Aristocles  ap.  Euseb.  Prap.  Ev.  lib.  xv. 

1  he  penetrating  understanding  of  Aristotle 
attracted  the  general  admiration  of  the  Acade- 
my :  his  master  called  him  the  mind  of  the  school  \ 
and  wjjcn  he  liappcned  to  he  absent,  it  was  said, 
"  Intellect  is  not  here."  He  was  not  less  cele- 
brated for  his  diligent  application  to  study,  and 
his  extensive  acquaintance  with  books  :  Plato 
gave  him  the  apjielbtion  ol the  great  reader.  The 
manner  in  which  Aristotle  treated  his  master, 
jind  the  length  of  time  during  which  he  conti- 
nued in  his  school,  are  variously  represented  by 
ditFerent  writers.  .(Elian  reports  (^'ar.  Hist, 
lib.  iii.  c.  19.)  that  Aristotle,  by  the  ciFemi- 
iiatc  elegance  of  his  dress,  and  bv  his  pertness 
and  loquacity,  gave  great  offence  to  his  master; 
and  that  in  resentment  of  the  preference  which 
Plato  shewed  to  Xenocrates  and  Spcusippus, 
he  came  into  the  school  during  their  absence, 
and  perplexing  with  subtle  questions  the  vene- 
rable old  man,  whose  faculties,  at  the  age  of 
eighty,  were  failing,  drove  him  from  the  Aca- 
demy, and  took  possession  of  the  chair,  till  it 
was  reclaimed  for  Plato  by  his  disciple  Xeno- 
phon.  This  story  is  supported  by  Aristoxcnus, 
as  cited  by  Euscbius  ;  (Euseb.  Praep.  Ev.  lib. 
XV.  c.  2.)  and  Aristocles,  who  (Ibid.)  refutes 
sc\-eral  other  charges  against  Aristotle,  seems 
to  admit  his  ingratitude  to  his  master.  Dio- 
genes Laertius  says,  that  Aristotle  withdrew, 
during  Plato's  life-time,  from  the  Academy  ; 
and  adds,  that  his  master,  on  this  account, 
compared  him  to  a  well-fed  colt  who  kicks 
its  dam.  There  is,  however,  great  reason  to 
doubt  the  truth  of  this  story.  J^Llian  is  too  fa- 
bulous a  writer  to  be  entitled  to  imjilicit  credit. 
Aristoxcnus.  as  Suidas  has  observed  (In  Aris- 
tox.),  entertained  a  personal  enmity  against 
Aristotle  for  preferring  Theophrastus  before 
him  in  the  succession  of  his  school,  and  after 
his  death  aspersed  his  memory.  If  Aristoxcnus 
was  the  author  of  the  report,  yElian,  Diogenes 
Laertius  and  others  might  receive  it  from  him 
without  any  other  authority.  In  the  "  Life  of 
Aristotle,"  wiittcn  in  Greek,  ascribed  by  some 
to  Ammonius,  and  by  others  to  Philoponus,  it 
is  expressly  denied  that  Aristotle  set  up  a  school 
during  Plato's  life  ;  and  in  the  old  Latin  transla- 
tion of  this  Life  it  is  added,  that  Aristoxcnus  was 
tlie  author  of  this  calumny.  ^Ve  have,  then, 
no  sufficient  proof  that  Aristotle  instituted  a  new 
icct  before  the  death  of  Plato.     It  is  a  strong 


presumption  to  the  contrary,  that,  after  the 
death  of  his  master,  he  honoured  his  memory  by 
a  funeral  eulogy  (Olympiod.  Comm.  in  Gorg. 
Plat.)  and  erected  a  monument,  on  which  he 
inscribed  an  epitaph  expressive  of  the  highest 
respect.  In  tiie  Latin  version  of  the  ancient 
Life  of  Aristotle  above  mentioned,  a  translated 
copy  of  tills  epitaph  is  preserved; 

Gratus  Aristotclcs  struit  hue  altarc  Flatoni, 
Qucn)  turba-  injusta  vtl  cdrbr^irc  ncus. 

To  Pinto's  sacred  name  this  tomb  \%  rcar'd, 
A  name  by  Ari-itotlc  long  rcvcr'd! 
Far  liencc,  ye  vulijar  herd  !  nor  dare  to  staia 
With  impious  ])ruise  this  ever  hallow'd  I'anc. 

It  might  have  been  expected,  upon  the  death 
of  Plato,  that  Aristotle's  superior  talents  would^ 
have  procured  him  the  succession  to  his  mas- 
ter's chair  in  the  Academy.  Upon  the  election 
ot  Spcusippus,  Aritotle,  now  thirty-seven  years 
of  age,  retired  from  Athens,  probably  in  dis- 
gust, and  went  to  reside  with  Hermias,  governor 
of  Atarna  in  Mysia,  who  received  him  Avitii 
great  affection.  After  tliree  years,  Hermias 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death  by  Ana- 
xerxes  king  of  Persia.  Upon  this,  Aristotle 
placed  a  statue  ot  his  friend  in  the  temple  of 
Delphos,  and  wrote  in  his  praise  an  epitaph, 
and  a  hymn  to  Virtue.  (See  this  hymn,  ac- 
companied with  ingenious  notes,  and  an  elegant 
translation,  in  bishop  Hurd's  Notes  on  Horace's 
Art  of  Poetry,  ver.  219.)  From  respect  to  the 
memory  of  his  friend,  he  married  Pvthias,  his  sis- 
ter, whom  the  death  of  Hermias  had  reduced  to 
poverty.  He  then  removed,  but  from  what  in- 
ducement we  do  not  learn,  to  the  city  of  Mity- 
lene. 

After  a  short  interval,  this  illustrious  philoso- 
pher was  summoned  to  take  the  charge  of  the 
education  of  a  youth  who  was  destined  to  make 
as  distinguished  a  figure  in  the  political  world  as 
his  preceptor  in  the  world  of  science.  Philip 
king  of  Macedon,  having  heard  of  the  fame  i^i 
Aristotle,  wrote  him  the  following  letter  :  (Aul. 
Gell.  lib.  ix.  c.  3.) 

Philip  to  Aristotle  u.-isheth  hettlth; 

"  IJii  informed  that  I  have  a  son.  I  am  very 
tliankful  to  tlie  gods,  not  so  much  for  his  birth, 
as  that  he  was  born  in  the  same  age  with  vou  , 
for  if  you  will  take  the  charge  of  his  education 
and  instruction,  he  will  become  worthy  both  of 
us,  andof  the  kingdom  wliich  ho  will  inherit." 

Aristotle  accepted  the  charge  ;  and  in  the 
fourth  year  of  the  iCQth  Olympiad,  or  the  ^4lsr 
before  Ciirist,  when  Alexander  was  fomtecn 
U'urs  of  age,  he  went  into  Macedonia,  and  took 


A  R  I 


(    3S0    ) 


A  R  I 


-up  Ivix  Te^il^enct■  in  tlic  conrt  of  Pliilip.  Here  1ic 
i-cmarnal  tivo  years  (Justin.  Hit.  lib.  xii. 
■c.  16.),  instructing  liis  |»upil  in  doinience,  phy- 
sics, etWcs,  and  politics,  and  in  the  more  ab- 
-vtrusc.  or  esoteric,  doctrines  of  pliilo.sophy.  That 
the  ab^tract  8cimce  ol  inctnphysicj  formed  a 
^art  of  Alexander's  education,  uppeaTs  from  an 
anecdote  related  hv  Pliuai'Cli.  (Pint.  Vit.  Alex. 
Aukis  Gell.  lib. 'nx.  c.  5.)  While  Alex- 
ander vs-as  in  Asia,  having  been  informed  that 
Aristotle  had  pidilislicd  a  book  in  which  the  doc- 
trines usuaJly  concealed  by  philosophers  from 
common  auditors  were  laid  open,  he  expressed 
tohiniTiis  di  approbation  ot  thi;  measure  in  the 
following  letter  : 

Alexander  to  Aristotle  Prosperity. 

"  You  have  done  wrong  in  laying  open  those 
parts  of  science  which  liave  hitherto  been  re- 
served for  the  car  of  select  auditors.  In  what 
shall  we  differ  fiom  others,  if  all  tlie  world  be 
made  acquainted  witii  what  we  have  learned 
from  you  ?  I  had  rather  excel  others  in  tiie  pos- 
session ot  tlie  most  valuable  branches  of  know- 
ledge, than  in  the  extent  of  my  power  and  do- 
minion.    Farewell." 

Aristotle,  in  return,  apologised  for  himself  by 
sa-\ing,  that  the  higher  branches  of  his  doctrine 
might  be  said  to  be  pi.blislied,  and  not  publislied, 
as  none  but  those  who  had  attended  his  lectures 
could  understand  them.  Plutarch  adds,  that  he 
believes  Alexander  to  have  been  also  taught  by 
Aristotle  the  science  of  medicine,  and  refers  to 
his  letters  to  prove  that  he  was  fond  not  only  of 
the  theory,  but  the  practice.  It  was  with  greater 
■  propriety  that  the  philosopher  introduced  his 
pupil  to  an  acquaintance  with  polite  learning, 
and,  particularly,  that  he  inspired  him  with  so 
great  a  fondness  for  the  writings  of  Homer,  that 
afterwards  the  monarch  and  the  conqueror  made 
them  his  daily  companion,  kept  them  in  a  rich 
casket  which  he  had  taken  fi'ont  Darius,  and, 
at  night,  laid  them  under  his  pillow  with  his 
swoid.  Witli  so  much  ability  and  fidelity  did 
Aristotleexecute  the  office  of  preceptor  to  Alex- 
ander, that  he  obtained  the  warm  affection  of 
his  pupil,  and  tlichigh  esteem  and  confidence  of 
Philip  and  Olympias.  Alexander  professed  him- 
self more  indebted  to  his  tutor  than  to  his  father, 
because  the  laitcr  had  onlv  given  him  life,  but 
the  former  had  taught  iiim  the  art  of  living  well. 
in  rccompcnce  of  Aristotle's  meritorious  ser- 
vicer, Pliilip,  at  his  request,  rebuilt  the  town  of 
Siagyra,  which  he  had  formerly  dismantled,  re- 
stored the  inhabitants  to  tiiclr  former  privileges, 
and  provided  them,  in  an  adjacent  place,  a  pub- 
lic school  for  their  studies  and  literary  conversa- 


tions, -where,  says  Plutarch,  arc  stil!  seen  Aris- 
totle's stone  scats  and  shady  walks.  'I'his  reno- 
vation of  his  native  city  Aristotle  had  the  grati- 
fication of  s\itm*ising.  He  visited  Stagyra,  and 
assisted  his  countrymen  in  framing  rules  for 
their  school,  and  laws  for  their  common-wealth. 
In  commemoration  of  their  obligations  to  their 
fell<)w-citi7.cn,  and  in  honour  of  his  singular 
merit,  the  Stagyritcs,  after  his  death,  instituted 
an  annual  Aristotelian  festival. 

Upon  the  accession  of  Alexander  to  the 
throne  of  Maccdon,  when  he  formed  the  ambi- 
tious project  uf  conquering  Asia,  Aristotle  re- 
fused to  accompany  him  in  his  exjiedition,  and, 
leaving  with  him  his  kinsman  Callisthenes,  re- 
turned, after  a  long  absence,  to  Athens.  The 
separation  did  not  dissolve  the  bond  of  affection 
between  the  royal  pupil  and  his  preceptor.  A 
friendly  correspondence  was  can  led  on  between 
them  ;  and  Alexander,  to  furnish  Aristotle 
materials  for  his  Natural  History,  sent  him, 
at  a  vast  expence,  froiti  different  countries,  a 
large  collection  of  animals.  (Plin.  Hist. 
Nat.  lib.  viii.  c.  16.  Athcn.  lib.  ix.)  Itmay 
be  regretted,  however,  that  afterwards,  when 
Callisthenes  fell  under  the  displeasure  of  Alexan- 
der, the  resentment  was  transferred,  probably 
without  any  sufficient  reason,  to  Aristotle  ; 
and  that,  from  this  time,  a  mutual  aliena- 
tion took  place  between  the  philosopher  and  the 
prince. 

At  Athens,  Aristotle  found  the  academy  oc- 
cupied by  Xenocratcs,  who  succeeded  Speusip- 
pus.  He,  however,  obtained  from  the  magis- 
trates permission  to  occupy  the  Lycsum,  a  large 
open  building  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city,  hither- 
to used  for  military  exercise.  Here,  probably  in 
the  second  year  of  the  1 1  ith  Olympiad,  or  the 
335th  before  Christ,  Aristotle  opened  his  school, 
and  founded  a  new  sect  of  philosophers.  Ii\ 
this  place  he  daily  gave  instructions  to  his  disci- 
ples, usually  walking  as  he  discoursed.  From 
this  circumstance  his  followers  were  called  Pe- 
ripatetics, and  his  system  the  Peripatetic  philoso- 
phv.  (Aul.  Geil.  lib.  xx.  c.  4.)  At  length 
when  the  number  of  his  auditors  increased,  he 
delivered  his  lectures  sitting.  The  doctrine  which 
he  delivered  was  of  two  kinds ;  the  exoteric, 
comprehending  rhetoric,  logic,  and  politicj., 
delivered  to  all  young  men  witnout  distinction  ; 
and  the  acroamatic,  or  esoteric,  intended  for  the 
private  ear  of  his  select  disciples ;  the  former  lec- 
tures were  delivered  in  the  evening,  the  latter  in 
the  morning ;  whence  Aristotle  was  said  to 
have  his  evening  and  his  morning  walk:  the  au- 
ditors of  both  were  numerous. 

The  superiority  of  Aristotle's  abilities  and  the" 


A  k  I 


(    381     ) 


A  R  I 


tiovcTty  of  Tiis  docti'ines  created  IiiTn  miny  ri- 
vals and  enemies.  After  liaviiig  taught  in  tlie 
Lycaeum  thii  teen  years  with  the  highest  reputa- 
tion, he  was  accused  by  Euryincdon,  a  priest 
who  Iiad  the  charge  of  the  sacred  mvs'tcries,  of 
impiety.  The  nature  of  this  accusation  is  not 
well  known.  The  only  particulars  mentioned 
bs'  Diogenes  I^aertius  are,  that  Aristotle  wrote 
some  lines  in  honom'  of  Herniias,  which  were 
inscribed  as  an  epitaph  iijion  his  tomb,  and  that 
he  compo'.cd  the  hymn  already  mentioned  in  his 
praise.  These  are  preserved  by  Laertius  :  tlicv 
are  panegyrics,  in  the  usual  style  of  poetry,  with- 
out the  least  trace  of  impiety.  (Atl.cn.  lib.  xv. 
c.  16.)  A  charge  is  said  to  have  been  brought 
by  Aristippus  against  Aristotle,  for  having  ex- 
pressed his  passion  for  his  wife  Pythias  by  ofFer- 
jug  sacrifice  to  her  after  the  manner  in  which 
the  Athenians  paid  adoration  to  Ceres.  But 
this  charge,  which  was  probably  a  mere  calum- 
ny, does  not  appear  to  have  been  alleged  against 
him  by  Eurymedon.  If  the  opinions  which  lie 
taught  were  not  made  the  ground  of  the  accu- 
sation, of  which  no  other  proof  appears  than 
the  bare  assertion  of  Origcn  (Contra  Cels. 
lib.  i.  p.  52.  lib.  ii.  p.  68.)  ;  it  is  difficult  to  say 
what  was  the  offence  for  which  Aristotle's  life 
was  brought  into  hazard.  It  is  certain,  how- 
ever, that  this  actually  happened,  and  that  Aris- 
totle considered  his  situation  as  similar  to  that 
of  Socrates.  After  writing  a  rhetorical  defence 
of  himself,  and  accompanying  it  with  i  pro- 
verbial line : 

0;^vij  fir'  o%vjl  yTipairKii,  vvMyi'  etti  vvkv. 

Pear?  upon  pfars,  and  figs  on  Hgs  grow  Iicrc. — 

importing  that  Athenians  would  always  be 
Athenians,  he  withdrew  from  Athens,  assign- 
ing this  reason  for  liis  conduct  (TElian,  lib.  iii. 
c.  36.)  :  "  I  am  not  willing  to  give  the  Athe- 
nians an  occasion  of  being  guilty  of  injustice  a 
second  tiine  against  philosophy."  He  retired 
in  the  second  year  of  the  114th  Olympiad,  or 
323  before  Christ,  with  a  few  of  his  friends 
to  Chalcis,  where  he  reinained  till  his  death. 
In  what  manner  he  died  is  variously  report- 
ed. Suidar.  asserts  that  he  drank  hemlock,  be- 
cause he  had  been  summoned  to  judgment  for 
the  hynvn  which  lie  wrote  in  honour  of  Hcr- 
inias.  Monkish  writers,  in  their  zeal  for  the 
salvation  of  flic  soul  of  Aristotle,  ha'.-e  in- 
vented ])alpable  lies  concerning  his  exit.  One 
of  thc^c  ingenious  men  wrote  a  book  "  l)c  Po- 
rno," &C.  •"' On  the  apple  which  Aristotle  held 
in  liis  hand,  aftd  with  the  smell  of  which  he  rc- 


freslied  Ininself  while  he  discoursed  with  his 
friends  on  the  contempt  of  death,  and  t!ie  im- 
mortality of  the  soul;"  a  book  which  Aristotle 
himself  is  said  to  have  dictated  in  his  last  mo- 
ments, to  prove  that  wise  men  need  not  lament 
their  exit  from  their  lodging  of  clay.     In  this 
work  it  is  related,  that  he  said  to  his  disciplej 
when  he  was  dying,  "  Homer  l)as  well  said, 
that  the  gods  have  descended  upon  earth  for  the 
salvation  of  men  ;"  and  that  he  cried  out  in  tlie 
article  of  death,    "  Causa  causarum,  miserere 
mei  !"     (Fabric.    Bibl.    Grace,    lib.    iii.  c.    6. 
§  37.)     Odier  writers  wlio  have  not  been  in- 
clined to  listen  to  these  fables  have  said,  that 
Aristotle,  not  being  able  to  discover  the  cause 
of  the    singular  pliaenomenon,  that   the  Euri- 
pus  ebbed  and  flowed  seven  times  a  day,  threw 
himself  into  that  arm  of  the  sea,  with  this  ex- 
clamation,  "  Since    Aristotle  cannot   compre- 
hend the  Euripus,  let  the  Euripus  receive  Aristo- 
tle !"     For  this  story  there  is  no  better  authority 
than  a  Greek  Commentary  upon  Gregory  Na- 
zianzen.     That   Clirisiijn  fatlier  himself  only 
says   (\'az.    Orat.   iii.),  that  Aristotle   died  iii 
consequence  of  his  inquiries  concerning  the  Eu- 
ripus ;  and  Justin  Martyr,  to  whom  the  adop- 
tion of  the  same  fable  has  been  ascribed,  asserts 
nothing  more   (Just.  Cohort,  ad  Gra;cos.)  than 
that  he  died  through  vexation  and  shame,because 
he  could  not  discover  the  nature  of  the  Euri- 
pus.    A])ollodorus,  as  cited  by  Diogenes  Laer- 
tius,  simply  says  that  he  fell  sick  at  Chalcis  and 
died.     The  fact  probably  was,  that  Aristotle  by 
intense  application  (f  mind  to  abstruse  inquiries, 
and  particularly  to  the  question  concerning  the 
tides  of  the  Euripus,  destroyed  his  health,  and 
brought  on  a  sickness  of  which  he  died.     The 
time  of  his  death  is  generally  admitted  to  have 
been  the  third  year  of  the   114th  Olympiad,  or 
the  •^23d  year  before  Chirst,  and  the  sixty-third 
of  his  age.     His  bodv    was  conveyed  to  Sta- 
gyra,  and  a  tomb  and  altar  were  erected  to  his 
memory  by  his  fellow-citizens. 

Aristotle  was  twice  married;  first  to  Pytbias 
tlic  sister  of  Hermias,  and  afterwards  to  Herpi- 
lis,  a  native  of  Stagira.  By  his  second  wife  he 
had  a  son  named  Nicomachus,  to  whom  he  ad- 
dressed one  of  his  ircali  es  on  morals.  In  his 
jwrson  he  was  slender,  and  of  middle  stature  : 
lie  had  a  shrill  voice,  small. eyes,  and,  if  we  may 
credit  the  bust  found  by  Ursinus  at  Rome,  a 
high  nose.  Through  a  natural  weakness  of  sto- 
mach he  was  subject  to  frequent  indisposition  ; 
but  he  corrected  the  infirmities  of  his  constitu- 
tion by  temperance.  Aristotle  had  many  rivals 
and  enemies,  wbo  loaded  his  character  with  re- 
proach: but  the  high  rcpvHation  which  he  eu- 


A  K  I 


<     3Si     ) 


A  R  1 


jcycu  i".  ev«iv  situation  during  his  liTe,  ami  the 
lionours  which  were  paid  to  his  memorv,  afFord 
a  strong  presuinption  that  the  charges  brought 
aijainst  him  wire  mere  calumnies.  A\'e  have 
III)  proof  that  Iiis  affection  for  Hermias,  and  for 
his  sister  Pvthias,  was  either  infamous  or  im- 
pious. His  character  is  stronglv  marked  witii 
the  generous  virtues  of  gratitude  and  patriotism  ; 
as  appears  from  the  instances  already  mentioned 
of  his  respect  for  the  memorv  of  his  preceptors, 
and  his  exertions  in  the  service  of  his  native 
city.  His  love  of  truth  is  emphatically  expressed 
in  the  adage  commonly  ascribed  to  him,  "  Ami- 
cus Plato,  amicus  Socrates,  magis  tamen  arnica 
Veritas."  Of  liis  extraordinary  powers  of  in- 
tellect, and  tlie  wonderful  extent  of  his  know- 
ledge, his  writings  remain,  and  will  probably 
for  ever  remain,  an  indubitable  testimonv.  They 
may  be  classed  under  the  several  licads  of  rhe- 
toric, poetry,  politics,  ethics,  pliysics,  mathe- 
matics, k)gic,  and  metaphysics. 

On  rhetoric  Aristotle  has  written  three  books, 
in  which  the  principles  of  eloquence  arc  inves- 
tigated, and  the  whole  art  of  oratory  is  taught 
with  so  much  depth  of  investigation  and  accu- 
racy ot  arrangement,  tl.at  the  work  has  been 
the  basis  of  all  that  has  since  been  deliver- 
ed upon  the  subject  by  Cicero,  Quintilian,  and 
later  writers.  Anotlier  treatise,  addressed  to 
Alexander,  is  added,  in  which  are  distinctly 
conyidercd  ihe  several  species  of  discourse  belong- 
ing to  (he  general  heads  of  deliberative,  demon- 
strative, and  judicial  pleading. — On  poetry,  the 
"Poetic"  of  Aristotle  affords  acorrect  analysis  of 
the  constituent  parts  of  the  drama  and  the  epic ; 
and  contains  general  principles  and  particular 
obscn-ations,  which  could  only  have  been  writ- 
ten by  a  master  in  criticism.  On  politics  Aris- 
totle has  written  eight  books,  in  which  he  not 
only  displays  his  singular  talent  for  arrange- 
ment, but  suggests  many  ideas  respecting  go- 
vernment, which,  if  they  do  not  perfectly  ac- 
cord with  modern  theories,  or  apply  to  modern 
states,  may  nevertheless  deserve  the  attention  of 
politicians.  He  has  added  two  books  on  "  (JL- 
eonomics,"  in  which  he  has  treated,  in  a  simi- 
lar way,  on  the  management  of  domestic  con- 
cerns. 

Aristotle's  doctrine  of  "  Ethics"  is  contained 
m  ten  books  to  Nicomachus  ;  seven  to  Eude- 
mus  ;  two,  entitled  "  The  Greater  Morals ;" 
and  a  small  tract  containing  definitions  of  "  Vir- 
tues and  Vices."  The  leading  idea  in  this  phi- 
losophei's  moral  doctrine  is,  that  virtue  consists 
in  preserving  a  due  medium  between  the  two 
extremes,  of  which  one  is  vicious  through  ex- 
cess, the  other  through  defect.     Aristotle  consi- 


deicd  happiness  as  cither  contemplative  or  ac- 
tive; the  former  consisting  in  the  pursuit  of 
knowledge  and  wisdom  ;  the  latter  partly  in 
external  possessions  and  partly  in  virtuous  ac- 
tions. He  comprehended  in  virtue  not  only 
moral  action  but  intellectual  Imjirovement.  His 
system  of  ethics  was  less  fanciful  than  that  of 
Plato,  and  less  strict  than  that  of  Socrates:  it 
appears  to  have  been  formed  in  a  court,  and 
accommodated  to  the  views  of  aiJ  ambitious 
monarch. 

In  logic,  or  the  art  of  reasoning,  in  which 
Aristotle  has  the  merit  of  being  an  inventor,  his 
writings  arc,  "  The  Categories,"  or  ten  gene- 
ral heads  of  arrangement ;  "  Of  Interpretation," 
a  work  explaiuii;g  the  philosophical  principles 
of  grammar;  "  Analytics,"  including  the  whole 
doctrine  of  syllogisms  and  demonstration  ;  "To- 
pics," or  conunon  places  of  arguments;  and 
"  So])histic  Refutations,"  teaching  the  art  of 
replying  to  an  opponent.  These  pieces,  col- 
lected in  one  volume,  arccalled  "The  Organon 
of  Aristotle."  The  first  of  these  pieces,  as 
far  as  concerns  the  method  of  arrangement,  was 
probably  borrowed  from  Archytas  of  Taren- 
tum,  through  Plato,  who  conversed  with  that 
Pythagorean  in  Italy.  The  art  of  svllogisticaL 
reasoning  was  perhaps  altogether  the  invention 
of  Aristotle  ;  and,  whatever  may  be  thought  of 
its  utility,  it  must  be  allowed  to  have  been  a 
wonderful  effort  of  ingenuity. 

The  mathematical  pieces  which  Aristotle  has 
left  are  an  obscure,  and  probablv  an  imperfect, 
treatise  "  On  Incommensurable  Lines,"  and  a 
book  of  "  Questions  in  Mechanics." 

The  physical  writings  of  Aristotle  are  as  fol- 
lows: "  Of  Physics,  or  the  Doctrine  of  Na- 
ture," explaining  the  principles  and  properties  of 
natural  bodies  ;  "  Of  Heaven,"  treating  of  the 
universe,  the  celestial  spheres,  and  simple  bo- 
dies or  elements  ;  "  Of  Generation  and  Cor- 
ruption;" "  Of  Meteorology  ;"  "  Of  the  His- 
tory of  Animals  ;"  "  Of  the  Parts  of  Animals 
and  their  Causes  ;"  "  Of  the  Production  of 
Animals  ;"  "  Of  the  Progression  of  Ani- 
mals ;"  "  Of  the  Soul  or  Vital  l^rlnciplc  ;" 
"Of  the  Senses;"  "Of  Memory;"  "Of  Sleep;" 
'Of  Dreams;"  "  Of  Anlmal'Motion  ;"  "Of 
the  Length  of  Life  ;"  Of  Youth  and  Old 
Age  ;"  "  Of  Respiration  ;"  "  Of  Plants  ;" 
"'Of  Breath  ;"  "  Of  Marvellous  Facts  ;"  "  Of 
Physiognomy  ;"  "  Of  "Sounds  ;"  "  Of  Co- 
lours ;"  "  Problems."  In  Aristotle's  system  of 
physics,  the  first  principles  are,  first  marrer,  a 
primary  substance  without  quantity  or  qjality, 
form  or  figure,  or  any  of  the  properties  of  bo- 
dy ;  form,  or  the  peculiar  nature  and  essence  of 


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(    383     ) 


A  R  I 


any  thing,  which  makes  it  to  be  what  it  is ;  and 
privation,  or  the  absence  of  form.  In  order  to 
unite  matter  and  form,  an  obscure  internal  cause 
ot  motion  and  arrangement  is  introduced,  which 
is  called  nature.  Substances  he  divides  into  eter- 
nal and  perishable  ;  the  former,  the  iieavens, 
which  revolve  round  the  earth  with  a  circular 
motion  peculiar  to  the  celestial  spheres  ;  the 
latter,  terrestrial  bodies.  1'he  universe  he  holds 
to  be  eternal,  but  finite.  Bodies,  according  to 
his  system,  are  citlier  si.mple  elements,  produced 
by  tlie  union  of  the  first  matter  and  form,  or 
compound  terrestrial  substances.  Compound 
bodies  suffer  a  jjerpetuai  succession  of  dissolu- 
tion and  production  ;  and  this  change  is  effect- 
ed by  the  action  of  the  circular  motion  of  the 
Jieavens,  by  means  of  whicli  the  sun  and  stars, 
the  immediate  agents  in  production  and  dissolu- 
tion, approach  towards  or  recede  from  rhc  earth. 
Tliis  theoretical  doctrine  is  branched  out  into 
many  particulars,  and  is  accomjianicd  with  de- 
scriptions of  various  natural  bodies.  These 
descripiions  are  numerous,  and  appear  in  many 
instances  to  have  been  the  result  of  accurate 
observation.  Aristotle  made  a  judicious  use  of 
the  liberal  assistance  afforded  him  by  Alexander 
to  extend  his  knowledge  of  nature.  He  indus- 
triously examined  natural  bodies,  and  appears  to 
have  himself  dissected,  or  to  have  been  present 
at  tlie  dissection  of,  many  animals.  (Haller  Me- 
thod. Stud.  Med.  p.  4.  c.  ii.  Borrich.de  Sap. 
Herm.  c.  10.  Schulze  in  Spec.  Hist.  Anat. 
V.  2.  p.  6.)  With  lespcct  to  the  soul,  or  prin- 
ciple of  animal  and  rational  life,  Aristotle  chose 
rather  to  employ  himself  in  defining  its  several 
faculties,  than  in  explaining  its  specific  nature. 
In  giving  a  general  account  of  the  soul,  he 
makes  use  of  a  term  expressive  of  the  confused 
idea  which  he  had  formed  of  if  from  obscrvin'r 
its  operations  :  he  calls  it  EvrfX;;/£(a,  or  Pcr- 
fevt  Energy,  denoting  some  unknown  source 
of  sensitive  and  rational  life  in  certain  organised 
bodies.  It  docs  not  certainly  appear  from  the 
writings  of  Aristotle  whether  he  thought  the 
soul  of  man  mortal  or  immortal. 

In  metapliysics,  the  science  which  passes  be- 
yond physical  substances,  Aristotle  has  left  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Universe  and  its  Cause  ;" 
"  A  Refutation  of  Xcnocratcs,  Zcno  and  Gor- 
gias  ;"  and  foiutccn  books  under  the  title  of 
"  Metapliysics."  Under  this  branch  of  science, 
which  lie  calls  The  First  Philosophy,  he  con- 
siders Being  in  the  abstract,  or  inquiries  con- 
cerning the  first  cause  of  motion.  The  doc- 
trine of  being,  or  ontology,  is  nothing  more  than 
the  definition  and  arrangement  of  general 
terms  ;  and,  in  this  part  of  his   writings  Aris- 


totle only  gives  a  series  of  such  definitions,  with 
certain  corollaries  which  necessarily  follow 
from  th.em.  His  doctrine  concerning  the  First 
Mover  is  more  important.  Having  derived  all 
physical  motion  from  the  circular  motion  of  the 
heavens,  which  he  supposes  to  have  been  eter- 
nal, he  conceived  a  first  spring  of  this  motion 
in  an  eternal  substance,  which,  while  it  has  it- 
self remained  unmoved,  has,  from  eternity, 
communicated  motion  iinmediately  to  the  "  pri- 
mum  mobile,"  or  first  celestial  sphere,  and  me- 
diately to  other  bodies.  This  effect  Aristotle 
supposed  to  be  produced  by  means  of  some  in- 
fluence of  pure  mind  upon  matter.  The  First 
Mover  he  conceived  to  be  simple  inteiligence, 
and  the  exertion  of  its  energy  he  assumed  as  the 
cause  of  all  motion.  This  intelligence,  in  the 
system  of  Aristotle,  is  the  Being  of  Beings,  or 
God.  The  Deity,  in  this  system,  is  tlio  fiist 
spring  of  a  vast  machine,  perpetually  and  ne- 
cessarily occu])icd  in  communicating  motion. 

In  the  whole  history  of  the  world  of  science 
no  name  lias  obtained  greater  celebrity  than  that 
of  Aristotle.  For  upwards  of  two  himdred 
years  after  his  death,  indeed,  though  his  chair 
was  reputably  filled  by  a  succession  of  philoso- 
phers, his  writing.s  appear  to  have  lain  neglect- 
ed :  and  when,  alter  having  been  buried  in  a  ca- 
vern by  the  heirs  of  Theophrastus,  Aristotle's 
heir  and  successor,  and  lain  there  till  they  were 
greatly  injured,  they  passed  through  the  hands  of 
Apellicon  to  Athens,  and  of  Sylla  to  Rome, 
few  persons  attached  themselves  to  this  sect;  and 
Cicero,  who  himself  undertook  to  exjdain  his 
Topics,  com])lained  (Pra;f.  ad  Topic.)  that  this 
philosopher  was  understood  by  very  few  even  of 
the  philosophers  themselves.  Under  the  Cse- 
sars,  however,  the  Periiiatetic  philsophy  re- 
vived ;  and  many  learned  men  adopted  it,  and 
wrote  voluminous  commentaries  upon  the  works 
of  their  master.  Tlnough  several  centuries, 
notes,  paraphrases,  arguments,  summaries  and 
dissertations  were  piled  up  under  the  general 
name  of  *'  Commentaries  upon  Aristotle."  In 
the  Christian  school,  though  the  simplicity  of 
its  doctrine  was  at  first  corrupted  by  Platonism, 
the  sects  called  heretical  soon  learned  to  make 
a  very  ingenious  and  successful  use  of  tlie  Aris- 
totelian Dialectics,  'i'heir  example  wasfVjUowcd 
by  tlic  oithodox  clorgv  ;  and  Aristotle  found 
early  advocates  in  Anatolius,  Didynius,  Jciom, 
and  Augustine.  From  the  sixth  century  to  the- 
twelfih,  the  credit  of  Aiistotle  continued  both  in 
the  eastern  and  western  churches;  and  when 
the  clerg v  were  no  longer  able  to  read  his  works 
in  the  originaU  his  Dialectics  were  still  studied  in 
wretched  translations  or  summaries. 


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('    384     ), 


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\Vit_!i  Uic  ila\yn  of  '(^icncc  appcarcil  the  phi- 
losophy oiCAristulle  among  the  S;uacciis.  In  the 
AtaBian  schools  Kis  wr.itings  v.ere  diligently 
sii^died  in  Arabic  tfanslatioiis^lroijx  Latin  or  Sy 
riiic  versions,  maJc  by  Grccl^  Cljiistif-ins.;  and 
t\ie  name  of"  Aiistotle  roje  nUosuch  svipej;s{;tio)Ljs 
veiieiation,  that,  in  the  twelfth  centwjy,  Aver-; 
rexes',  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  tliQ  A,ral)ian 
pliilosophcrs,  speaks  of  him  in  terms  of  ijl!)|atry. 
'■  The  writing.'x  of  Aristotle  (says  he  in  the 
pretare  to  his  "  Pliysics,")  nvfi  so  perfect,  th;u; 
none  of  his  follower's,  througli  <\^spa,ceof  tjjf'teen 
hundred  years,  have  Ijccn  able  to  mji.ljq  tj)c 
sniailcst  improvement  upon  them,  or  tq  djscovci; 
the  least  error  in  then)  ;  a  degree  of  pGrfcctigij 
truly  miraculous,  which  proves  him  to  Iiave  been 
a  divine  rather  than  a  hunian  being."  y\nd  again  '■ 
"  The  doctrine  of  Aristotle  is  the  pcrfecti(jn  of 
truth  ;  and  his  understanding  attained-  the  ut- 
most liinit  of  human  ability  ;  so  tliat  it  might  be 
truly  said,  that  lie  was  created  and  given  fg  tijC 
world  bv  Divine  Providence,  that  we  miglif  see 
in  him  how  much  it  is  possible  for  man  to  know. 
(Brucker.)  Even  among  the  Jews  the  name  of 
Aristotle,  at  this  time,  held  the  next  place  to  thai 
of  Moses  ;  and  it  was  |)retended  that  he  had 
learned  his  philosophy  in  Juda?a,  and  borrowed 
his  morals  from  Solomon.  (Maimonid-  Ep.  ad 
R.  Jibbon.)  In  the  scholastic  age  of  the  Gliris- 
tian  church,  Aristotle  vyas  tlie  oracle  of  the 
schools,  and  his  piiilosopliy  one  of  the  main 
pillars  of  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy.  So  inti- 
mate an  imion  was  established  between  the  Pe- 
ripatetic philosopliy  and  the  Christian  religion, 
that  Aristotle  became  the  interpreter,  and  even 
the  judge,  of  Paul,  and  was  scarcely  second  in 
authority  to  Clirisr.  All  attempts  to  stop  the 
progress  of  this  phrensy,  which  has  verv  pro- 
jK-rly  been  called  the  Aristotelomania,  even  by 
the  authority  of  synods,  councils  and  popes, 
proved  ineffectual.  The  writings  of  Aristotle 
Were,  by  express  statute,  appointed  to  be  read  in 
universities ;  professors  were  required  to  pro- 
raise  upon  oath,  that  in  their  public  lectures, 
tiiey  would  follow  no  other  guide  ;  and,  in  the 
disputations  of  the  schools,  the  scholar  was  re- 
quired to  prove  his  tliesis  from  the  writings  of 
Aristotle,  and,  in  reasoning  upon  his  subject, 
not  to  contradict  his  decisions.  Even  the  refor- 
mation did  not  destroy  the  authority  of  this  phi- 
losopher. Luther,  indeed,  boldly  denied  the 
utility  of  the  Peripatetic  philosophy,  and  asked, 
(Declarationes  ad  Heidelb.  apud  Werensdorf. 
Diss,  de  Progrcssu  emend,  per  Luth.  Rel.  p.  20.) 
"  What  doth  it  contribute  towards  the  know- 
ledge of  things,  to  be  perpetually  trifling  and  ca- 
villing in  words  prescribed  by  Aristotle  ;"    But 


Mela.nctljon.  adijercd  to  this  system  ;  ^r,^  by; 
means,  of  his  compcndiufi)  eijtitlcd  "  fiiilip- 
pics,"  it  was  introduced  into  ahnosf^  all  the  GfJr-. 
fn.an  l,''rotcstaiu  schools.  Sp  implicif  was.th&.df7 
fergiice  qt  t^a;:  tiipc  paid  to  the  autIiorjty_  qi 
Ar,istut,Ie,  th^t,  as,  we  ]c;^rn  froin  Mcia.nctlioib 
\}h  "  Ethics"  w^re  spmetiipes  read  to  the  pcoplo 
in  sacred  ab.'^eifjhlics  ips.tajd  of  the  Sunday  IcCr 
tures.  (Spauhcm.  Orat.  Gi-neva,  Restit.  1635. )_ 
And  even  to  this  day,  ih.ough  the  luimpof  Arif.- 
tijtle  is  no  li;ngcr  held,  sacred,  the  forms  of";  Ivi^ 
s^y^stemare  retained  in  public  Sf^hools,  aijd;  thp 
terins  of  his  philosophy  are  interwoven  in  mo- 
dern language  more  thaji  is  coninicujly  ()b- 
sqrvej, 

The  <;harm,bj-  which  Aristgtle,  fbrojlongse- 
ries,  of  ages,  fascinated  the  woijd,  i,s  at  Icngtlv 
broken;  and  we  may  now  venture  tp  e.vaniina 
tl)e  n^erit  of  his.  writings,  and,  to  inq-uire  on 
\y,hat  grounds,  the.  ejitjce  of  his  authpiity  hag 
been  raised.  "Withput  adopting  in  itsfulleg; 
cx.tent  the  elegant  but  extravagant  encomiiin}. 
preserved  in  Suidas,  thaf  iVrii,toile  was  "the  se- 
ct etarv  of  nature,  and  dipped  his  pen  in  intellect," 
[AptsTOTe\yi  TrjS  fvcsxs.yf.a.jj.i/.a.'rsv;  r^y,  tov  xaAa.- 
jj-'jv  antZfi'/uiv  f(f  cav.]  it  may  be  adiiiiitcd,  tha,t 
he  possessed  a  profound  and  penetrating  genius, 
and  a  wonderful  power  of  classing  ideas,  defin- 
ing terms,  and  analysing  the  faculties  and,  ope-r. 
rations  of  tlie  human  mind.  It  cannot  be  doubt- 
ed tliat  he  had  also  an  e.^tenjive  acquaintance 
with  natural  objects,  and  was  a  diligent  observer 
of  physical  and  moral  pha;,noniena.  Had  he 
empioyed  those  powers  of  discrimination  and 
a.rrangement  upon  natural  bodies,  which  he 
wasted  upon  words,  he  might  have  been  a  Lin- 
naeus ;  or  Iiad  he  been  so  fortunate  as  to  have 
fiillen  upon  the  method  of  pliilosophising  adopt- 
ed by  the  moderns,  and  contaited  himself  with 
pursuing  knowledge  by  tlie  slow  but  sure  pro- 
cess of  deducing  general  jjrincipks  from  facts- 
and  experiments,  he  might  have  been  a  Bacon,  a 
Boyle,  or  a  Newton.  Instead  of  this,  his  ambi- 
tion to  distinguish  himself  among  pliilosophcrs, 
as  the  founder  of  a  new  sect,  at  a  period  when 
the  moral  wisdom  of  the  Socratic  school  had 
yielded  to  the  subtleties  of  speculation  in  the 
Academy  of  Plato,  induced  him  to  try  his  intel- 
lectual strength  in  abstrusedisquisitions.  Hypo- 
thetical conjectures  concerning  the  causes  of 
phcenomena,  and  abstract  investigations  and  ar- 
rangements respecting  matter,  mind,  and  deity  ; 
respecting  the  principles  and  modes  of  reason- 
ing ;  and  respecting  universal  ideas  of  existence, 
attributes,  and  relations,  separated  from  real  be- 
ing, form  the  principal  materials  of  his  writ- 
ings.    These. difficult, subjects  are  treated  with 


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) 


A  R  I 


great  precision,  indeed,  of  language,  and  dis- 
tinctness of  method,  but  with  a  degree  of  con- 
ciseness, which  necessarily  creates  obscuritv. 
Tiie  darkness  in  wliich  his  conceptions  are  in- 
volved is  often  so  impenetrable,  that  his  readers 
experience  a  mortifying  conviction  of  the  tiuth 
of  his  apology  to  Alexander  for  disclosing  the 
secrets  of  his  school,  that  his  doctrines  were 
published  and  not  published.  His  general  pro- 
positions arc  often  obscure  for  want  of  exam- 
ples ;  and  even  when  examplfs  arc  introduced, 
they  are  often  as  unintelligible  as  the  doctrines 
they  are  intended  to  illustrate.  In  those  parrs 
of  his  writings,  which  are  most  perspicuous, 
lie  is  more  occupied  in  defining  and  arranging 
terms,  than  in  ascertaining  facts  or  deducing 
principles.  Even  his  grand  invention,  the  syl- 
logistic art,  of  whatever  use  it  may  be  in  mul- 
tiplying hypothetical  propositions,  or  in  prac- 
tising or  detecting  sophistry,  affords  no  assist- 
ance in  the  discovery  of  truth.  The  conclu- 
sion in  every  syllogism  is,  in  tact,  contained  in 
the  premises  ;  if  the  premises  have  not  been 
previously  proved  by  other  means  than  syllo- 
gistic reasoning,  the  conclusion  is  not  establish- 
ed ;  if  they  have,  the  syllogism  is  unnecessa- 
ry. The  truth  is,  as  Dr.  Reid  (see  his  brief 
account  of  Aristotle's  Logic  in  the  appendix  to 
the  third  volume  of  Lord  Kaim's  "  Sketches 
of  Man,")  has  well  observed,  that  this  kind  of 
reasoning,  independently  of  observation  and 
experiment,  only  carries  a  man  round,  like  a 
a  horse  in  a  mill,  without  any  real  progress. 
On  the  whole,  notwithstanding  all  the  homage 
which  has  been  paid  to  the  name  of  Aristotle, 
we  must  conclude  his  philosophy  to  have  been 
rather  that  of  words  than  of  things.  His  de- 
scriptions in  natural  history,  and  his  observa- 
tions on  political,  moral,  and  critical  subjects, 
are  a  valuable  treasure  :  but  the  subtleties  of  his 
metaphysics  and  dialectics,  to  which  he  owed 
his  unrivalled  fame  and  supreme  authority  in 
the  Arabian,  Jewish  and  Christian  schools, 
have  been  so  far  from  contributing  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  science,  that  they  have  fatally 
obstructed  its  progress.  In  pursuit  of  the  phan- 
toms of  abstraction  raised  by  tlie  Peripatetic 
philosophy,  men  for  ages  neglected  substantial 
knowledge  ;  and  it  was  not  till  they  were 
emancipated  from  their  vassalage  to  Aristotle, 
that  the  human  mind  asserted  its  native  freedom 
and  dignity,  and  tiiat  genuine  science  began  to 
enlighten  the  world. 

Aristotle's  principal  writings  have,  separate- 
ly, passed  througli  innimierable  editions.  Some 
of  the  more  valuable  arc  the  following: 

*' Organon,"  Gr.  fol.  ap.  Aid.  1495-  4to. 
VOL.  I. 


ap.  Morell,  Paiis,  1562.  8vo.  Oxon,  1759. 
Gr.  and  Lat.  2  vols.  4to.  Pacii,  Franc.  1597- 
8vo.  Hannv.  1598.  "  Rhetorica,"  4to.  Basil, 
1529.  Paris,  1562.  Gr.  and  Lat.  4to.  Goul- 
stoni,  Lond.  1619.  8vo.  Bat.'ie,  Cant.  1728. 
"  Poetica,"  Gr.  fol.  ap.  Aid.  1508.  laino. 
Oxon,  1760.  Gr.  and  Lat.  4to.  Goulsron, 
Lond.  1623.  8vo.  Cant.  1696.  i2mo.  Glasg. 
1745.  "  Ethica,"  Gr.  and  Lat.  fol.  Turnebi, 
Paris,  1555.  8vo.  Heinsii,  Lugd.  Bat.  1607. 
Wilkinsoni,  Oxon.  1 7 16.  "  Politica,  Gr.  410. 
Paris,  1556.  Gr.  and  Lat.  Heinsii  Jen^,  1660. 
"De  Anitralibus,"  Gr.  fol.  Aid.  1503.  Gr.  and 
Lat.  fol.  Scaliger,  Tolosse,  1619.  "  Physica," 
Gr.  4ro.  Morclli,  Paris.  "  Mechanica,  Gr. 
and  Lat.  Paris,  1599.  "  Oeconomica,"  Gr. 
4to.  Morell,  Paris,  1560.  "  De  Anima,"  Gr. 
and  Lat.  Svo.  Pacii,  Franc.  1 62 1.  "  De  Mun- 
do,"  Gr.  and  Lat.  i2mo.  Franc.  i6oi.  Glasg. 

1745- 

Of  the  entire  works  of  Aristotle,  the  principal 
editions  are,  Gr.  6  vols.  fol.  ap  Aid.  Venet. 
1498.  6  vols.  i2mo.  Aid.  1552.  10  vols.  4to. 
Sylburgii,  Franc.  1587.  Gr.  and  Lat.  fol.  Ca- 
sauboni,  Lugd.  1590,  1646,  fol.  Genev.  1605. 
Svo.  Lugd.  1597.  2  vols.  fol.  Du  Val,  Paris, 
1629,  1654.  i)io^.  Lai-It.  Dto>:ys.  HaUc. 
Epist.  ad  Ammoenm.  Ammoml  Hcrm.  vet 
Philopom,  Anst.  Fit.  Suidas.  Fabric.  Bibl. 
Gretc.  lib.  iii.  c.  6.  Bayle.  Stanley.  Brttcirr. 
— E. 

ARISTOXENUS,  an  eminent  musician 
and  philosopher  of  antiquity,  was  a  native  of 
Tarentum,  and  son  of  the  musician  Mnesias 
or  S])intiKirus  ;  he  studied  first  under  his  father 
and  Lamprus  of  Ervthra.-,  atMantinxa  in  Ar- 
cadia, afterwards  under  Xcnophilus  the  Pytha- 
gorean, and  finally  under  Aristotle.  Hence  he 
is  to  be  placed  in  the  age  of  Alexander  the 
Great  and  his  immediate  successors.  He  was  a, 
copious  writer  on  a  variety  of  subjects,  philo- 
sophical, historical,  philological,  &c.  but  he 
princijjallv  attained  eminence  as  a  writer  on 
music,  which  science  in  the  opinion  of  Ciceio, 
filled  his  head  to  th<  exclusion  of  clear  ideas  on 
other  topics.  A  catalogue  of  all  his  lost  works 
is  to  be  found  in  Fabricius'.s  Biblioth.  Gr.ic. 
Nothing  remains  to  our  times  but  his  three 
books  of  "  Harmonic  Elements,"  which  are 
the  most  ancient  treatises  on  music  extant,  and 
appear  to  have  iieen  in  great  reputation,  as  they 
are  referred  to  by  many  of  the  writers  of  anii- 
t]uity.  The  Greek  text  of  this  work  was  first 
published  by  Mcursius,  along  with  the  musical 
treatises  of  Nicomachus  and  Alypius,  at  Ley- 
(k-n,  4to.  16 1 6.  A  Latin  version  of  Ari>-tox- 
cnus  Uv  Gogaviii  had  appeared  at  Vcnitc  as 
30 


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early  as  1561.  But  tlic  original  text,  revised 
and  corrected,  accompanied  with  a  new  trans- 
lation, and  illustrated  by  the  learned  notes  of 
Mcibomius,  was  edited  in  a  more  splendid  tbrm, 
together  with  the  other  Greek  musicians,  at 
Anistcrd.  1652,  in  2  vols.  4to.  Aiistoxenus 
was  at  the  head  ot  a  sect  in  music  opposite  to 
that  ot  Pythagoras.  The  Pythagoreans,  by 
their  rigid  attention  lo  calculation,  and  the  ma- 
thematical divisions  of  the  monochord,  trusted 
chiefly  to  the  judgment  of  the  eye  concerning  tlie 
perfection  of  consonance;  whereas  Aristoxcnus 
referred  every  tiling  to  the  car,  making  it  the 
judge  of  all  tiie  musical  distinctions.  He  fell, 
however,  into  inconsistencies,  which  are  ex- 
posed by  Dr.  Burney.  His  treatises  appear  to 
be  rather  fragments  of  dilferent  works,  than 
parts  of  one  and  ^hc  same  work.  They  abound 
in  repetitions,  and  the  text  seems  to  have  under- 
gone a  variety  of  corruptions ;  yet  there  is  in 
them  an  accuracy  and  an  Aristotelian  precision 
not  to  be  found  in  die  compositions  of  later 
writers.  From  the  titles  of  s,ome  of  his  lost 
•works  on  music,  Aristoxenus  appears  to  have 
entered  into  the  practical  and  mechanical  part 
as  well  as  the  scientific.  Marer'i.  Burney  s 
Hiit.  of  Musk. — A. 

ARIUS,  a  Christian  divine,  presbyter  of  the 
church  of  Alexandria,  and  founder  of  the  sect  of 
Arians  in  the  fourth  century,  was,  according  to 
Epiphanius,  (Ha-r.  69.)  a  native  of  Lybia:  ac- 
cording to  Phoiius,  of  Alexandria.  Of  the 
early  part  of  his  life  little  is  known.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  lie  was  of  tlie  school  of  Lucian,  bi- 
shop of  Antiocli,  who  appears  to  have  favour- 
ed the  opinions  of  Paul  of  Samosata  ;  for  Arius, 
in  a  letter  to  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  calls  him 
a  Collucianist,  which  seems  to  imply  that  they 
were  fellow-disciples  of  Lucian>  Peter,  bishop 
of  Alexandria,  appointed  liim  deacon, but  after- 
wards excommunicated  him,  for  disapproving 
of  his  treatment  of  A'liletius  and  his  adherents. 
The  next  bishop,  however,  Achillas,  restored 
him,  and  ordained  him  presbyter,  and  he  offi- 
ciated in  one  of  the  churches  of  Alexandria. 
Early  in  the  prelacy  of  Alexander,  the  succes- 
sor of  Achillas,  probably  about  the  year  315,  a 
dispute  arose  between  Arius  and  the  bishop, 
concerning  the  ])erson  of  Christ,  which,  though 
at  first  a  little  spark,  afrei  wards  spread  to  a  great 
conflagration.  Whether  tlie  debate  originated 
with  the  bishop,  or  the  presbyter,  the  histo- 
rians are  not  agreed  ;  the  different  opinions  of 
the  disputants  are,  however,  plainly  stated. 
(Conf.  Socrat.  lib.  i.  c.  4.  Sozom.  lib.  i.  c.  15. 
Euseb.  Vit.  Const,  lib.  ii.  c.  67.)  Alexander, 
pliiiosophising  ostentatiously,  maintained  that 


there  was  in  the  Trinity  an  unity,  and  that  the 
Father  and  the  Son  were  of  the  same  essence. 
To  tliis  language  Arius  objected,  as  approach- 
ing to  the  Sabellian  heresy,  which  had  con- 
founded the  Father  with  the  Son,  and,  as  con- 
tradicting the  decision  of  the  church,  wliichhad 
asserted  the  real  distinction  of  the  persons  of  the 
Trinity.  On  the  contrary,  he  advanced  as  his 
own  opinion,  that  the  Son  was  essentially  dis- 
tinct from  the  Father,  and  that,  being  a  Son, 
there  must  have  been  a  beginning  of  his  exist- 
ence, and  consequently  a  time  when  he  was 
not.  After  this  debate  Arius  publicly  main- 
tained that  the  Son  did  not  exist  from  eternity, 
but  was  created  out  of  nothing  by  the  will  and 
pleasure  of  the  Father. 

In  an  age  of  controversy,  when  the  minds  of  men 
were  universally  occupied  in  theological  specu- 
lations, it  is  not  surprising  that  tliis  opinion 
should  excite  general  attention,  and  that  Arius 
should  soon  have  numerous  followers.  His 
doctrine  had  many  advocates  in  Alexandria,  and 
spread  rapidly  in  Egypt  and  the  neighbouring 
provinces.  It  was,  moreover,  patroni'Aed  by 
several  eminent  persons  among  the  clergy,  and 
particularly  by  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Nicomedia, 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  prelates  ot  the 
age.  Alexander,  observing  with  displeasure 
the  unexpected  progress  of  doctrines  which  he 
held  to  be  heretical,  probably  in  the  year  320, 
called  a  council  of  nearly  an  hundred  bishops  of 
Egypt  and  Lybia  at  Alexandria,  in  whicli  the 
tenet  of  Arius  was  condemned,  and  Arius  him- 
self, with  several  of  the  clergy  who  followed 
him,  were  excommunicated  from  the  cliurch, 
and  expelled  the  city.  (Epiphan.  Haer.  69.  n. 
3.)  This  resolution  was  communicated  by 
Alexander  to  the  bishops  of  distant  sees,  by  a 
circulatory  letter  loaded  with  invective.  Arius, 
who  now  withdrew  into  Palestine,  in  a  letter  to 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  complained,  and  not 
without  reason,  of  the  unjust  persecution  which 
he  and  his  friends  had  suffered  :  he,  however, 
bore  the  disgrace  and  injury  with  great  firmness 
of  mind,  from  the  persuasion  that  he  was  suf- 
fering in  the  cause  of  truth.  His  fortitude,  too, 
was  animated  by  the  continuance  and  support 
of  numerous  and  respectable  followers,  among  ■ 
whom  he  soon  reckoned  many  of  the  bishops  ot" 
Asia. 

The  general  attention  of  the  public  was  ex- 
cited ;  and,  while  the  clergy  were  divided  in 
their  judgment,  and  respectively  took  their  sta- 
tions under  Alexander  or  Arius,  the  contention 
spread  through  churches,  and  even  through  pii- , 
vate  families.  Almost  every  individual  became 
a  party  iii  the  contest,  and  mutual  altercation 


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A  R  I 


was  carried  to  such  a  ridiculous  excess,  as  to 
furnish  a  su'oject  of  satirical  exhibition  in  the 
public  theatres.  (Theodnrcl,  lib.  i.  c.  4,  5. 
Epiph.  H.  69.)  The  [jious  and  -well-meaning 
cnnperor  Constantine  obs-trved  with  concern  the 
rising  ferment,  and  addressed  a  conciliatory  let- 
ter to  the  contending  parties,  Alexander  and 
Arius,  in  wiiicli  ho  probably  followed  his  own 
unbiassed  judgment,  and  expressed  the  undis- 
guised feelings  of  a  candid  and  benevolent  mind. 
Assuming  the  office  of  a  moderator  in  tlie  dis- 
pute, he  blames  each  party ;  Alexander  for 
raising  fruitless  enquiries  and  disputes  among 
the  clergy,  by  proposing  to  them  questions  con- 
cerning the  interpretation  of  difficult  passages  of 
Scripture;  and  Arius  for  inconsiderately  bring- 
ing forward  opinions  which  ought  for  the  sake 
of  peace  to  have  been  kept  out  of  sight.  Such 
questions,  which  he  calls  cobwebs  spun  by  idle 
ingenuity,  however  useful  as  exercises  of  intel- 
lect among  the  learned,  ought  not,  he  thinks,  to 
be  discussed  before  the  vulgar,  and  made  the 
subject  of  popular  contention.  It  is  not  fit, 
says  this  prudent  adviser,  that  the  people  should 
be  divided  into  factions  by  your  private  disputes 
on  points  of  little  moment.  He  recommended 
to  them  the  example  of  the  Greek  philosophers, 
who,  while  they  differed  in  judgment,  agreed 
in  friendship.  In  fine,  treating  these  disputes 
concerning  the  person  of  Ciirist  as  childish 
wi  anglings  on  matters  of  inditFerence,  he  ear- 
nestly entreats  them,  in  the  midst  of  diversity  of 
opinion,  to  preserve  harmony  of  affection.  (Eu- 
seb.  Vit.  Constant.)  It  is  infinitely  to  be  re- 
gietted,  that  this  wise  and  temperate  counsel 
was  slighted;  and  that  bigotted  ecclesiastics  soon 
found  means  to  persuade  the  emperor  that  the 
dispute  was  too  important  to  be  dropped,  and 
too  difficult  to  be  settled  but  by  the  collected 
wisdom  of  the  church.  Wiien  Constantine,  in 
the  year  325,  assembled  three  hundred  bishops 
in  the  council  of  Nice,  to  decide  whether  the 
"  Logos,"  or  only  begotten  Son,  was  of  the 
same  substance  with  the  Father,  instead  of  ter- 
minating, he  perpetuated  the  dissentions  of  the 
church,  and  divided  the  whole  Christian  world 
into  "  Homoousions,"  and  "  Honioiousions." 
In  the  memorable  council  of  Nice,  after 
many  warm  debates,  and  many  violent  efforts 
of  each  party  to  gain  the  ascendancy,  it  was 
decided,  that  Christ  is  consitbstantial  with  the 
Father;  the  Nicene  creed  was  signed  as  the 
established  formulary  of  orthodox  belief,  the 
doctrine  of  Arius  was  condemned ;  and  the 
vanquished  presbyter  himself  was  banished  in- 
to a  remote  province  of  lllyricum.  The  empe- 
ror's zeal,  so  lately  kindled  against  the  impious 


heresiarch,  now  flamed  out  in  an  extravagant 
edict  which  stigmatised  his  adherents  with  the 
opprobrious  name  of  Poi:()hyrians,  ordered  his 
writings  to  be  burned,  and  made  it  a  capital  of- 
fence to  conceal  them.  In  all  this,  however,  he 
appears  rather  to  have  been  led  by  others,  than 
to  have  followed  his  own  unbiassed  judgment ; 
for,  after  a  short  interval,  his  disposition  and 
conduct  towards  Arius  underwent  a  total 
change.  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  by  means  of 
a  jiresbyter,  who  enjoyed  the  confidence  of 
Constantia,  the  emperor's  sister,  gained  over 
that  lady  to  the  interest  of  Arius.  In  her  last 
sickness,  she  recommended  to  the  favour  of  the 
emperor  this  presbyter,  by  whom  he  was  soon 
persuaded  to  believe,  that  the  conduct  and  faith 
of  Arius  had  been  misrepresented  by  his  ene- 
mies. Upon  this,  Constantine  recalled  him 
from  banislunent,  and  after  receiving  from  him 
a  declaration  of  faith,  in  whichhe  i)rofessed  his 
belief  that  "  the  Son  was  begotten  of  the  Fa- 
ther before  all  ages,"  but  without  any  acknow- 
ledgment of  consubstantialitv,  recommended  it 
to  the  bishops,  who  were  then  assembled  at 
Jerusalem,  to  readmit  him  into  the  communion 
of  the  church.  The  bishops,  who  were  for  the 
most  part  concealed  Arians,  readily  complied 
with  the  request  of  their  sovereign,  and  recom- 
mended it  to  their  brethren  in  other  churches 
to  give  Arius  a  cordial  reception.  At  the  same 
time  his  friend,  the  Nicomedian  Eusebius,  who 
had  shared  his  disgrace  and  exile,  was  restored 
to  his  episcopal  see,  and  regained  his  influence 
over  Constantine.  Nothing  now  remained  to 
complete  the  triumph  of  Arius,  but  that  he 
should  be  admitted  to  the  church  of  Alexan- 
dria from  whicli  he  had  been  first  ejected.  This, 
ho(vever,  was  refused  by  Athanasius,  Arius's 
sworn  enemv,  who,  after  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der, had  succeeded  to  that  see.  At  Constaritino- 
ple,  by  the  express  command  of  the  emperor,  a 
day  was  appointed  for  the  solemn  readtnission  of 
Arius  to  the  communion  But,  we  are  told,  that 
on  that  very  day,  as  Arius  was  walking  in  the 
city,  retiring  to  obey  a  sudden  call  of  nature, 
he  ilischarged  his  entrails,  and  died  on  the  spot. 
The  story  of  his  death  is  related  both  by  the 
historian  Socrates,  (lib.  i.  c.  25.  ii.  38.  Ep. 
ad  Scrap.)  and  by  Athanasius,  but  with  circum- 
stances which  very  much  weaken  its  credit. 
We  leave  it  in  the  same  state  of  uncertainty  in 
which  it  is  left  by  Mr.  Gibbon,  who  says: 
"  Those  who  press  the  literal  narrative  of  the 
death  of  Arius  must  make  tlicir  option  between 
fic/iOH  and  miiiic/f.^'  Only  we  must  add,  that 
it  is  easier  to  Ixdieve,  that  mortified  and  irritated 
priests,  in  the  moment  when  the  man  whom 


A  R  I 


(     3^8     ) 


ARK 


they  had  banlshtJ  as  an  hcrcsiarch,  vas  return- 
ing triumi)hantly  into  the  bosom  of  the  church, 
might  tliink  it  their  duty  to  deUvcr  her  trom 
her  most  formidable  eneniv  ;  than  that  the 
deity  would,  by  a  miracle,  bring  a  man  to  an 
ignominious  and  shocking  end,  lor  no  other 
offence,  than  because  he  could  not  believe  in 
tlie  mysteries  of  consubstantiality  and  eternal 
generation. 

Leaving  it  to  theologians  to  decide,  whether 
Arius,  in  the  tenets  which  he  taught,  was  re- 
turning towards,  or  reciding  from  the  true  scrip- 
tural doctrine  concerning  the  Divine  Nature, 
■we  shall  content  ourselves  with  paying  that 
tribute  to  his  merit,  which  historians  have  com- 
monly withheld.  The  credit  of  considerable 
talents  and  learning  has  not  been  denied  him  ; 
and  it  has  been  admitted  that  he  was  courteous 
and  affable,  yet  grave  and  serious  in  his  man- 
ners, and  that  he  had  the  outward  appearance  of 
piety  ;  yet  he  is  accused  of  hypocrisy,  ambition, 
dishonesty,  and  impiety,  and  his  memory  is 
loaded  with  execration. 

Hie  nigra*  succus  loligtuis^  hacc  rst 
j^rugo  mer-i. 

HoR.  lib.  i.  Sat.  iv.  100. 

For  aught  that  appears  upon  the  face  of  his 
story,  it  may  be  confulcntlv  asserted,  that  his 
morals  were  untainted,  and  his  piety  sincere. 
The  incidents  of  his  life  afford  a  strong  pre- 
sumption, that  he  possessed  a  genuine  love  of 
truth,  and  adhered  to  what  he  judged  to  be  its 
cause  with  firm  integrity.  "  I  will  never  re- 
ceive their  impious  doctrines,  though  I  were  to 
suffer  a  thousand  deaths,"  is  at  least  the  lan- 
guage of  sincerity.  The  creed  which  Arius, 
according  to  the  report  of  an  historian  by  no 
means  inclined  to  favour  him,  presented  to 
Constantine  on  his  return  from  banishment, 
was  not  contradictory  to  his  avowed  tenets  : 
and  it  is  not  to  be  credited,  that,  after  having 
been  for  so  many  years  resolute  in  his  opposi- 
tion to  the  catholic  faith,  he  should  at  once 
abandon  his  principles,  even  when  he  had  been 
permitted  to  retain  them,  by  subscribing  to  the 
Nicene  creed.  Had  his  party  prevailed  during 
his  life,  there  can  he  no  doubt  that  after  his 
death  his  name  would  have  been  enrolled  among 
the  saints  :  having  had  the  misfortune  to  be 
TegiNtered  by  the  church  which  called  itself  or- 
thodox among  heretics,  he  can  only  be  found  by 
posterity  in  the  humbler  list  of  honest  men. 

It  does  not  appear  that  Arius  wrote  much. 
For  the  instruction  of  the  ignorant,  and  to  im- 
press his  religious  tenets  more  forcibly  upon  the 


minds  of  his  followers  among  the  vulgar, 
which  were  probably  numerous,  he  wrote  small 
pieces  in  verse.  A  poem  of  this  kind,  under 
the  name  of  "  Thalia,"  is  mentioned  by  So- 
crates, (Hist.  lib.  i.  c.  9.)  and  Sozomen,  (Hist, 
lib.  i.  c.  21.)  and  censured  as  wanton  and  dis- 
solute. Athanasius  (De  Scut.  Dion.  n.  6.)  se- 
veral times  cites  it,  and  speaks  of  its  effeminacy 
and  buffoonry  :  and  both  he  and  Socrates  com- 
pare him  to  Sotades,  a  loose  pagan  writer : 
but  it  must  be  remembered,  that  this  is  the  re- 
port of  enemies,  and  that  Sozomen  owns  he 
liad  not  seen  tlie  book.  It  is  an  extraordinary 
circumstance,  that  tlie  fragments  of  this  piece 
which  are  found  in  Athanasius  do  not  appear  to 
be  in  verse.  Arius  wrote,  besides,  many  letters  : 
we  have  still  extant  an  epistle  written  by  him  to 
Eusebiusof  Nicomedia,  (Ap.  Epiph.  Haer.  69.) 
and  another  to  Alexander  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
('Fheod.  lib.  i.  c,  5,  7,  8.) 

The  opinions  of  Arius  did  not  perish  with 
him.  His  sect  flourished,  and  sometimes  even 
gained  the  ascendancy  ;  when  it  never  failed  to 
exercise  in  its  turn  the  same  intolerant  spirit,  un- 
der which  it  had  itself  suffered.  In  succeeding 
ages  it  yielded,  on  the  one  side,  to  the  irresisti- 
ble authority  of  the  catholic  church,  and  on  the 
otlier  to  that  bold  spirit  of  enijuiry,  whicii  led 
Socinus  and  his  followers  to  adopt  and  propa- 
gate the  o|)inion,  that  Christ  had  no  existence 
prior  to  his  appearance  on  earth,  and  that  he 
was  a  mere  man  endowed  with  supernatural 
powers.  .Since  the  rise  of  the  Socinian  sect, 
Arianism  has  gradually  declined,  and,  among 
those  who  have  professed  this  system,  its  tenets 
have  undergone  a  material  change  ;  and  Christ 
is  held  to  be,  not  as  Arius  taught,  the  first  and 
most  glorious  production  of  creating  power, 
who,  though  he  had  a  beginning,  existed  be- 
fore, and  superior  to  all  other  creatures,  and  was 
the  instrument  by  whose  subordinate  agency 
the  universe  was  formed,  but  an  inferior  spirit, 
or  angel,  the  tutelar  divinity  of  this  terrestrial 
globe.  Athanas.  contr.  Arlan.  De  Svnod.  Nic. 
et  Arhn.  Ep'nt.  ad  Scrap.  Socrat.  Hut.  lib.  i. 
Sozamen  Hist.  lib.  i.  Epiphan.  Har.  69.  Cav. 
Hist.  Lit.  Lardner's  Cred.  pt.  ii.  ch.  69.  §  1 
— 5.      Bayle.     Mosheim.      Gibbon,  c.  21. — E. 

ARKENJHOLZ,  John,  an  historian,  born 
at  Helbingfors,  a  town  in  Swedish  Firdand,  on 
the  9th  of  February  1695.  He  welit  through 
liis  academical  studies  at  Abo  and  Upsal,  and 
about  the  year  1730  accompanied  the  Swedish 
nobleman  Von  Hddehrand  on  his  travels  into 
France  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  During  his 
residence  at  Paris  he  turned  his  thoughts  to- 
wards the  political  state  of  his  native  country, 


ARK 


(    389    ) 


ARK 


and  wrote  a  tie;Uise  entitled,  "  Considerations 
sur  la  France  par  raport  a  la  Sucdc,"  in  which 
he  endeavoured  to  shew,  that  the  connexion  be- 
tween France  and  Sweden  had  been  almost  at 
all  times  prejudicial  to  the  latter,  and  that  Swe- 
den, on  account  in  particular  of  the  wretched 
politics  of  cardinal  dc  FIcury,  whom  he  con- 
sidered as  a  very  had  minister,  ought  no  longer 
to  continue  it.     The  manuscript  of  this  work 
by  some  accident  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
French  embassador  at  the  court  of  Stockholm, 
who  informed  the  cardinal  of  it;  and,  in  1738, 
Arkenholz  was  ordered  by  a  decree  of  the  Swe- 
dish diet  to  ask  the  cardinal's  |iard(jn.      He  was 
also  deprived  of  the  office  of  registrar  which 
he  held,  but  the  king  who  was  well  acquainted 
with  his   talents,  ajipointed  him,    in    1743,  by 
way  of  indemnification,  secietary  to  the  office 
of  public  accounts  ;  and,  in  1746,  a  member  of 
t?ie  council,  librarian,  and  keejjcr  of  the  cabinet 
ofcoinsand  curiosities  at  Cassei.     Theseplaces 
he  enjoyed  in  peace  and  tranquillity  for  twenty 
years.     At  an  advanced  period  of  life,  having 
received  permission  to  return  to  his  native  coun- 
try, he  quitted  Cassei  on  the  18th  of  June  1766, 
and,  on  his  arrival  at  Stockholm,  obtained  a 
pension  of  1200  silver  dollars,  on  condition  of 
liis  writing  the  histoiy  of  Frederick  I.      Like 
Emanuel  Swedenborg,  however,   he  lost  him- 
self in  mysticism  and  visions,   without  complet- 
ing the  work,  and  died,   on  the   14th  of  July 
1777,  at  the  age  of  eighty-two.     His  works, 
besides  the  above  are,  "  Hugonis  Grotii  Epis- 
tolje    ad  Christinani  Sueciam  Reginam    cura. 
Ja.  Arckcnholtzii,"  8vo.  without  date  or  place. 
*'  Meinoires    concernant    Christine    relne    de 
Suede,"  Amsterdam,   175 1,  17591  1760.   This 
work  is  esteemed  on  account  of  the  care  and  at- 
tention bestowed  on  it  by  the  author,  and  of  the 
light  which  it  throws  upon  the  history  of  that 
period  ;  but  it  is  censured  as  being  too  tedious 
and  too  much  taken  up  with  trifles.     Holberg 
and  d'Alembert  in  particular  make  these  objec- 
tions to  it ;   the  former  in   "  Lettie  qui  contient 
Iuelques  Remarques  sur  les   Memoires,"   &c. 
,eipsic,   1753,  8vo  ;  and  the  latter  in  "  Me- 
langes dc  Litterature,"  &c.  Amsterdam,  1767. 
Both  these  criticisms,  however,  Arkenhol/,  an- 
swered in  "  Repor.se  k  la  Lettre  de  M.  le  Baron 
de  Holberg,  laquelle  eelaireit  les  Reinarques," 


&c.  Cassei, 


'/ JJ 


and    "  Lettre   a    M.   G. 


(Gesner)  a  I'Occasion  des  Reflexions  et  des 
Anecdotes  sur  Christine,  par  d'Alembert,"  Cas- 
sei, 1754,  8vo.  "  f.bauche  d'un  Eloge  His- 
toriqiic  du  Roi  Frederic  1."  Cassei,  1752,  4to. 
"  An  Essay  towards  a  History  of  the  'I'reaties 
and  Conventions   of  a  free   State  with  otlicr 


neighbouring  Powers,  to  which  is  added  by  way 
of  exatnple  the  Treaty  concluded  between  Swe- 
den and  Denmark  in  1750."  Cassei,  1753,  8vo. 
Published  in  German.  "  Lettres  aux  Auteurs 
du  Journal  Encyclopedique,  sur  les  Lappons  et 
les  Finnois."  Franck.  and  Lcipsic,  1756,  8vo. 
under  the  initials  I.  A.  F.  "  Extraitd'une  Let- 
tre de  Hambuurg  au  Sujet  d'uiie  Note  inseree 
dans  le  Journal  Encyclop."  1756,  8vo.  "  Ac- 
count of  the  Life  and  Person  of  I.  Joach  von 
Rusdorf,  formerly  Privy  Counsellor  of  the  Elec- 
tor Palatine."  Published  from  a  French  manu- 
script by  W.  I.  C.  G.  Casparson.  Fianck.  and 
Leipsic,  1762,  8vo.  in  German.  "Rerueildes 
Sentiments  et  Propos  de  Gustavc  Adolphe." 
Stockholm,  1769,  i2mo.  Arkenholz  had  a 
considerable  share  also  in  "  Histoire  de  Gus- 
tavc Adolphe  Roi  de  Suede,  composce  par  M. 
D.  M.  (Mauvillon,  Major  in  the  Corps  of  En- 
gineers at  Brunswick),  Amsterdam,  1764,  410. 
Adelungs  Continuation  of  'Jocher'i  Gchhrten 
Lexicon. — J. 

ARKWRIGHT,  Sir  Richard, amanufac- 
turer  of  great  celebrity  for  carding  and  spinning 
cotton  by  machines ;  by  which  inventions  he 
made  a  rapid  and  immense  fortune,  after  having 
been  originally  in  very  low  circumstances  as  a 
country  barber.  The  usual  process  of  inven- 
tion in  manufactures  is  this.  An  enterprising 
man  in  narrow  ciicumstanccs  (for  the  rich 
will  seldom  risk  in  this  kind  of  adventure  until 
the  probability  of  success  is  rendered  in  some 
measure  considerable) ; — a  poor  man  conceives 
a  project  by  wiiich  he  hojies  to  alter  his  circum- 
stances, and  considers  the  means  mechanical 
as  well  as  commercial,  that  is  to  say,  how 
the  tiling  is  to  be  done,  and  how  he  shall 
acquire  the  means  of  paying  the  cxpencc 
of  doing  it.  I"'or  the  former  he  must  depend 
upon  his  own  ingenuity,  and  for  the  latter 
he  can  seldom,  at  first,  have  any  greater  de- 
pendence than  the  spare  time  he  can  afford 
from  those  exertions  of  industrv  which  are  ne- 
cessary to  procure  him  bread.  After  much 
incessant  labour  too  often  attended  witli  se- 
vere distress  from  borrowing  too  much  of 
the  indlspensible  time  required  for  his  sub- 
sistence, the  projector  either  finds  himself  re- 
duced to  beggarv,  or  his  plan  becomes  so  far 
probable  in  respect  to  its  result,  that  he  tan  ap- 
ply to  some  other  man  of  greater  capiral  than 
himself  for  assistance.  This  second  projector  is 
usuallv  a  man  of  small  fortune,  and  disposed  to 
adventure  from  motives  somewhat  of  the  same 
kind  as  those  which  impelled  the  original  con- 
triver. He  engages  part  of  his  little  property 
in  the  scheme,   with  the  hopei  of  speedily  be- 


ARK 


(    39^    ) 


ARK 


cominc;  indcpciulefit.  Difficulties  still  present 
themselves  ;  more  money  is  wanted ;  and  as  long 
as  the  monied  man  can  supply  the  necessities  ot 
tlie  invention  and  ot"  the  inventor,  he  is  in  all 
probahiiity  tempted  by  the  sanguine  expecta- 
tions of  the  latter  to  go  on.  Embarrassment, 
contention,  legal  processes,  ruin  to  the  man 
who  risked- ills  property,  and  a  prison  to  the  in- 
ventor, arc  too  freijuently  the  result  of  this  first 
combination,  even  in  cases  where  the  invention 
may  itself  have  been  of  value;  and  still  more 
frequently,  when,  as  it  commonly  happens,  the 
invention  is  the  mere  speculation  of  an  unin- 
formed, and,  perhaps,  unprincipled  man.  For 
it  is  the  nature  of  tjiese  undertakings,  as  soon  as 
the  mind  becomes  habituated  to  them,  that  they 
mislead  the  ojicrator  into  a  nation  of  their  pro- 
bable success  in  spite  of  every  intervening  impe- 
diment ;  and  the  inventor  must  possess  moie 
fortitude  than  usually  falls  to  the  lot  of  a  poor 
man,  if  he  does  not  go  an  to  flatter  himself  and 
his  partner  as  long  as  any  money  is  to  be  by 
such  means  obtained.  When  the  inventor  has 
acted  uprightly,  or  the  first  supporter  jiroves  a 
candid  man  and  not  of  a  vindictive  disposition, 
it  commonly  happens  that  he  w  ithdraws  out  of 
the  concern  w  ith  the  loss  of  the  whole  or  a  part 
of  his  capital,  and  retains  no  share  whatever  in 
it,  least  the  legal  consequences  of  a  partnership 
should  at  some  future  period  deprive  him  of  the 
remainder  of  his  property.  The  inventor  must 
then  apply  to  some  other  capitalist,  himself  pos- 
sessing tools  and  machinery,  and  his  former 
friend  being  left  to  the  chance  of  that  remune- 
ration wliich  the  gratitude  or  the  justice  of  the 
speculator  may  atFord  him  ;  a  chance  which 
upon  tlie  whole,  as  the  future  labors  of  the  in- 
ventor will  probably  be  considerable,  is  not  likely 
to  realize  itself  in  any  beneficial  form.  A  second 
and  a  third  supporter  may  in  this  wav  be  tired  or 
exhausted.  The  inventor  necessarily  learns  much 
at  their  expencc,  and  either  becomes  an  unprin- 
cipled speculator,  or  contriver  of  schemes  to  raise 
money  in  tljis  express  way ;  or  else  he  goes  on  to 
perfect  his  invention,  and  the  last  partner  either 
shares  it  with  hiin,  purchases  it  of  him,  or  by 
somequirkof  law  deprives  him  of  the  whole. 

From  this  crude  outline  of  a  process  which  is 
every  day  going  forward  in  this  kingdom  ;  a 
process  which,  like  the  lottery,  enriches  a  few 
■while  multitudes  become  the  losers,  it  may  be 
seen  how  little  upon  the  whole  it  is  likely  that 
inventors  should  pass  through  all  the  difficulties 
of  their  progress  from  poverty  to  opulence,  by 
the  extreme  labor  of  bringing  a  new  scheme  to 
perfection,  subject  to  an  endless  struggle  with 
partners,  whose  natural  interest  and  prudential 


motives  ought  to  lead  them  to  proceed  with 
slowness  and  caution. 

Sir  Richard  Arkwright  certainly  experienced 
much  ot  these  difficulties,  and  he  has  been 
spoken  of  by  die  various  descriptions  of  men, 
with  whom  he  lias  had  intercourse  or  connec- 
tion, cither  as  a  great  man,  an  indefatigable 
inventor  and  superior  genius,  or  as  the  cun- 
ning schemer  and  collector  of  other  men's  in- 
ventions, supporting  them  by  borrowed  cajjital, 
and  never  afterwards  feeling  or  shewing  any 
emotion  of  gratitude  to  the  one  or  the  other. 
After  much  private  enquiry,  and  having  re- 
peated promises  of  assistance  from  various  quar- 
ters, it  still  remains  uncertain  in  what  light 
this  eminent  man  ought  in  truth  to  be  placed. 
Fully  aware  of  the  incalculable  difficulties  to 
which  inventors  are  exposed,  wliether  we  con- 
sider their  labors  widi  regard  to  the  scheme 
they  follow,  the  private  connections  they  form, 
or  the  public  commercial  difficulties  they  have 
to  overcome,  we  may  easily  believe  that  every 
successful  inventor  must  necessarily  become 
the  object  of  calumny.  Many  inventors  are 
certainly  deserving  of  rejirehcnsion,  but  whe- 
tlier  this  be  the  case  or  not  in  the  present  in- 
stance requires  a  trial  founded  upon  evidence, 
witliout  whicii  no  decisive  opinion  can  be  pre- 
sented to  the  public.  We  have  not  been  able  to 
obtain  a  statement  of  the  several  money  con- 
nections which  sir  Richard  had  during  the 
course  of  tnne  he  was  employed  in  bringing  this 
scheme  to  perfection.  What  is  here  related 
will  in  a  great  measure  consist  of  such  evidence 
as  was  presented  before  the  Court  of  King's 
Bench  upon  the  25th  of  June,  1785,  where  his 
patent  was  set  aside  by  scire  facias,  together 
with  some  other  facts  obtained  by  private  cor- 
respondence. 

The  preparation  of  vegetable  and  animal 
fibres  to  form  them  into  garments  by  weaving  is 
very  well  known.  The  fibres  themselves  must 
first  be  properly  disposed  by  combing  or  card- 
ing, after  which  treatment  they  are  in  a  state 
ready  to  be  spun.  The  card  is  a  kind  of 
brush  made  with  wires  instead  of  hair,  the 
wires  not  being  perpendicular  to  the  plane, 
but  all  inclined  one  way  in  a  certain  angle. 
From  this  description  such  as  are  totally  un- 
acquainted with  the  subject  may  conceive  that 
cotton  wool,  being  stuck  upon  one  of  those 
cards  or  brushes,  may  be  scraped  with  ano- 
ther card  in  that  direction,  that  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  wires  may  tend  to  tlirow  the  whole 
inwards  rather  than  suffer  it  to  come  out.  The 
consequence  of  the  repeated  strokes  of  the  emp- 
ty card  against  the  full  one  must  be  a  distribu- 


ARK 


(    39^     ) 


ARK 


tion  of  the  whole  more  evenly  on  the  surface, 
and  if  one  card  be  then  drawn  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection across  the  other,  it  will,  by  virtue  of  the 
inchnation  of  its  wires,  take  the  whole  of  the 
wool  out  of  that  card  whose  inclination  is  the 
contrary  way.      Without  entering  more  fully 
upon  the  description  of  a  process  so  common,  we 
may  make  a  few  similar  observations  with  regard 
to.  spinning.     This  is  of  two  kinds  ;  in  the  one 
the  carded  wool  is  suddenly  drawn  out  during 
the  rapid  rotation  of  a  spindle,  and  forms  a 
loose  yarn.     In  the  other  process  the  material 
is  spun  by  a  well  known  small  engine  or  wheel, 
which  requires  the  spinner  to  draw  the  material 
out  between  the  finger  and  thumb  of  each  hand. 
If  we  suppose  the  machine  itself  to  be  left  at  li- 
berty and  turned  without  tlie  assistance  of  the 
spinner,  the  t\\isted  tliread  being  drawn  inwards 
by  tlie  bobbin,  would  naturally  gather  more  of 
the    material,    and    form    an   irregular    tln^ead 
thicker  and  thicker,  till  at  length  tlic  difficulty  of 
drawing  out  so  large  a  portion  of  material  as 
had  acquired  the  twist  would  become  greater 
than  that  of  snapping  the  smaller  part  of  the 
thread,  which  would  accordingly  break.      It  is 
the  business  of  the  spinner  to  prevent  tliis  by 
drawing  out  the  material  with  one  hand,  if  the 
operator  he  skiltul,  but  if  not,  with  two,  that  is 
to  say,  by  holding  the  material  between  the  fin- 
ger and  thumb  of  each  hand,  the  intermediate 
part  may  be  drawn  out  to  the  requisite  fineness 
previous  to  the  twist,  bv  separating  the  hands 
during  the  act  of  pinching.  Every  rational  ]iro- 
cess  of  invention  must  consist,  in  the  first  place, 
in  a  careful  analysis  of  the  operations  meant  to 
he    performed.     The  objects    of  Arkwriglit's 
improvements  were  carding  and  spinning.    To 
do  this  by  machinery,   it  was  required  either 
that  the  usual  manoeuvre  of  the  carder  sliould 
be  performed  v^-ith  square  cards,   or  that  cvlin- 
ders,  covered  with  the  kind  of  metallic  brush- 
work,  before  described,  should  be  made  to  re- 
volve in  contact  with  each  other,  cither  to  card 
or  to  strip,  accordingly  as  their  respective  velo- 
cities, directions,  and  inclinations  of  their  wires 
might  be  adjusted.      With  regard  to  sjiinning, 
it  would  become  an  indispensible  condition,  not 
only  tliat  the  raw  material  should  be  very  nicely 
prepared,  in  order  that  it  might  require  none  of 
that  intellectual  skill  which  is  cajjable  of  sepa- 
rating the  knotty  or  imperfect  parts  as  they  offer 
themselves,  but  also  that  it  should  be  regularly 
drawn  out    by   certain   parts  representing   the 
fingers  and  thumbs  of  the  spinner.     'I'he  con- 
trivance by  which  this   last  means  was   repre- 
sented consisted  in  a  certain  number  of  pairs  of 
cylinders,  each  two  revolving  in  contact  vvitli 


each  other.  Suppose  a  very  loose  thread  or 
slightly  twisted  carding  of  cotton  to  pass  be- 
tween one  pair  of  cyhnders,  clothed  with  a 
proper  facing  to  enable  them  to  hold  it  ;  and 
let  it  be  imagined  to  proceed  from  thence  to  ano- 
ther pair,  whose  surfaces  revolve  much  quicker. 
It  is  evident  that  the  quicker  revolution  of  the 
second  pair  will  draw  out  the  cotton,  rendering 
it  thinner  and  longer  when  it  comes  to  be  deli- 
vered at  the  other  side.  This  is  precisely  the 
operation  which  the  spinner  performs  with  her 
fingers  and  thumb  ;  and  if  the  cotton  be  then 
delivered  to  a  spinning  apparatus  it  will  be  con- 
verted into  thread.  Simple  as  these  notions  of 
a  rotatory  carding  engine  and  a  spinning  en- 
gine, of  wliich  the  chief  organ  consists  or  two 
pair  of  cylinders,  may  appear,  they  are  subject 
in  the  practical  detail  to  all  the  difficulties  which 
usually  present  themselves  to  be  overcome  by 
inventors.  An  account  of  this  would  certainly 
form  an  interesting  narrative  in  the  history  of  the 
arts,  but  in  this  place  it  is  neither  practicable 
nor  consistent  with  our  plan.  Sir  Richard  Aik- 
wright  succeeded  in  making  these  engines  go 
by  horse,  by  water,  and  by  steam  as  first  mov- 
ers, and  the  saving  of  labour,  together  widi  the 
advantages  of  a  patent  monopoly,  were  suffici- 
ent to  render  him  one  of  the  most  opulent  of  our 
manufacturers. 

The  historical  facts  appear  to  be  the  follow- 
ing: about  the  year  1767  Arkwright  came  to 
Warrington,  at  which  time  he  had  quitted  the 
profession  of  a  barber,  and  went  up  and  down 
the  country*  buying  hair.  He  had  at  that  time 
a  scheme  of  some  mechanical  contrivance,  of 
the  nature,  as  it  is  said,  of  a  perpetual  motion. 
A  clockmaker  of  that  place,  whose  name  was 
John  Kay,  became  accjuainted  with  him  and  dis- 
suaded him  from  it  ;  but  remarked  that  much 
money  might  be  gained  bv  spinning  cotton, 
which  Kay  said  he  would  describe  to  Ark- 
wright. Arkwright  objected,  that  many  gen- 
tlemen had  ruined  themselves  by  that  scheme ; 
but  the  next  morning  he  came  to  Kay's  bed- 
side, and  asked  if  he  could  make  a  small  engine 
at  a  small  expence.  This  John  Kay  had  been 
employed  as  a  workman  to  make  a  cotton 
spinning  engine  for  a  Mr.  Haves,  who  was 
brought  in  evidence  on  the  trial  for  setting 
aside  Aikwright's  patent,  and  proved  that  he 
had  invented  an  engine  of  this  kind,  but  not  that 
he  had  brought  it  to  perfection.  Kay  and 
Arkwright  applied  to  Peter  Athcrton,  Esq.  now 
of  Liverpool,  to  make  such  an  engine,  but  from 
the  poverty  of  the  appearance  of  the  latter,  Mr. 
Atberton  refused  to  undertake  it,  though  after- 
waids  on  the  evening  of  the  same  day  he  agreed 


ARK 


(  ^r-   ) 


A  R  L 


to  Ifnd  Kay  a  smith  and  watch-tool  maker,  to 
make  ilie  heavier  part  of  the  engine,  and  Kay 
undertook  to  make  the  clock-makers  part  of  it, 
and  to  instruct  the  workman.  In  this  way 
Mr.  Arkw  right's  first  engine,  for  wliich  he 
afterwards  took  out  a  patent,  was  made.  Mr. 
Arkwright  soon  afterwards  joined  in  partncr- 
shii>  with  Mr.  Smalley  of  Preston  in  Lan- 
cashire, hut  tlieir  property  falling  short,  they 
vent  to  Notlingham,  and  there  met  with  rich 
individuals,  by  the  help  of  whom  they  erected 
a  considerable  cotton -mill  turned  by  horses. 
The  same  Hayes  had  also  employed  himself  in 
making  cylindrical  carding  engines. 

Tliis  is  an  outline  of  some  of  the  facts  stated 
on  the  behalf  of  Mr.  Arkwright's  opponents 
who  set  his  patent  aside.  'Jhe  story  current  in 
the  manufacturing  countries  is,  that  he  stole 
these  inventions,  and  enriched  himself  at  the 
cxpence  and  by  the  ingenuity  of  other  men. 
.  Upon  the  face  of  the  thing,  however,  witiiout 
attending  to  other  evidence  whicli  migiit  per- 
haps be  brought,  it  appears  that  the  cotton 
S()inning  was  no  new  attempt,  when  Mr. 
Aikwright  took  it  up,  but  an  object  much 
laboured  at,  and  as  it  had  not  succeeded,  it 
should  of  course  follow  that  there  were  diffi- 
culties to  be  overcome,  and  matters  of  subordi- 
nate invention  (which  usually  cause  the  failure 
of  new  schemes)  to  be  matured,  digested,  and 
brought  into  effect.  In  the  hands  of  Mr.  Ark- 
wright the  carding  and  cotton  spinning  became 
a  great  national  manufacture.  Before  he  under- 
took it  it  appears  to  have  been  nothing.  In 
his  Case,  as  drawn  by  himself,  he  states,  that 
about  40  or  50  years  before  his  time,  one  Paul 
and  olliers  of  London  invented  an  engine  for 
spinning  cotton,  and  obtained  a  patent  for  their 
invention,  after  whicli  they  removed  to  Not- 
tingham and  other  places,  expending  much 
money  and  time  in  the  undertaking,  and  that 
many  families  who  had  engaged  with  them 
were  reduced  to  poverty  and  distress  by  the 
failure  of  the  scheme;  that  about  20  or  30 
years  back,  various  engines  had  been  construct- 
ed by  different  persons  for  S])inning  cotton,  flax, 
wool,  &:c.  into  many  threads  at  once,  but  they 
produced  no  real  advantage; — and  that  in  1767 
one  Hargrave  of  BLackwcll  in  Lancashire,  con- 
structed an  engine  that  would  at  once  spin  20 
or  30  threads  of  cotton  into  yarn  for  the  fus- 
tian manufacture,  but  that,  after  suffering  the 
destruction  of  his  engines  by  popular  tumults 
in  Lancashire,  and  removing  to  Nottinghain, 
where  he  practised  for  a  time  under  a  patent, 
an  association  was  formed  against  him,  by 
wliich  liis  patent  right  was  overthrown,  and  he 


died  in  obscurity  and  great  distress — tliat  he, 
Arkwright,  liad  invented  engines  for  carding 
and  spinning,  in  the  advancing  of  which  more 
than  five  years,  with  an  cxpcncc  of  12000I. 
had  been  consumed  before  any  profit  accrued 
to  himself  and  partners.  And  as  it  must  be 
admitted  he  did  not  bring  his  project  to  bear  at 
once,  as  a  pirate  might  have  done,  he  must  of 
right  be  considered  as  the  man  who,  after  em- 
barking in  a  great  national  undertaking,  wliere 
many  others  had  failed,  did  exhibit  enougli  of 
perseverance,  skill,  and  activity,  to  render  it  of 
value  to  himself  and  the  public. 

After  this  statement  of  the  case,  which  is  the 
best  that  could  under  the  present  circumstances 
be  procured,  it  seems  that  the  merits  of  sir 
Richard  Arkwright  may  be  summed  up  by- 
observing,  that  the  object  in  which  he  was  en- 
gaged is  of  the  highest  public  value  ;  that 
though  his  family  is  enriched,  the  benefits  which 
have  accrued  to  the  nation  have  been  incalcu- 
lably greater;  and  that  upon  the  whole  he  is  en- 
titled to  the  respect  and  admiration  of  the  world. 

He  was  knighted  by  his  present  majesty  at 
St.  James's  on  the  2 2d  of  December  1786,  on 
presenting  an  address  from  die  high-sheriff  and 
laindred  of  Wirksworth;  and  died  at  his  works 
atCrumford,  inDerbyshire,  Aug.  3, 1792. — N. 

ARLAUD,  James  Anthony,  a  cele- 
brated painter,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1668. 
After  pursuing  the  usual  objects  of  a  literary 
education  as  long  as  the  circumstances  of  his 
family  would  permit,  he  determined  to  follow 
professionally  his  decided  talent  for  painting. 
With  very  little  instruction  but  his  own,  he 
coinmenccd  portrait-painter,  and  leaving  Ge- 
neva at  the  age  of  20,  went  fiist  to  Dijon, 
where  he  met  with  considerable  encourage- 
ment. Thence  he  removed  to  Paris,  and  such 
was  his  industry,  that  after  painting  for  a  sub- 
sistence during  the  day,  he  spent  part  of  the 
night  in  drawing  for  improvement.  He  parti- 
cularly excelled  in  miniature,  and  besides  a 
very  delicate  finish,  he  gave  a  force  and  cha- 
racter to  his  works  imusual  in  that  size.  The 
regent  duke  of  Orleans  said  of  him,  that 
while  other  miniature-painters  produced  only 
images,  he  had  found  the  means  to  paint  por- 
traits. The  duke  gave  him  apartments  in 
St.  Cloud,  and  practised  under  his  directions, 
calling  him  his  master.  In  1721  he  visited 
England,  with  a  recommendation  to  the  prin- 
cess of  Wales,  afterwards  queen  Caroline ; 
and  he  vi'as  much  favoured  by  the  court  during 
his  stay.  His  travels  were  liinited  to  this  tour, 
and  another  through  the  provinces  of  France, 
and  afterwards  through  Switzerland.     He  ne- 


>^.7  *  ^/Y/A^rtm  y^ . 


JA^IB  S  AXTITOXl'' Aki.  at^jd 


A  R  L 


(    393     ) 


ARM 


ver  accomplished  a  long-projected  visit  to  Ita- 
ly. ArlauJ  tliil  not  entirely  confine  himself  to 
portrait-painting,  but  produced  some  history 
pieces  and  other  works.  The  most  celebrated 
was  his  Leda,  uliich  he  copied  from  a  bas- 
relief  of  Michael  Angclo  witli  inimitable  deli- 
cacy, so  as  to  appear  at  a  small  distance  like 
the  original  marble.  This  favourite  piece  he 
afterwards  destro)  ed,  as  too  licentious.  After 
a  residence  of  40  vears  at  Paris,  he  quitted  that 
capital,  and  retired  to  his  native  place  with  a 
handsome  fortune,  and  a  good  collection  of 
pictures,  ancient  and  modern.  His  reputation 
caused  him  to  be  requested  by  the  grand  duke 
of  Tuscany  to  furnish  his  own  portrait  to  the 
famous  gallery  at  Florence  of  artists  painted  by 
themselves.  Arlaud  died,  a  batchelor,  at  his 
countiy-house  near  Geneva,  in  1743,  aged  75. 
He  left  a  collection  of  paintings,  diawings, 
medals,  and  rare  books,  to  the  public  library 
ot  Geneva.      A'forcri. — A. 

ARLOTTO,  II  Piovano,  orTHsDEAN, 
whose  family  name  was  Mainardi,  was  the 
first  man  of  his  time  in  the  class  of  drolls  or 
buffoons,  and  is  still  celebrated  in  Italy  on  that 
account.  He  was  born  at  Miigello  near  Flo- 
rence in  1395,  and  was  originally  brought  up 
to  the  woollen  manufacture  of  that  city  ;  but 
the  love  of  an  easier  life  induced  him  at  the  age 
of  twenty-eight  10  .nssumc  theclerica!  profession. 
His  natural  talent  ot  divei  ting  in  conversation  by 
humourous  extravagancies  aiid  repartees,  ob- 
tained him  preferment,  the  highest  of  which 
was  the  rural  deanery  of  St.  Cresci  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Fiesole.  It  cannot  be  supposed  that  he 
gave  much  edification  as  a  priest ;  but  in  a  long 
and  rambling  life  he  filled  Italy  and  other  coun- 
tries with  stories  of  his  pleasantries  and  singula- 
rities, which  partake  of  the  coarseness  of  the 
age.  He  was  able,  however,  to  make  himself 
acceptable  to  such  men  as  Lorenzo  and  Guili- 
ano  de'  i  Meilici.  He  died  in  1483,  at  the  age  of 
87.  After  his  death  a  collection  of  his  jests, 
adventures,  and  witticisms  was  made,  under  the 
title  of  "  Facetie,  Fabule,  e  Motti  del  Piovano 
Ai  lotto,  Prete  Fiorcntino,"  which  has  been 
many  times  reprinted.  —  Tiraboschi.  Kouv. 
Diet.  Hist.~A. 

ARMINIUS,  called  the  deliverer  of 
Germany,  a  hero  of  a  barbarous  nati(iii, 
was  the  son  of  .Siginier,  a  powerful  chieftain 
of  the  Catti.  I  Ic  was  initiated  in  arms  among 
the  Roman  troops,  with  whom  he  served  with 
great  reputation,  and  was  rewarded  bv  Augus- 
tus with  the  citizenship  and  knighthood  (>f 
Rome,  Conceiving  himself  not  bound  by 
gratitude  to  the  oppressors  of  his  country,  he 

vol..  I. 


fomented  the  discontents  prevailing  among  the 
German  nations,  and  formed  a  confederacy  for 
revolt.  At  the  same  time,  by  artful  suggestions, 
-he  drew  the  Roman  commander  Varus  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Rhine,  into  the 
country  of  the  Cherusci.  \\'hen  all  was  pie- 
pared,  he  led  Varus  into  an  ambuscade,  where 
he  perished  with  almost  all  his  forces.  Thh 
event  happened  A.  D.  10.  Tiberius  was  after- 
wards sent  to  keep  the  Germans  from  invadinsi; 
Gaul ;  and  in  A.  D.  16,  Germanicus  marched 
with  a  powerful  armv  to  take  revenge  for  the 
slaughter  of  Varus.  At  this  time  the  Germans 
were  divided,  one  party  adhering  to  Arminius, 
another  to  Segestes,  his  father-in-law,  a  friend 
of  the  Romans.  Arminius  had  besieged  Se- 
gestes in  his  camp;  but  on  the  arrival  of  Ger- 
manicus, he  was  defeated,  and  his  wife,  then 
pregnant,  taken  prisoner.  Arminius  exerted 
himself  to  form  a  new  confederacy,  and  en- 
gaged in  it  his  uncle  Inguiomcrus,  a  chieftain 
ot  great  power.  Germanicus  advancing  a- 
gainst  them,  Arminius  took  post  in  a  woody 
and  marshy  countrv,  where  he  could  with  dif- 
ficulty be  approached  ;  and  he  was  near  de- 
stroying a  part  of  the  Roman  army  under  the 
command  of  Cacina ;  but  the  Germans  were 
at  last  routed  in  an  attack  on  C^cina's  camp. 
7"lie  next  year,  Germanicus  made  another  ex- 
pedition into  Germany,  an<l  met  y\rminius  on 
the  banks  of  the  Visurgis  or  Wcscr.  Arminius 
had  a  brother,  by  name  Flavins,  adopted  into 
the  Roman  army,  in  which  he  had  long  served. 
The  two  brothers  had  a  conference  across  the 
river,  in  which  each  employed  his  eloquence  to 
engage  the  otiier  in  his  own  party.  J'acicus, 
who  describes  the  scene,  puts  into  the  mouth  of 
Arminius  {proi)ablv  from  his  own  invention), 
every  topic  of  patriotism  and  independence; 
but  the  issue  was,  that  they  parted  with  mutual 
reproaches  and  menaces.  Germanicus  passed 
the  Weser,  and  two  bloody  combats  ensued, 
which  ended  in  the  coniplete  defeat  ot  the  Ger- 
mans. Arminius  was  disabled  early  bv  a  wound 
from  exerting  his  usual  aciivity.  Still  uncoii- 
quered,  he  afterwards  overcame  .Marobodims, 
a  German  king,  in  a  great  battle,  and  obliged 
him  to  have  recourse  to  the  Romans  for  aid. 
But  these  civil  feuds  were  at  length  I'atal  to 
him.  He  is  .said  to  have  aimed  at  tin.-  sove- 
reigrity,  ar.d  bv  thai  means  to  have  excited  his 
countiymcn  against  him.  A t';cr  several  viiissi- 
tudes  of  fortune,  he  perished  at  length  ihiough 
the  treachery  of  his  kindred,  in  the  37ih  vcar 
of  his  age,  having  for,  12  years  been  at  the 
head  of  his  country's  armies,  and  contended 
(as  Tacitus  observes)  not,  like  otiier  kings  and 


A  R  M 


(     394     ) 


ARM 


leaders,  witli  the  juvenile  force  of  Rome,  but 
with  its  mature  strength.  'I'he  historian  as- 
serts "  that  he  is  still' cckbratetl  in  the  songs  of 
the  barbarous  nations,  though  unknown  to 
Grtccc,  and  not  enough  noticed  by  Roman 
writers."  In  his  own  country,  even  divine 
honours  were  long  paid  liim,  under  the  title  of 
the  god  Irmin.   [Note  in  Brotier's  Tacitus.] 

The  son,  of  whom  his  witc  was  pregnant 
when  made  captive,  was  brought  up  at  Ra- 
venna, and  underwent  misfortunes,  the  particu- 
lars of  which  Tacitus  promises  to  relate,  but 
thcv  have  not  reached  us. — Tacit:  yin/tal. — A. 

ARMINIUS  or  HARMENSEN,  James, 
a  christian  divine,  the  leader  of  the  sect  of  the 
Arminians,  was  born  at  Oude-water  in  Hol- 
land in  the  year  1560.  Having  lost  his  father 
in  his  infancy,  he  received  his  first  instructions 
from  a  catholic  priest,  who  was  secretly  a 
friend  to  the  reformed  religion.  Through  the 
liberality  of  this  worthy  man,  he  became  a 
ytudent  at  Utrecht.  Upon  the  death  of  his  pa- 
tron, which  happened  while  he  was  prosecut- 
>  ing  his  studies  in  that  university,  lie  was  so  for- 
tunate as  to  obtain  assistance  from  his  country- 
man Rodolphus  Snellius,  who,  in  1575,  took 
hiin  with  him  to  Marpurg.  Scarcely  was  he 
arrived  here,  when  he  received  the  distressing 
intelligence,  that  his  native  town  was  pillaged 
by  the  Spaniards,  In  painful  anxiety  for  the 
fate  of  his  family,  he  immediately  returned  to 
Holland  ;  and  had  the  severe  affliction  to  find, 
on  his  arrival  at  Oude-water,  that  his  mother, 
sister,  brothers,  and  other  relations,  had  been 
put  to  the  sword.  He  returned  on  foot,  with 
a  heavy  heart,  to  Marpurg.  Soon  afterwards, 
he  renewed  his  studies  in  the  university  just 
established  at  Leyden,  and  acquired  distinguish- 
ed reputation  by  his  progress  in  learning.  His 
name  was  mentioned  with  respect  beyond  the 
limits  of  his  college  ;  and  the  magistrates  of 
Amsterdam  thought  him  so  deser\-ing  of  en- 
couragement, that  he  was  sent,  at  their  ex- 
pence,  to  finish  his  education  at  Geneva.  Here 
his  chief  preceptor  in  theology  was  Theodore 
Bcza,  who  was  at  this  time  lecturing  upon  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans ;  and,  though  the  lec- 
turer was  not  deficient  in  orthodoxy,  this  cir- 
cumstance might,  probably,  lead  Arminius  to 
those  speculations,  which  afterwards  made  him 
the  father  of  a  new  sect.  In  philosophy,  he 
adopted,  and  supported  with  great  warmth,  the 
new  doctrines  of  Peter  Ramus.  He  even  pre- 
sumed so  far  to  violate  the  established  forms,  as 
to  teach  this  system  in  private.  This  bold  inno- 
vation gave  great  offence,  and  Arminius  thought 
it  expedient  to  withdraw  from  Geneva.    He 


now  to()k  up  his  residence  at  Basil,  and  read 
lectures  there  with  so  much  credit,  that  the 
faculty  of  divinity  oflered  him  the  degree  of 
doctor  without  expence,  which,  however,  he 
modestly  declined.  His  talents  for  disputation 
were  highly  admired.  The  professor  Giy- 
naus,  in  maintaining  a  thesis,  did  not  scruple 
to  leave  to  this  young  man  the  solution  of 
those  objections  which  seemed  strongest,  and 
was  accustomed,  on  those  occasions,  to  sav, 
"  Let  my  Hollander  answer  for  me."  This 
inquisitive  youth,  however,  as  will  appear  in 
the  sequel,  did  not  exactly  confine  himself  to 
the  track  of  his  master,  or  pay  much  attention 
to  the  advice  which  both  Grynsus  and  Beza 
used  to  give  to  young  men,  whom  they  saw 
inclined  to  indulge  new  speculations  :  "  Be- 
ware lest  you  be  ensnared  in  the  net  of  vain 
subtleties ;  a  snare  into  which  Satan  often  be- 
trays men  of  acute  understanding,  and  superior 
genius."  After  a  short  interval,  Arminius  re- 
turned to  Geneva,  where  he  found  the  ill-hu- 
mour, formerly  excited  hy  his  zeal  for  Ramus, 
subsided  ;  and,  exercising  on  his  own  part 
greater  moderation,  he  enjoyed  in  tranquillity 
the  society  of  the  learned. 

Arminius,  being  very  desirous  of  attending 
the  philosophical  lectures  of  the  celebrated  Za- 
barella  at  Padua,  now  undertook  a  journey  to 
Italy :  and,  when  he  had,  in  this  particular, 
gratified  his  curiosity,  he  travelled  in  Italy  for 
six  or  seven  months.  During  this  tour,  sus- 
picion was  busy  in  inventing,  and  calumny  in 
circulating,  tales  to  his  discredit ;  and  upon  his 
return  to  Amsterdam,  in  1588,  he  found  the 
affections  of  his  patrons  cooled  by  the  unfa- 
vourable impression  of  idle  rumours,  which 
were  altogether  unfounded.  It  was  reported, 
and  believed,  that  Arminius  had  kissed  the 
pope's  toe — whom  he  had  only  seen  in  a 
croud ;  that  he  had  contracted  an  intimacy  with 
Jesuits — whom  he  had  never  heard  of;  that 
he  had  introduced  himself  to  Bellarmin — whom 
he  had  never  seen  ;  and  that  he  had  abjured  the 
reformed  religion — for  which  he  was  prepared 
to  die.  Though  these  caluinnies  obtained  little 
credit  with  the  intelligent  and  candid,  they  in- 
jured the  reputation  of  Arminius  with  weak 
and  suspicious  spirits ;  and  it  was  not  till  he 
had  given  full  proof  of  his  zeal  for  the  reform- 
ed religion,  and  of  his  talents  and  merit  as  a 
preacher  of  its  doctrines,  that  the  prejudice 
against  him  was  removed.  Having  gained  high 
reputation  by  his  ingenious  and  eloquent  dis- 
courses, he  was  judged,  by  Martin  Lydius, 
professor  of  divinity  in  Franekcr,  to  be  a  pro- 
per person  to  undertake  the  refutation  of  a 


jMlENTE  Jiicjuy  ,vitd  flitu-tus,  caLimdjiLe  cAi'hris , 
kKmniYS   U-rm  Luis  dml.at^iu  fAi^ 


ARM 


(     395     ) 


ARM 


work,  written  against  Beza's  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination. In  compliance  vvirli  tliis  request, 
Arminius  began  the  task :  but,  unfortunately 
lor  his  employers,  during  the  course  of  the 
examination,  in  balancing  the  arguments  on 
each  side,  his  judgment  turned  the  scale  in  fa- 
vour of  the  opponents.  He  honestly  avowed 
his  change  of  opinion,  and,  renouncing  the 
Calvinistic  doctrine  concerning  the  decrees  of 
God  and  divine  grace,  maintained  that  the  me- 
rits of  Christ  extended  to  all  mankind,  and  that 
the  grace  of  God,  which  is  ne(  essary  to  sal- 
vation, is  attainable  by  all.  This  change  in 
the  religious  opinions  of  Arminius  happened 
in  the  year  1591  ;  as  appears  from  a  letter 
[Biblioth.  Brem.  Theol.  Tome  iii.]  which 
he  wrote  that  year  to  Grynajus.  The  doc- 
trine of  Calvin  having  been  hitherto  com- 
monly followed  by  the  Dutch  clergy,  this  in- 
novation of  Arminius  provoked  hostilities, 
which  would  have  involved  him  in  trouble,  had 
not  the  magistrates,  probably  more  from  per- 
sonal regard  than  general  liberality  of  senti- 
ment, interposed  to  suppress  the  contest. 

After  having  exercised  the  ministry  in  the 
church  of  Amsterdam  fifteen  years,  Arminius, 
notwidistanding  his  heretical  opinions,  was,  in 
the  year  1603,  elected  to  the  professorship  of 
divinity  in  the  university  at  Leyden,  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity.  In 
his  public  lectures  he  openly  declared  and  main- 
tained his  opinions,  in  opposition  to  those  of 
Calvin,  and  made  many  converts  in  the  uni- 
versity. In  his  writings,  too,  he  strenuously 
asserted,  and  ably  defended  them,  against  his 
opponents,  and  Anninianism  made  a  rapid 
spread  both  among  the  clergy  and  laity.  The 
adherents  to  the  Calvinistic  system,  however, 
caused  him  much  vexation.  Public  confe- 
rences were  held  between  him  and  his  adver- 
saries. He  was  several  times  summoned  to 
the  Hague,  to  give  an  account  of  his  doctrine. 
His  colleague,  Francis  Gomar,  was  among  the 
most  violent  of  his  enemies.  His  reputation 
was  aspersed ;  his  peace  was  disturbed ;  his 
health  was  impaired  ;  and  a  complication  of 
painful  diseases,  in  the  year  1609,  terminated 
his  life. 

The  personal  character  of  Arminius  was  Ir- 
reproachable, and  he  attracted  the  esteem  and 
applause  of  his  very  enemies  by  his  amiable 
manners,  his  candid  spirit,  his  diffidence  and 
modesty,  and  his  inflexible  integrity.  His 
motto  was.  Bona  csnscientia  Patodhus  [A 
good  conscieneie  is  a  paradise].  He  was  a 
tricnd  to  universal  toleration,  and  established 
it  as  a  iundamcutal  principle,  that  Christians 


are  accountable  to  God  alone  for  their  reli- 
gious sentiments,  and  that  no  individual  can 
be  justly  punished  by  the  magistrate  for  erro- 
neous opinions,  while  he  conducts  himself  as  a 
virtuous  and  obedient  subject,  and  makes  no 
attempts  to  disturb  the  peace  and  order  of  civil 
society.  If  the  controversy  in  which  Armi- 
nius was  a  leader  is  now  subsided,  either  be- 
cause it  has  ceased  to  be  thought  impoitant,  or 
because  it  has  been  found  to  be  above  human 
comprehension,  or  because  it  has  been  super- 
seded by  other  systems,  it  must,  however,  be 
allowed,  that  the  discussion  of  these  points  fos- 
tered a  spirit  of  inquiry,  and  prepared  the  way 
for  other  more  useful,  or  more  satisfactory  re- 
searches. 

The  followers  of  Arminius,  who  also  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Remonstrants  from  a  peti- 
tion entitled  their  Remonstrances,  which  tlicy 
addressed  in  the  year  1 6 10  to  the  States  of 
Holland,  rapidly  encrcascd  after  the  decease  of 
their  leader,  both  in  number  and  consequence. 
Some  of  the  first  men  in  the  republic,  as  Ol- 
denbarnevcldt,  Hoogcrbeets,  and  Grotius,  c- 
spoustd  this  party :  and  after  the  strong  arm  of 
power  had  been  in  vain  employed  to  crush 
them,  a  synod,  under  prince  Maurice,  was 
held,  in  1618,  at  Dort,  at  which  were  present 
ecclesiastical  deputies  from  all  the  United  Pro- 
vinces, and  from  the  churches  of  England, 
Hessia,  Bremen,  the  Palatinate  and  Switzer- 
land. Here,  without  a  fair  hearing,  the  Ar- 
minian  doctrines  were  condemned,  and  those 
who  professed  dicm  were  excommunicated. 
In  consequence  of  this  decision  the  Arminians 
were  treated  with  great  severity  by  the  civil  ma- 
gistrate ;  the  laity  were  deprived  of  their  posts 
and  employments ;  the  clergy  were  silenced, 
and  driven  from  their  livings ;  and  many  per- 
sons, to  escape  fines  and  imprisonment,  sub- 
mitted to  voluntary  exile.  They  were  after- 
wards, in  1625,  recalled  and  restored  to  their 
former  condition.  The  Arminians  still  remain 
in  Holland  a  distinct  sect,  and  their  leading  te- 
nets have  been  in  fact,  though  not  formally, 
adopted  by  many  churches  in  other  cotintrios. 

The  writings  of  Arminius  are  as  follows : 
"  Dissertationes  de  diversis  Christianx  Religi- 
onis  Capitibus  ;"  "  Examen  Libelli  Cjuillelmi 
Perkensi  de  Prjedestinationis  Modo  et  Ordinis ;" 
"  Dissertatio  de  vero  Sensu  Cai>itis  VII.  ad 
Romanes  ;"  "Analysis  Cap.  IX.  ad  Roma- 
nes;" "  Arnica  Collatio  cum  D.  Francisco 
Junio  do  Pr^dc^tntione  ;"  "  Episiolx."  'I'hc 
vi-hole  is  compiized  in  one  quarto  volume, 
printed  at  Frankfort,  in  1631  and  1634,  &c. 
The  first  piece  will  afford  an  accurate  notion 


ARM 


(   :^9'^   ) 


ARM 


of  the  doctrine  and  character  of  tliis  writer. 
Hi'?  style  is  somc\%hat  scholastic,  but  bis  senti- 
mtnts  are  delivered  with  simphcity  and  perspi- 
cuity. Brandt  Hist.  Fit.  Jrmlrt.  Ed.  A'fo- 
shelm.  17^5.  Berlins  Oral.  Fiincb.  J.  Ar~ 
rr.in.     Bav/e.     Afoshfim  Cent.  x\ii. — E. 

ARMSTRONG,  John,  M.  D.  a  poet  and 
physician,  was  born,  about  1709,  at  Castletoii 
in  Roxburgiisbirc,  Scotland,  where  his  father 
was  minister.  In  his  principal  poem,  he  has 
very  pleasingly  celebrated  liis  native  place,  and 
the  rivulet  witli  which  it  is  beautified. 

Sucli  the  stream 
On  whose  Arcadian  bjnks  \  first  drew  jir, 
Liddal;    till  tlnw,exce])l  in  Doric  lii_\s 
Tuu'd  to  liur  murmurs  by  licr  love-sick  suains, 
Vnknowii  ill  son^;    tlii)u!;li  not  a  purer  stream, 
Througli  iiicad>  ntoro  fio^v'iy  or  more  ruuuiatic  throve*, 
KkUs  tuMard  tlic  western  main,  &c. 

Art  or  Health,  Book  III. 

He  was  designed  for  tlie  medical  profession, 
and  studied  for  that  purpose  in  the  university 
of  Edinburgh,  wliere  he  took  his  degree  with 
reputation  in  1732.  The  subject  of  his  inau- 
gural thesis  was  De  Tabe  purulenta.  He  set- 
tled in  London,  where  he  appeared  in  the 
double  capacity  of  author  and  physician  ;  hut 
liis  success  in  the  former,  as  has  frequently 
been  the  case,  seems  to  have  impeded  his  pro- 
gress in  the  latter.  His  first  publication,  in 
'735'  ^'^'^^  ^  humorous  attack  upon  empirics,  in 
the  manner  of  Lucian,  entitled  "  An  Essay  for 
abridging  the  Study  of  Physic  ;  to  which  is 
added,  A  Dialogue  betwixt  Hygeia,  Mer- 
cury, and  Pluto,  relating  to  the  Practice  of 
Physic,  as  it  is  managed  by  a  certain  illustrious 
Society;  and  an  Ei)istle  from  Usbeck  the  Per- 
sian to  Joshua  Ward,  Esq.  In  1737  he  pub- 
lished a  serious  professional  piece,  "  On  the 
X'cnereal  Disease  ;"  and  soon  after  it,  a  poem, 
(luitled  "  The  Economy  of  Love,"  which 
niet  with  a  success  which  was  probably,  in  tiie 
end,  a  source  neither  of  satisfaction  nor  advan- 
tage to  the  author.  It  is  an  elegant  and  vigor- 
ous performance,  but  so  warm  in  some  of  it's 
descriptions  as  to  have  incurred  the  general 
censure  of  licentiousness,  which  has  excluded  it 
from  the  most  reputable  collections  of  poetry. 
The  audior  himself  considerably  pruned  its 
luxuriances  in  an  edition  printed  in  1768. 

In  1744  his  capital  work,  the  didactic  poem 
on  "  The  Art  of  preserving  Health"  appeared, 
and  raised  his  literary  reputation  to  a  height, 
which  his  after-performances  scarcely  sustain- 
ed. A  poem  "  On  Benevolence,"  in  1751,  and 
another  entitled  "  Taste,  an  Epistle  to  a  young 
Critic,"  in  1753,  siiowed  that  he  continued  to 


cultivate  the  Muses,  though  with  no  extraordi- 
nary success.  A  volume  in  prose  of  "  Sketches 
or  Essays  on  various  Subjects,"'  under  the  name 
of  "  Launcelot  Temple,  Esq."  in  1758,  was 
better  received  bv  the  public,  who  admired  the 
humour  and  knowledge  of  the  world  which  it 
displayed.  The  celebrated  Mr.  ^Vilkes,  then  his 
intimate  acquaintance,  was  supposed  to  have 
contributed  a  share  to  this  volume. 

Dr.  Armstrong  had  professional  interest 
enough  in  1760  to  obtain  the  appointment  of 
physician  to  the  army  in  Germany.  From  tliat 
country  he  wrote  "  Day,"  a  poem,  and  "  An 
Epistle  to  John  Wilkes,  Esq."  A  reflcftion 
upon  Churchill  in  this  latter  piece  drew  upon 
him  a  severe  retaliation  from  that  irritable  bard 
in  his  "  Journey."  Party  now  ran  so  higii, 
especially  that  of  the  worst  kind,  national  ani- 
mosity, that  a  native  of  Scodand  could  scarcely 
keep  up  a  friendly  intercourse  with  an  English 
oppositionist :  accordingly,  we  find  that  the 
intimacy  between  Dr.  Armstrong  and  Mr. 
Wilkes  was  dissolved  about  this  time.  At  the 
peace  of  1763,  Armstrong  returned  to  London, 
and  lesumed  the  practice  of  physic;  but  his 
habits  and  manners  opposed  an  insuunountablc 
bar  against  popular  success.  His  mind  was 
too  lofty  to  stoop  to  intrigue  ;  his  manner  was 
stifF  and  reserved;  and  his  disposition  was  in- 
dolent. He  continued  occasionally  rather  to 
amuse  than  exert  himself  in  literary  produc- 
tions, serious  and  humourous  ;  sometimes,  in 
the  latter,  mistaking  oddity  for  wit,  and  in- 
dulging an  unpleasant  vein  of  vulgarity  in  ex- 
pression, and  misanthrojw  in  sentiment.  These 
later  effusions  are  scarcely  worth  particularis- 
ing. In  177 1  he  made  a  journey  to  France 
and  Italy,  accompanied  by  the  celebrated  paint- 
er, Mr.  Fuseli,  who  warmly  attests  the  bene- 
volence of  his  character.  On  this  tour  he  took 
a  last  farewell  in  Italy  of  his  friend  Smollett, 
to  wliom  he  was  much  attached.  "He  pub- 
lished a  short  account  of  this  ramble,  under  the 
name  of  Lancelot  Temple.  His  last  publi- 
cation, a  pamplilet  in  1773,  entitled  "  Rledi- 
cal  Essays,"  accounts  in  a  splenetic  manner 
for  the  limited  practice  he  attained,  and  com- 
plains of  his  literary  critics.  He  died  in  Sep- 
tember 1779,  leaving  considerable  savings  from 
a  very  moderate  income. 

Amstrong  was  a  man  much  beloved  and 
respected  by  his  intimates,  and  seems  to  have 
possessed  great  goodness  of  heart,  as  well  as 
extensive  knowledge  and  abilities ;  but  a  kind 
of  morbid  sensibility  preyed  on  his  temper,  and 
a  languid  listlessiiess  damped  his  intellectual  ef- 
forts.    Tlic    following    lines    in   Thomson's 


A  R  N 


(    597     ) 


A  U  N 


"  Castle  of  Indolence"  are  said  to  have  been 
meant  for  his  portraiture. 

-     With  him  "as  soniclimcs  joined  in  silent  M-alk 
(Prol'uundly  silent — for  they  never  spoke) 
One  iliyer  still,  who  quite  Helestcrf  talk; 
on  stuii^  by  spleen,  at  once  away  he  broke 
To  groves  of  pine,  and  broad  o'ershadowing  oak, 
There,  inly  thrili'd,  he  viandcr'd  all  alone, 
And  oti  himself  his  pensive  I'ury  wroke: 
lie  ncier  utter'd  word,-save  when  iirst  shone 
The  glittering  star  of  cve^^—*' Thank  hcav'n  !  the  day' 
is  donc."- 

It  shoultl  not  be  forgotten  that  Armstrong 
contributed  to  this  excellent  poem  the  fiiie 
stanzas  descriptive  of  the  diseases  to  which  the 
votaries  of  indolence  finajly  become  martyrs. 

His  reputation  as  a  ])oet  is  almost  solelv 
founded  on  his  "  Art  of  preserving  Health," 
for  ills  other  pieces  scarcely  rise  above  medi- 
ocrity. This  inay  well  rank  among  th.e  first 
didactic  poems  in  tlie  English  language;  and 
though  that  class  of  poetry  is  not  of  tlie  highest 
order,  yet  tlie  variety  incident  to  his  subject  has 
given  him  the  opportunity  of  displaying  liis 
powers  on  some  of  the  inost  elevated  and  in- 
teresting to])ics,  and  they  are  found  fully  ade- 
quate to  the  occasion.  The  work  is  adopted 
into  the  body  of  English  classics,  and  has  often 
been  printed,  both  separately  and  in  collections. 
'J'he  tbllovving  character  of  Armstrong's  style 
and  manner  is  given  in  an  essay  prefixed  to  an 
ornamented  edition  of  the  poem,  printed  for 
Cadell  and  Davies,  1795.  "  It  is  distinguished 
by  its  simplicity — by  a  free  use  of  words  whicli 
owe  their  si  length  to  tlieir  plainness — by  tlie 
rejection  of  ambitious  ornaments,  and  a  near 
approach  to  common  phraseology.  His  sen- 
tences are  generally  short  and  easy  ;  his  sense 
clear  and  obviuus.  The  full  extent  ot  his  con- 
ceptions is  taken  in  at  the  first  glance;  and 
there  are  no  lofty  mysteries  to  be  unravelled  by 
a  repeated  perusal.  What  keeps  his  language 
Irom  being  prosaic,  is  the  vigour  of  his  senti- 
ments. He  thinks  boldly,  feels  strongly,  and 
therefore  expresses  himself  poetically.  Where 
the  subject  sinks,  his  style  sinks  with  it ;  but  he 
has  for  the  most  part  excludeil  topics  incapable 
either  of  vivid  description,  or  ot  the  oratory  of 
sentiment.  He  had  from  nature  a  musical  ear, 
whence  his  lines  are  scarcely  ever  harsh,  though 
apparently  without  much  study  to  render  them 
smooth.  On  the  whole,  it  may  not  be  too 
much  to  assert,  tliat  no  writer  in  blank  verse 
can  be  found  more  free  from  stiffness  and 
allertation,  inore  energetic  without  harshness, 
and  more  dignified  without  formality."  Biog. 
Brltait. — A. 

ARNAULD,  Antony,  a  lawyer,  the  eldest 
son  of  Antony  Arnauld,  advocate  general  of 


fjucen  Catherine  de  INIedicis,  was  born  a't  Paris 
in  the  year  1560.  He  was  advocate  to  the  par- 
liament of  Paris,  and,  in  that  situation,  was  so 
eminently  distinguished  by  his  eloquence  and  his 
probity,  th;it  he  was  continually  consulttd  by 
people  of  distinction,  on  their  most  important 
affairs.  His  pleadings  against  the  Jesuits  in 
favour  of  the  university  of  Paris,  in  1594,  are 
famous:  they  were  published  in  8vo.  at  Paris, 
in  1594,  and  reprinted  in  i2mo.  in  17 1 7.  He 
published,  in  I'rench,  another  work  against  the 
society,  en;i;led,  "  A  free  and  true  Address  to 
the  King,  on  the  Re-establishment  which  is  re- 
quested for  the  Jesuits  :"  it  was  printed,  in  8vo. 
in  1602,  and  was,  in  161 1,  translated  into 
Latin.  He  wrote  also,  "  Advice  to  Louis 
Xlll."  printed  in  8vo.  in  1615.  He  died  in 
1619,  leaving  behind  him  ten  children,  out  of 
twenty,  which  he  had  had  by  one  wife, Catherine 
Marion,  whom  he  married  in  the  ijih  year  of 
Iter  age.  Several  of  his  sons  acquired  great 
distinction.  Baylc.  A/orefi.  A'ouv.  Diet. 
Hht.—Y.. 

ARNAULD  D'ANDILLY,  eldest  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1588.  He 
occupied  posts  of  distinction  at  court  with  great 
credit,  and  employed  his  influence  in  support  of 
justice  and  virtue.  Balzac  said  of  him,  that  he 
was  neither  ashamed  of  the  christian  graces, 
nor  vain  of  the  moral  virtues.  At  the  age  of 
^5,  he  retired  from  public  life  to  the  solitude  of 
Port  Royal,  y>here  he  devoteii  hiiUjclf  to  reli- 
gious studies.  He  lived  to  the  age  of  85,  and 
retained  to  the  last  the  vigour  both  of  his  body 
ami  mind.  He  was  the  author  of  many  works 
in  Fiench  ;  among  which  are,  "  A  Translation 
of  Josepluis,"  more  elegant  than  faitiiful,  print- 
ed at  Paris,  in  folio,  in  1667,  in  1672  in  five 
volumes  i2mo;  and  at  Amsterdain,  in  2  vo- 
lumes folio,  in  1681.  "An  apologetic  Me- 
moir for  the  House  of  Port  Royal,"  written  in 
1654;  "  iMcmoirs  of  his  Life,  written  by  him- 
self," printed  in  2  vohiines  T2mo;  "  A  Poem 
on  the  Life  of  Christ,"  in  i2mo.  1635.  B,iyle. 
Alorert.    Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  —  E. 

ARNAU(J),  Hi'NRV,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, abbot  of  St.  Xicliolas,  and  afterwards 
bishop  of  Angers,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1597. 
In  1645  the  abbe  Arnauld  was  appointed  en- 
voy extraordinary  from  France  to  Rome,  to 
settle  the  disputes  between  Pope  Innocent  X. 
and  tlie  tainilv  of  tlie  Barbarini.  In  reward  of 
his  services  to  this  family,  they  struik  a  medal 
to  his  honour,  and  erected  his  statue  in  their 
palace  at  Rome.  After  his  return  he  was,  in 
1649,  appointed  bishop  of  Angers.  From  this 
time  to  his  death   in   1692,   he  only  left    his 


A  R  N 


(    398    ) 


A  R  N 


diocese  once,  which  was  for  the  hcnevolcnt 
purpose  of  reconciling  the  duke  ot  Tremouiilc 
to  his  son.  The  city  of  Angers  having  re- 
voked in  1652,  the  bishop  calmed  the  quecn- 
inother.  who  was  coming  to  inflict  punishment 
■on  the  inhabitants,  by  saying  to  her  at  the  com- 
munion, "  Receive  your  God,  who,  when  he 
was  dying  on  the  cross,  pardoned  his  enemies." 
This  sentiment  dwelt  on  the  heart,  as  well  as 
on  the  lips  of  this  good  man.  It  is  said  of  him, 
that  the  surest  title  to  his  favour  was,  to  have 
offended  him.  He  was  the  father  of  the  poor, 
and  the  comforter  of  the  afflicted.  Study,  de- 
votion, and  the  affairs  of  his  diocese,  occupied 
his  whole  time.  One  of  his  friends  hinting  to 
him  that  he  ought  to  allow  himself  one  day  in  a 
week  for  relaxation,  he  replied,  "  I  shall  be  very 
willing  to  do  it,  if  you  can  find  me  a  day  in 
which  I  am  not  a  bisliop."  At  the  age  of 
ninety-five,  he  was  thought  bv  the  clergy  and 
people  of  his  diocese  to  have  died  too  soon ; 
and  he  was  lamented  and  honoured  as  the  best 
of  bishops.  His  "  Negociations"  at  the  court 
of  Rome,  and  in  ditFerent  courts  of  Italy,  were 
published  at  Paris,  in  five  volumes  i2mo.  long 
after  his  death,  in  1748:  they  contain  many 
interesting  particulars,  and  curious  anecdotes, 
related  in  the  lively  style  which  was  common 
to  all  the  Arnaulds.  Morcri.  Nouv.  Diet. 
Hist.—E. 
J  ARNAULD,  Anthony,  a  celebrated  doc- 

tor of  the  Sorbonne,  the  twentieth  child  of  the 
advocate  Anthony  Arnauld,  was  born  at  Paris 
in  1612.  He  studied  languages  and  philosophy 
in  the  college  ofCalvi.  Devoting  himself,  at 
the  solicitation  of  his  mother,  to  the  profession 
of  divinity,  he  studied  theology  in  the  college 
of  the  Sorbonne.  Under  L'Escot  he  read  a 
treatise  on  grace ;  but  not  being  satisfied  that 
the  professor's  doctrine  was  consonant  to  that 
of  tlie  apostle  Paul,  he  studied  the  subject  in 
the  writings  of  Augustine.  Adopting  the  system 
of  this  father,  he  publicly  maintained  his  opi- 
nion in  a  probation  thesis  for  the  degree  of 
bachelor,  in  1636,  and  supported  it  with  so 
much  ingenuity  and  eloquence,  that  the  pro- 
fessor suffered  tlic  discredit  of  a  defeat.  The 
required  interval  of  two  years  between  the 
probation  and  the  licence,  Arnauld  spent  in 
hard  study.  In  the  second  year  of  his  licentiate, 
he  composed,  and  publicly  read  in  the  college 
of  Mans  in  Paris,  a  course  of  lectures  on  phi- 
losophy. Towards  the  close  of  this  course, 
one  of  his  scholars,  in  maintaining  his  thesis, 
was  so  hardly  pressed  bv  his  opponent,  that 
the  professor  was  obliged  to  come  in  to  his 
assistance.     The  professor,  too,  found  himself 


unable  to  refute  the  arguments  of  the  inge- 
nious disputant.  Instead,  however,  of  escaping, 
as  is  usual  in  these  cases,  by  means  of  some 
nice  and  subtle  distinction,  he  had  the  candour 
to  acknowledge  himself  defeated,  and  to  declare 
that  he  was  a  convert  to  the  opinion  of  his 
opponent :  a  rare  instance  of  magnanimity, 
which  could  only  proceed  from  a  sincere  love 
of  truth,  and  from  a  consciousness  of  possess- 
ing a  reputation,  which  would  suffer  no  injury 
by  a  modest  confession  of  fallibility. 

Being  entered  as  a  licentiate  without  being 
received  into  the  house  and  society  of  the  Sor- 
bonne, and  through  some  infolmality,  not 
being  admissible  according  to  the  ordinary 
rules,  the  society  requested  perinission  from 
their  patron,  cardinal  Richelieu,  to  dispense 
with  their  established  customs  in  the  case  of 
Mr.  Arnauld,  on  account  of  his  extraordinary 
merit.  Professor  L'Escot,  who  was  confessor 
to  cavilinal  Richelieu,  seized  this  opportunity  of 
revenging liinisclf  upon  his  successful  rival,  and 
persuaded  the  cardinal  to  prohibit  M.  Arnauld's 
admission.  After  the  death  of  the  cardinal,  he 
was,  however,  in  the  year  1643,  admitted  a 
member  of  the  Sorbonne. 

In  the  same  year,  Arnauld  published,  with 
the  approbation  of  the  provincial  assembly  of 
Auch,  of  many  bishops,  and  of  twenty-four 
doctors  of  the  Sorbonne,  his  book  "  On  Fre- 
quent Communion,"  to  vhich  he  might  have 
given  a  contrary  title.  This  tract  gave  great 
offence  to  the  Jesuits,  and  was  represented, 
both  in  their  sennons  and  writings,  as  fraught 
with  dangerous  doctrine.  In  the  controversy, 
at  this  time  on  foot,  on  t!ie  subjtct  of  grace, 
Arnauld  took  an  active  part;  and  the  books 
which  he  wrote  in  defence  of  the  Jansenists 
encreased  the  enmity  of  the  Jesuits  against 
him.  But  notliing  excited  so  much  tumult  as 
two  letters  which  he  wrote  on  the  occasion  of 
the  refusal  of  absolution  to  the  duke  de  Lian- 
cour,  by  a  priest  of  St.  Sidpicc,  till  he  should 
break  off  all  intercourse  with  the  family  of  the 
Port-Royal.  Two  propositions,  found  in  the 
second  of  these  letters,  which  were  thought  to 
favour  Jansenism,  were  censured  ;  and  Ar- 
nauld, contrary  to  the  judgment  of  seventy-two 
of  the  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne,  was,  in  1656, 
excluded  from  the  faculty  of  divinity.  Arnauld 
protested  against  this  decision,  and  still  retained 
the  title  of  doctor. 

From  tills  time  Arnauld  buried  himself,  for 
twelve  years,  in  solitude ;  and  employed  his 
leisure  in  writing  curious  and  valuable  books 
in  various  branches  of  science.  Pope  Cle- 
ment IX.  liaving  in  1669  suspended  the  perse- 


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A  R  N 


cution  of  the  Jansenists,  Arnauld  returned  to 
Paris,  anil  was  received  with  respect  by  the 
pope's  nuncio,  and  by  Louis  ^IV.  At  their 
solicitation,  he  now  took  up  liis  pen  against  the 
Calvinists,  and  was  deemed  a  zealous  as  well 
as  able  champion  for  the  catholic  faidi.  But 
some  of  his  enemies  finding  means  to  bring  him 
into  suspicion  with  the  king,  on  account  of 
the  numerous  visits  which  he  received  from 
persons  of  various  descriptions,  he  thought  it 
prudent  again  to  retire.  Leaving  the  kingdom 
in  1679,  '"^  f'^o'^  "P  '^'^  residence  in  the  Ne- 
therlands, and  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the 
marquis  of  Grana  at  Brussels.  In  his  retreat, 
known  only  to  a  few  trusty  friends,  he  wrote 
"  An  Apology  for  the  Clergv  of  France,  and 
the  Catholics  of  England,"  in  refutation  of  a 
work,  by  Jurieu,  a  protestant  minister,  publish- 
ed at  the  Hague  under  the  title  of  "  The  Poli- 
tics of  the  Clergy  of  France."  This  produced 
from  the  same  pen  another  piece  of  keen  satire, 
which,  however,  is  said  by  Arnauld's  apolo- 
gists to  be  filled  with  calumnies,  entitled 
"  L'Espritde  Mr.  Arnauld."  Whether  it  is  a 
sufficient  iproof  that  this  publication  was  too 
contemptible  to  deserve  a  reply,  that  Arnauld 
declined  answering  it,  may  be  doubted.  Soon 
after  he  had  dropped  his  hostilities  against  the 
protestants,  he  entered  upon  a  new  controversy. 
Father  Malebranche,  who  entertained  senti- 
ments on  the  subject  of  grace  different  from 
those  of  Arnauld,  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  Nature 
and  Grace,"  which  he  presented  to  this  doctor, 
whom  he  regarded  as  his  master.  Arnauld 
wrote,  "  Reflections  philosophical  and  theolo- 
gical" upon  this  work,  and  several  other  pie- 
ces: he  also  attacked  Malebranche's  philoso- 
phical doctrine  advanced  in  his  search  after 
truth,  in  a  work  "  On  true  and  false  Ideas." 
The  contest-was  carried  on  with  great  acute- 
ness,  and  not  without  acrimonv  ;  and  termi- 
nated in  a  full  persuasion  of  complete  victory 
among  the  partisans  of  each  combatant.  Ma- 
lebranche, however,  complained  of  unfair  at- 
tempts on  the  part  of  Arnauld  to  bring  him  un- 
der popular  odium,  and  at  last  declared  to  Ar- 
nauld, that  he  was  tired  of  exhibiting  a  spec- 
tacle for  the  entertainment  of  the  public,  and 
of  filling  the  "  Journal  des  S^avans"  with 
their  reciprocal  poverties  [pauvreies  reciproqttes  ; 
Journ.  des  Sgav.  1694.].  Arnauld  still  conti- 
nued his  invectives  against  the  Jesuits,  in  a 
work  entitled  "  The  practical  Morality  of  the 
Jesuits.''  He  also  attacked  father  Simon  on 
the  subject  of  the  inspiration  vi  the  scriptures, 
and  wrote  in  defence  of  the  pr(jpricty  of  trans- 
lating the  scriptures  into  the  vulgar  tongiic. 


Notwithstanding  all  Arnauld's  zeal  in  de- 
fence of  the  catholic  faith,  his  orthodoxy  ap- 
pears to  have  lain,  to  the  last,  under  violent 
susj)icion.  In  the  year  1690,  the  supeiiors  of 
the  several  tnonastic  fraternities  at  Liege  issued 
out  a  canonical  waiTant  against  him,  of  wliich 
the  bigotry  car^  only  be  exceeded  by  the  vulga- 
rity. In  a  decree,  written  in  most  ludicrous 
Latin,  they  declare  that  [certiorati  de  conven- 
ticulis  qu£e  habentur  apud  ccrtum- Arnoldum,'] 
that  "  having  been  certified  of  conventicles 
held  at  one  Arnauld's,  a  disperser  of  suspected 
doctrine,  they  are  of  opinion,  that  "  the  vicar 
be  charitably  certified"  [vicarium  charitative 
ccrtiorandum],  that  he  would  condescend  to 
disperse  and  [)rohibit  such  meetings,  and  even 
all  conversations  with  the  said  Arnauld.  What 
were  the  suspected  doctrines  dispersed  by  the 
said  one  Arnauld  does  not  appear ;  but  it  is  very 
evident  that  these  monks  knew  little  of  the 
respect  which  was  due  to  men  of  letters,  and 
that  they  exercised  an  unjust  and  oppressive 
dominion  over  private  judgment.  Arnauld  ap- 
pears to  have  given  very  little  occasion  to  be 
suspected  of  heresy;  and  to  the  last  he  was  a 
faithful  son  of  the  church  ;  for  it  is  mentioned 
in  his  praise,  that  in  his  last  moments  he  re- 
ceived the  sacrament  from  the  hands  of  his 
priest,  though  he  had,  only  two  days  before, 
celebrated  mass.  He  died  at  Brussels  on  the 
8th  of  August,  1694.  At  his  own  request  his 
heart  was  carried  to  Port  Royal,  where  it  was 
honourably  deposited.  Arnauld  retained  the 
full  possession  of  his  faculties  to  the  last,  and 
wrote  with  as  much  strength  and  spirit  at  four- 
score, as  in  anv  part  of  his  life.  His  exterior 
form  did  not  faithfully  represent  his  character. 
His  body  was  small,  and  his  head  very  large. 
The  features  of  his  face  would  have  announced 
stupidity  rather  than  genius,  had  not  the  fire  of 
his  eyes  discovered  the  truth.  He  jjossessed  a 
vigorous  and  active  mind,  penetrating  in  en- 
quiry, ardent  in  debate,  firm  in  resolve,  and 
superior  to  the  vicissitudes  ot  fortune.  His 
learning  was  extensive  and  accurate.  He  was 
an  excellent  logician,  and  was  deeply  read  in 
theology  and  ecclesiastical  history.  He  was 
well  acquainted  with  polite  literature,  and,  in 
conversation,  a  ready  memory  furnished  him 
with  passages  from  the  Latin  and  French  poets, 
which  he  applied,  as  occasion  offered,  with 
great  facility  and  ingenuity.  His  genius  was 
original  and  inventive  ;  and  he  is  said  to  have 
taught,  in  philosoiihy,  opinions  similar  to  those 
of  Des  Cartes,  before  the  writings  of  that  phi- 
losopher appeared,  and  to  have  publicly  main- 
tained the  doctrines  of  Jansenius,  several  years 


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before  that  prelate's  book,  on  Grace  was  pub- 
lisheJ.  Ill  short,  AnvauUrs  talents  qualihed  him 
for  great  things,  and  he  was,  in  fact,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  men  of  his  time.  Yet  his 
!al)()urs  neither  brought  good  fortune  to  him- 
self, nor  much  benelit  to  the  world.  With  a 
decree  of  fame  which  attracted  the  attention 
and  admiration  of  princes,  with  connections 
liighly  respectable,  and  even  with  the  favour, 
and,  as  it  is  said,  the  confidential  correspondence 
of  the  sacred  college  of  Rome ;  afrcr  having 
been  admired  and  praised  by  Louis  XIV.  hav- 
ing enjoved  the  esteem  and  affection  of  pope 
Innocent  XI.  and  having  refused  the  offer  of  a 
cardinal's  hat,  he  was  driven,  in  Iiis  last  days, 
into  an  obscure  retreat,  without  fortune,  and 
even  without  a  domestic.  Though  a  violent 
enemy  to  protestant  heretics,  he  was  himself 
within  the  church  the  head  and  leader  of  a 
party,  which  was  treated  as  heretical.  He  suf- 
fered persecution  with  the  Jansenists  while  lie 
lived  ;  and  ever  since  his  death,  it  has  remained 
a  curious  problein.  Whether  Arnnuld  was  a 
heretic.  The  dispute  concerning  the  nature 
and  necessity  of  divine  grace,  begun  by  the  Do- 
minicans against  the  Jesuits,  and  renewed  by 
Jansenius,  bishop  of  Ypres,  in  a  famous  book 
entitled  AiigUittnus,  and  continued  by  Arnauld, 
Nicole,  Pascal,  Qiienel,  and  other  eminent  and 
learned  men,  contributed  little,  while  it  lasted, 
to  the  advancement  of  real  knowledge  or  libe- 
rality of  sentiment,  and  left  the  defenders  of  the 
supjioscd  heresy  under  the  full  influence  of  in- 
tolerant principles  and  of  a  gloomy  and  austere 
fanaticism.  'I'he  character  and  fortunes  of 
Arnauld  arc  well  expressed  in  an  epitaph  writ- 
ten bv  Boileau. 

'Ihe  writings  of  Arnauld  are  more  distin- 
guished bv  fire  and  sjiirit,  than  by  accuracy  and 
precision  :  thev  are  chietly  controversial  ;  and 
he  attacked  his  adversaries  with  a  sarcastic  free- 
dom which  often  degenerated  into  acrimonious 
severity.  In  vindication  of  this  method  of  writ- 
ing, he  puhlished  a  piece  entitled,  "  A  Disser- 
tation on  tl'.e  Method  of  Mathematicians  ;  in 
justification  of  th.ose,  who,  in  certain  disputes, 
employ  terms  commonly  thought  harsh."  I'here 
are,  however,  in  all  his  writings,  evident  marks 
of  a  strong  intellect  and  lively  fancy.  His 
numerous  works  written  in  French,  of  which 
it  would  be  difficult  to  give  acomjilete  list,  may 
be  divided  into  five  classes,  i.  Books  in  po- 
lite literature  and  jihilosophy ;  among  these 
are,  "  A  general  and  rational  Grammar,"  in- 
tended to  explain  the  universal  principles  of 
language  ;  of  which  a  new  edition,  with  notes 
by  M.  Duclos,   was  published,  in    i2mo.    in 


1756  ;  "  Elements  of  Geometry  ;"  "  Tiie  Art 
of  'I'hinking,"  a  prolix,  and  scliolastic,  but 
ingenious  work ;  "  Reflections  on  the  Elo- 
quence of  Preachers,"  printed  in  1695;  "  Ob- 
jections to  the  Meditations  of  Des  Cartes ;" 
and  "  A  Treatise  on  true  and  false  Ideas," 
printed  at  Ccdogne,  in  1683.  2.  Works  on 
the  subject  of  grace,  of  which  the  principal 
are,  "  Reflections  philosoidiical  and  theoloi^i- 
cal,"  and  translations  of  several  pieces  of  Au- 
gustine :  a  long  list  of  controversial  pieces  ou 
this  subject  may  be  seen  in  Moreri.  3.  'I'rea- 
tises  in  the  controversy  against  the  protestants ; 
"  The  Perpetuity  of  l-aitli,"  a  work  published 
under  his  name,  but  chiefly  written  by  his  friend 
Nicole,  which  attracted  more  attention,  than 
any  other  publication  in  this  controversy  ; 
"i'he  Ovei  throw  of  Christian  Molality  by  tlx 
Calvinists,"  printed  in  410.  in  1672;  "The 
Impiety  of  Calvinistic  Morality,"  printed  in 
1675;  "An  Apology  for  the  Catholics;" 
"  The  Calvinists  convicted  of  impious  Tenets 
in  Morals;"  "  The  Prince  of  Orange  a  new 
Absalom,  a  new  Herod,  a  new  Cromwell," 
published  in  1688;  a  work,  which  Louis  XIY. 
is  said  to  have  ordered  to  be  printed,  and  to 
have  circulated  through  all  the  courts  of  Eu- 
rope. 4.  Pieces  against  the  Jesuits,  among 
wliich  the  most  famous  is  "  The  practical 
Morality  of  the  Jesuits,"  in  8  volumes  :  this 
work  is  ascribed  to  Arnauld,  by  Jurieu  and 
others,  but  is  said  to  be  disowned  by  Arnauld 
himself:  it  was  probably  the  joint  production 
of  several  learned  Jansenists.  It  was  repub- 
lished at  Amsterdam  in  1742:  to  this  class 
may  be  referred  all  Arnauld's  writings  against 
relaxed  morals,  to  which  he  was  a  great  ene- 
my. 5.  ^V'ritings  ii]ion  the  holy  scriptures  : 
"  L)ifficulties  proposed  to  M.  Stcvaert ;"  "  De- 
fence of  the  newTestament  of  Mons;"  "The 
Translation  of  the  Missal  into  the  vulgar 
Tongue  authorised  by  Scripture  and  the  Fa- 
thers;" and,  in  Latin,  "  An  History  and  Har- 
mony of  the  Evangelists."  After  his  death 
were  published,  in  nine  volumes,  by  Quesnel, 
his  "  Letters"  and  several  '•  postluimous  pie- 
ces," among  which  is  the  "  ]i)isscrtation  on 
the  Method  of  Mathematicians,"  mentioned 
above. 

Arnauld  was  the  head  of  tliat  learned  body 
of  Jansenist  writers,  known  by  the  denomi- 
nation of  Messieurs  de  Port-Royal,  who  rasscd 
their  days  in  literary  pursuits,  and  pious  exer- 
cises, in  the  retreat  of  Port  P^.oyal,  a  mansion 
situated  at  the  distance  of  six  leagues  from 
Paris,  originally  a  monastery,  and  afterwards  a 
safictuary  of  letters.    Hntolii:  Aircgc  de  la  Vie 


iiiihh-icce   novAm,  aeTtefm/tnenteTna     veatcan,,.-- 
i^kHfticolxs  yrijcos  auam  tmuiffe    vatet  . 


xj.^^ 


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A  R  N 


de  M.  Arnauld.  Camte  Arnald'tnic.  Terrault. 
Hommcs  Illust.  Baylc.  Aiorer't.  Nouv.  Diet. 
Hist.    Afosheim.  —  E . 

ARNAULD,  Angelique,  sister  of  An- 
tony Arnauld,  abbess  of  the  convent  of  Port- 
Royal  in  the  Fields,  was  born  in  the  year  1591. 
Her  original  name  was  Jaqucline,  but  at  her 
consecration  to  religion,  she  took  the  name  of 
Angelique  de  la  St.  Madeluine:  She  was  ap- 
pointed abbess  at  eleven  years  of  age.  At  se- 
venteen, she  began  to  reform  her  convent,  and 
introduce  a  degree  of  rigour  which  mio,ht  seem 
to  revive  in  this  house  the  spirit  of  Benedict. 
She  converted  all  the  property  of  the  nuns  into 
a  common  stock.  Slie  established  a  recluse  life, 
perpetual  abstinence,  vigils,  labour  and  silence. 
From  this  time  the  rigorous  sanctity  of  this  con- 
vent was  liighly  celebrated  ;  and  multitudes  of 
pious  persons  of  both  sexes,  under  the  denomi- 
nation of  Janscnist-Penitents,  built  huts  without 
its  precincts,  and  practised  the  utmost  rigour  of 
fanaticism.  At  the  age  of,  twenty-seven,  this 
abbess,  who  was  esteemed  a  prodigy  of  talents 
as  well  as  pietv,  was  appointed  to  retorni  the 
convent  of  Maubuisson.  Here  she  passed  four 
or  five  years,  during  which  her  sister  Agnes 
Arnauld  had  the  charge  of  Port  Royal  convent, 
in  the  capacity  of  coadjutress.  Angelica  after- 
wards obtained  permission  from  the  king  to  re- 
move her  society  to  Paris,  and  to  make  tlie  of- 
fice of  abbess  elective,  and  triennial.  She  died 
in  her  convent  in  the  year  166 1.  Six  sisters  of 
the  family  of  Arnauld  devoted  themselves  to 
religion,  and  the  venerable  mother  of  the  Ar- 
naulds  ended  her  davs  with  them  in  this  monas- 
tery. AJoreri.  'Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  Bayle. 
Arn.  Ant.  notes  E.  F.  Alcmoires  dc  Pert- 
Royal. —  E. 

ARNAUD,  Francis,  abbe  of  Grand- 
Champ,  a  native  of  Aubignan,  has  obtained 
some  distinction  among  the  literati  of  France 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was  employed 
on  the  "  Journal  Etranger,"  iluring  the  last 
years  of  that  periodical  publication.  In  1764 
and  following  years,  he  wrote,  in  concert  with 
M.  Suerd,  the  "  Ga/.etre  Litteraire  de  I'Eu- 
rope,"  a  work  which  displayed  much  critical 
judgment  and  taste  for  the  tine  arts.  The  abbe 
Arnauld,  well  trained  in  the  school  («f  antiquity, 
wrote  with  strength  and  energy.  He  published, 
"  Varietes  Littcmircs,"  [A  Collection  of  Pieces, 
partly  original,  partlv  translated,  in  Philoso- 
phy, Literature  and  tlicArts,]in  four  volumes 
i2mo.  jninted  at  Paris  in  1770.  Noui'.  Diet. 
Hisi.—E. 

ARN'DT,  Joiix,  a  protcstant  divine,  was 
born  at  Ballenstadt,  in  tlie  duchy  of  Aniialt,  in 

VOL.  I. 


the  year  1555.  He  at  first  studied  medicine, 
but,  falling  sick,  he  made  a  vow  that  if  he  reco- 
vered he  would  devote  himself  to  divinity.  He 
recovered  and  fulfilled  his  vow.  He  was  suc- 
cessively minister  in  his  own  country,  atQuad- 
linburg  and  at  Brunswick.  In  the  latter  situa- 
tion, the  success  of  his  preaching  excited  jealou- 
sies among  his  brethren  :  he  was  accused  of 
errors,  and  to  escape  from  persecution  retired 
to  Isleben,  wh.eie  he  remained  three  years.  In 
161 1,  the  duke  of  Lunenburg  gave  him  the 
church  of  Zell,  and  appointed  him  superintend- 
ant  of  all  the  churches  in  his  duchy.  The  prin- 
cipal ground  of  coni])luint  against  Arndt  was  a 
work  written  in  German,  which  he  published  at 
Jena  in  1605  and  1608,  under  the  title  of  "True 
Christianity."  The  writer's  design  was  to 
.shew,  that  the  moral  irregularities  which  pre- 
vail among  protestants  are  to  be  ascribed  to 
their  rejecting  good  works,  and  contenting 
themselves  widi  a  barren  faith.  But  with  the 
practical  doctrine  of  the  work  were  interw  oven 
many  mystical  ideas  and  exprc.sions  boiTowcd 
from  the  writings  of  Taulerus,  Thomas  a  Kem- 
pis,  Bernard,  and  other  ascetics.  These  gave 
much  offence  to  several  of  his  brethren,  parti- 
cularly to  Osiander,  a  divine  of  Tubingen, 
who  wrote  against  the  work  in  a  treatise,  enti- 
<!ed,  "Judicium  Thcologicum."  In  this  trea- 
tise he  was  charged  with  admitting  into  theology 
the  jargon  of  Paracelsus,  Weigelius,  and  other 
mystical  chemists,  who  pretended  bv  the  power 
of  fire  to  untold  both  the  secrets  of  nature  and 
the  mysteries  of  religion.  It  is  probable  that 
this  worthy  man  placed  too  much  confidence  in 
the  obscure  opinions  of  these  adventurous  ])hi- 
losophers  ;  he  was,  howc-r,  thought  by  many 
of  his  brethren  to  bo  free  from  any  considerable 
error  ;  and  he  was  universally  allowed  to  be  a 
man  of  great  piety  and  integrit\ .  Arndt  died 
in  162  I.  His  work  has  been  frequently  repub- 
lished and  translated  into  Latin  and  into  several 
modern  languages.  Moreri.  Nouv.  Diet. 
Hist.     Mosheim.—Y.. 

ARNDT,  Joshua,  a  Gcnman divine,  was 
born  at  Gustrow  in  1687.  He  was  professor 
of  logic  at  Rostock,  and  preaclier,  and  ecclesi- 
astical counsellor  to  the  duke  of  Mecklenburg. 
He  died  in  the  year  1587,  and  left  behiud  biin 
several  works,  particularly,  "  Miscellanea  Sa- 
cra," in  8vo.  164S  ;  "Clavis  Antiquitatum  Ju- 
daicarum,"  printed  at  Lclpsic,  in  410.  1707  ; 
and  "  Trartatus  de  Superstiti.'ue."  His  "^on 
Charles,  professor  of  oriental  |'hi!osophv,  wrote 
his  life,  wliich  wa'i  printed  at  Gistrow  in  1697, 
Moreri.     Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

ARNE,  Tho.mas  Augustine,  a  crlc- 
3F 


A  R  N 


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A  R  N 


bratcJ  musical  composer,  bcni  May  28,  171c, 
was  the  son  of  Mr.  Thoma<;  Arnc,  upholsterer, 
in  Covcnt-gardeu,  the  person  at  whose  house 
the  Indian  kings  wlio  visited  this  kingdom  in 
the  reign  of  tjucen  Anne  iiad  their  lodging. 
Young  Arne  was  sent  for  education  to  Lton, 
but  a  love  for  music,  even  at  this  scat  of  classi- 
cal literatLire,  was  his  predominant  passion  ; 
and  at  his  return  home,  he  gratified  it  unknown 
to  his  father  by  putting  on  a  livery  and  going 
into  the  upper  gallery  of  the  opera-house,  then 
appropriated  to  domestics.  lie  also  contrived 
to  secrete  a  spinet  in  his  room,  on  which  lu-  used 
to  practise  in  the  night,  first  mnffling  the  strings 
witli  an  handkerchief.  His  father,  who  de- 
signed him  for  the  law,  obliged  him  to  serve  a 
three  years  clerkship;  but,  during  this  period, 
he  devoted  all  the  time  he  could  command  to 
the  study  of  inusic  ;  and,  having  jirocured  a 
violin,  he  took  some  lessons  of  Ftsting,  an  emi- 
nent performer.  Such  was  his  progress,  that 
soon  after  the  expiration  of  his  clerkship,  his 
father,  liappening  to  go  into  a  private  concert- 
room,  was  much  surprised  with  seeing  his  son 
in  the  act  of  playing  the  first  fiddle.  This  de- 
cisive proof  that  music  was  more  his  talent  than 
law,  induced  his  father  to  consent  10  his  follow- 
ing it  professionally  ;  and  young  Arne,  soon 
after  discovering  great  powers  of  voice  in  his 
sister,  gave  her  such  instructions  as  enabled  her 
to  appear  on  the  stage  as  a  singer,  w'hich  was 
preparatory  to  her  more  brilliant  career  as  an 
actress,  under  the  name  of  Mrs.  Cibber.  Arne 
himself  was  engaged  as  leader  of  the  band  at 
Drury-lane,  a  situation  he  held  for  many  years 
with  great  credit. 

His  first  public  performance  as  a  composer 
was  setting  to  music  Addison's  opera  of  "  Ro- 
samond," which  was  brought  on  the  stage  in 
March  1733.  and  met  with  great  applause  ;  and 
soon  afterwards  he  converted  Fielding's  "  Tom 
Thumb"  into  a  burlesque  opera,  which  hkewise 
was  well  received.  In  1738  he  greatly  added  to 
his  reputation  by  setting  Milton's  "Comus."  "In 
the  masque,  (says  Dr.  Burney,  Hist,  of  Music, 
vol.  iv.)  he  introduced  a  light,  airy,  original 
and  pleasing  melody,  wholly  different  from 
Purcell  and  Handel,  whom  all  English  com- 
posers had  hithei  to  pillaged  or  imitated.  Indeed, 
tlie  melody  of  Arne  at  this  time,  and  of  his 
Vauxhall  song.;  afr.erwards,  forms  an  jera  in 
English  music  ;  it  was  so  easy,  natural,  and 
agreeall','  to  the  whole  kingdom,  that  it  had  an 
efFecl  upon  our  national  taste."  Somewhat  be- 
fore this  period  he  married  Miss  Cecilia  Young, 
a  favourite  singer,  and  a  pupil  of  Geminiani. 
In  1740  he  set  Mallet's  mastpe  of  "  Alfred," 


which  was  represented  at  Clitfden,  then  the  re- 
sidence ot  Frederic  prince  of  V\'nles.  It  was  iu 
this  place  that  the  song  "  Rule  Britannia"  was 
introduced,  still  one  of  the  most  popular  of  all 
our  political  Ivrics,  and  called  for  with  enthusi- 
asm on  all  occa'^ions  which  exiitc  tin;  patiiotic 
spirit.  In  1744  Arnc  was  engaged  as  com;)0- 
ser  to  Drury-lane  theatre,  in  which  situtitioii 
he  produced  a  great  variety  of  pieces.  He  fre- 
quently rebelled  against  the  sovereignty  of  Han- 
del, but  with  as  little  effect,  according  to  Dr. 
Burney,  as  Marsyas  against  Apollo.  Yet  his 
"  Artaxcrxes, "composed  in  17  52,  met  with  very 
great  success.  In  this  performance  he  quitted 
his  former  style  of  melody,  and  crowded  the  airs 
with  all  the  Italian  divisions  and  difficulties  ; 
but  he  had  great  merit  in  first  adapting  to  our 
language  many  of  the  best  passages  of  Italy, 
which  all  Europe  admired.  His  general  melo- 
dy (from  Dr.  Burney's  representation)  appears 
to  have  been  an  agreeable  mixture  of  English, 
Italian,  and  Scots.  Many  of  his  ballads  were 
professed  imitations  of  the  Scots  stvle ;  but  in 
his  other  songs  too  he  frequently  dropped  into 
it.  The  composition  of  airs  for  popular  occa- 
sions seems  to  have  been  his  real  forte.  His 
oratorios  were  commonly  so  unfortunate,  that 
he  was  a  loser  when  they  were  represented  ; 
and  persons  of  refined  musical  taste  were  dis- 
gusted with  his  frequent  introduction  of  play- 
house and  ballad  passages  into  serious  composi- 
tions. His  musical  character  is  dius  candidly 
summed  up  by  Dr.  Burney.  "  Upon  the  whole, 
though  this  composer  had  formed  a  new  style  of 
his  own,  there  did  not  appear  that  fertility  of 
ideas,  original  grandeur  of  thought,  or  those  re- 
sources upon  all  occasions  which  are  discover- 
able in  the  works  of  his  predecessor  Purcell, 
both  for  the  church  and  the  stage  ;  yet,  in  secu- 
lar music,  heinust  be  allowed  to  have  surpassed 
him  in  ease,  grace,  and  variety ;  which  is  no  in- 
considerable praise,  when  it  is  remembered, 
that  from  the  death  of  Purcell  to  that  of  Arne, 
a  period  of  more  than  fourscore  years,  no  can- 
didate for  musical  fame  among  our  country- 
men had  appeared,  who  was  equally  admired 
by  the  nation  at  large."  Of  his  literary  talents, 
when  he  attempted  to  write  the  words  of  a  song, 
verv  little  favourable  can  be  said. 

The  degree  of  doctor  of  music  was  confeired 
on  this  composer  by  the  university  of  Oxford, 
in  lulv  1759,  on  which  occasion  he  wrote  an 
admission-ode.  Dr.  Arne  died  on  the  5th  of 
March  1778,  of  a  spasm  of  the  lungs,  at  the 
age  of  sixty-eight.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
fond  of  a  pleasurable  life,  and  to  have  dissipated 
in  revelry  most  of  his  professional  gains.  He  was 


A  R  N 


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A  R  N 


educated  in  the  Roman  catholic  religion,  but 
during  the  course  of  gaiety  and  dissipation,  he 
attended  little  to  graver  duties  of  any  kind.  To- 
wards the  approach  of  death,  however,  the  pow- 
erful influence  ot  original  principles  began  to 
be  felt.  He  earnestly  seized  the  consolations 
afforded  to  moral  defaulters  by  the  rites  of  that 
religion,  and  his  last  moments  were  cheered  by 
a  hallelujah  sung  by  himself.  Bitrney's  Hist,  of 
Music.,  vol,  iv.  Monthly  Aiagaz.  for  Oct. 
1796. — A. 

ARNGRTM,  Jonas,  an  Icelandic  clergy- 
man of  Melstadt,  and  coadjutor  of  the  bishop- 
ric of  Hola.  1"he  king  of  Denraaik  oflrred  to 
make  him  a  bishop ;  but  he  declined  that  dig- 
nity, and  desired  his  majesty  to  confer  it  upon 
any  one  who  might  be  less  t'ond  of  study.  He 
married  a  young  woman  when  at  a  very  ad- 
vanced period  of  life.  Neither  Jcichcr  nor  Ade- 
lung  mention  the  year  of  his  death.  Luiscius 
in  his  "  Algemeen  historisch  Woordenboek," 
says  he  died  m  1649.  ^'^  wrote  "  Anatome 
Blefkeniana,"  or  a  refutation  of  a  work  pub- 
lished by  Dith.Blefkenius  at  I/eyden  in  1607, 8 vo. 
under  the  title  of  "  Islandia  sive  Descriptio  po- 
pulorum  et  memorabilium  hujus  Insula."  He 
■wrote  also  "  Crymogaea  siveCommentariusde 
Islandia.  "  S[)ecimen  Islandicuni  Historicuni." 
"VitaGudbrandiiThorlacii."  "Idea verimagis- 
tratus."  "  Epistola  propatriadcfensovia,"  162  <;, 
410.  which  is  an  answer  to  "  1'ractatus  dc 
Islandia  et  Groenlandia,"  1616,  by  Dan.  Fa- 
bricius.  "  ATTorfi/Si)  Calumnia-,"  1622,  410. 
"  Schediasma  de  Uteris  Rur.icis,  et  divisionc  vo- 
calium,"  which  may  be  found  in  "  Olai  Wormii 
Littcrat.  Dan."  "  Epistola  de  diis  populorumBo- 
realium  ad  Stcph.  Job.  Stephanum,"  1632. 
"  Groenlandia,"  w  ritten  in  Latin ,  but  never  print- 
ed in  that  language.  It  first  appeared  in  Icelandic 
by  an  anonymous  translaior,  Skalb.olt,  1 688  ; 
and  afterwards  in  German,  Co])enhagen,  1732, 
together  with  a  translation  of  some  other  works 
respecting  Greenland.  Arngrim  lelt  bthirid 
him  in  manuscript,  "  Historia  Norvegica,"  and 
"  Historia  lonis-Burgensium,"  both  which 
were  preserved  in  the  king's  library  at  Paris. 
y'ochcr's  Gclchrtoi-Lexicon,  and  Addling^ s  Con- 
tinuation.—  f. 

ARNOBIUS  THE  African,  a  Christian 
divine,  who  flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century,  tauglit  rhetoric  in  the  reign  of 
Dioclesian  at  Sicca,  an  inland  town  of  Africa. 
(Hieron.  de  Vir.  111.  c.  79.)  He  was  at  this 
time  a  zealous  pagan,  and  an  avowed  enemy  to 
the  Christian  religion  ;  but  afterwards  became 
a  convert,  and  wrote  against  the  heathen  super- 
stitious.    The  time  and  circumstances  of  his 


conversion  arc  uncertain.  In  Jerom's  Chroni- 
cle, at  the  20th  year  of  Constantinc,  or  the 
year  of  Christ  326,  it  is  recorded  that  Arno- 
bius  was  admonished  in  iiis  dreams  to  embrace 
Christianity  ;  that  when  l-.c  applied  to  the  bi- 
shop of  the  place  for  bapii-.m,  he  rejected  him 
because  he  had  been  wont  to  oppose  the  Clnis- 
tian  doctrine  ;  and  that  upon  this  he  wrote  an 
excellent  work  against  his  old  religion,  and  thus 
obtained  the  seal  of  the  covenant.  But  Arno- 
bius  does  not  himself  ascribe  his  conversion  to 
dreams,  and  nothing  of  this  kind  is  elsewhere 
mentioned  by  Jerom  :  the  date  on  this  passage 
does  not  well  agree  with  Jerom's  Catalogue,  in 
which  Arnobius  is  said  to  haveflourisiied  in  the 
time  of  Dioclesian,  or  with  Amobius's  own  ac- 
counts, (Arnob.  lib.  i.  p.  ed.  Lugd.  Bat.  1659.) 
that  he  wrote  three  hundred  years,  a  litrie  more 
or  less,  after  the  rise  of  Christianity,  and  not 
much  less  than  a  thousand  and  fifty  years  after 
the  building  of  Rome,  that  is,  according  to  the 
common  computation  of  that  epoch,  in  the  year 
297  or  298 :  it  is  improbable  that  Arnobius,  if  he 
wrote  his  work  as  the  preceding  passage  inti- 
mates, while  he  was  a  catechumen,  would  speak 
of  himself  as  a  Christian,  as  he  frequently  does  ; 
nor  is  it  less  improbable  that  a  mere  catechumen 
would  undertake  tb.e  defence  of  the  religion  of 
w  hich  he  w  as  learning  the  rudiments.  For  these 
reasons  it  may  be  questioi.ed  whether  the  pas- 
sage in  Jerom's  Chronicle  be  genuine,  and  con- 
sequently whether  there  be  any  truth  in  the 
story  of  Arnobius's  being  indebted  to  dreams 
for  his  conversion.  It  is  more  probable  that  he 
was  converted,  in  the  time  of  Dioclesian,  as 
Cave  conjectures,  bv  observing  the  fortitude 
with  which  the  Christians  at  that  time  endured 
persecution. 

Arnobius  wrote  his  defence  of  the  Christian 
religion,  entitled,  "  Adversus  Gentes,"  [Against 
the  Gentiles]  during  a  time  of  persecution,  for 
he  frequently  speaks  of  their  sufferings  as  then 
endured.  The  work  is  written  with  some  dc- 
grce  of  harshness  and  obscurity,  biit  is  r.ot  desti- 
tute of  energy.  It  abounds  with  quotations 
from  Greek  and  Roman  authors,  but  has  no  re- 
ferences to  Chi  istian  writers.  Its  method  is  not 
clearly  pointed  out,  but  may  bcdiscoveicd  bv  an 
attentive  reader.  Tiic  evidences  for  the  divine 
autliority  of  the  Christian  religion  are  forcilily 
represented;  and  the  absurdities  and  follies  of 
paganism  eloquently  exposed  ;  but  the  writer 
mingles  with  his  account  oi  Christian  doctrines 
several  ojiinions,  whicli  belong  rather  to  the 
pagan  than  the  Christian  school.  With  the 
Plalonists,  lie  imputes  the  disorders  of  nature  to 
the  iihperfcction  of  matter:  he  rests  ilie  belief 


A  R  N 


(    404     ) 


A  R  N 


of  the  existence  of  God  on  an  innate  principle : 
the  soul  of  man  he  suppi)St  s  to  be  material  and 
naturally  mortal,  and  to  become  immortal  by 
the  Grace  of  God.  He  depreciates  human  rea- 
son, and  maintains  the  uncertainty  of  all  human 
knowledge.  With  all  its  defects,  the  work  is, 
however,  valuable,  and  will  repay  the  trouble 
of  an  attentive  perusal. 

Arnobiiis  had  among  his  scholars  the  learned 
Lactantius.  The  time  when  this  Christian 
apologist  died  is  uncertain.  The  treatise  "  Ad- 
versus  Gentes,"  was  first  printed  at  Rome,  in 
folio,  in  the  year  1542  ;  afterwards  at  Basil  in 
1546  and  1560 ;  at  Paris  in  1580 ;  at  Ant- 
werp, with  the  notes  of  Canter,  in  8vo.  1582  ; 
at  Cologn  1604;  at  Leyden,  in  410.  with  va- 
rious notes,  in  1651  ;  and,  at  the  end  of  Cy- 
prian's works,  at  Paris,  in  1666.  Hicron.  de 
Vir.  III.  et  Chron.  et  Ep.  ad  Pauliii.  Cav.  Hist. 
Lit.  Cav/s  Life  of  Jrn.  Dupin.  Fabric. 
Bibl.  Lat.  lib.  iv.  c.  3.  Lardner's  Cred.  pt.  ii. 
c.  64. — E. 

ARNOBIUS  or  Gaul,  a  Christian  divine, 
flourished  about  the  year  460.  He  is  the 
author  of  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Psalms  of 
David,"  dedicated  to  Laurentius,  or  Lcontius, 
bishop  of  Aries,  and  Rusticus  bishop  of  Nar- 
bonne.  He  took  part  with  the  Pelagians  in 
the  disputes  on  predestination  against  the  fol- 
lowers of  Augustine.  The  work  was  printed 
at  Basil  in  1522  ;  by  Erasmus,  at  Cologne,  in 
8vo.  1532  ;  and  by  Laurentius  de  la  Barre,  at 
Paris,  1639.  Cav.  Hist.  Lit.  Dupin.  Mo- 
reri. — E. 

ARNOLD,  an  Italian  monk,  a  native  of 
Brescia,  flourished  in  the  twelfth  century,  and 
distinguished  himself  as  a  bold  reformer.  In 
his  youth  he  went  into  France,  and  became  a 
pupil  of  Abelard.  Under  him,  while  he  ac- 
quired much  learning,  he  probably  imbibed  no- 
tions concerning  the  Trinity  and  the  sacraments 
repugnant  to  the  orthodox  creed.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Italy  he  assumed  the  monastic  habit, 
and  preached  heretical  doctrines.  His  principal 
heresy,  however,  was  not  theological  but  poli- 
tical. Having  observed  the  animosities  and  ca- 
lamities which  had  arisen  in  society  from  the 
overgrown  opulence  of  the  clergy,  he  formed 
an  opinion,  that  the  happiness  of  mankind  and 
the  interests  of  religion  required  that  they 
should  be  divested  of  their  temporal  rights  and 
worldly  possessions.  Upon  the  ground  of 
Christ's  declaration,  that  his  kingdom  was  not 
of  this  world,  Arnold  openly  maintained,  that 
the  treasures  and  revenues  of  popes,  bishops, 
and  monasteries  ought  to  be  solemnly  resigned, 
aad  transferred  to  the  civil  magistrate  for  the 


public  benefit,  and  that  the  clergy  ought  to  con- 
tent themselves  with  their  spiritual  authority, 
and  such  decent  subsistence  as  they  might  derive 
from  voluntary  tithes  and  oblations.  In  brief, 
he  taught,  that  the  dignitaries  of  the  church 
must  cuher  renounce  their  state  or  their  salva- 
tion. The  doctrine,  as  may  be  easily  con- 
ceived, was  popular  among  the  laity :  the 
preacher  was  honoured  as  a  patriot,  and  the 
diocese  of  Brescia  revolted  against  the  bishop. 
This  attack  upon  the  temporal  emoluments  of 
the  clergy  was  the  more  formidable,  as  it  was 
made  by  a  man  of  talents  and  erudition,  and  of 
irreproachable  character.  So  dangerous  an 
heresy  was  not  to  be  endured.  In  a  general 
council  of  the  Lateran,  held  by  pope  Innocent 
II.  in  the  year  1 139,  the  doctrine  and  its  author 
were  condemned.  The  civil  magistrate,  com- 
monly at  this  time  obedient  to  the  authority  of 
the  church,  executed  her  sentence,  and  Arnold 
was  obliged  to  fly  from  Italy.  He  escaped  be- 
yond the  Alps,  and  found  an  hospitable  asylum 
at  Zurich  in  Swisserland.  Here,  at  a  period 
when  few  men  thought  of  ecclesiastical  or  civil 
reformation,  these  honest  citizens  received  his 
doctrine  with  applause  ;  and  even  the  bishop  of 
Constance  and  the  pope's  legate  himself  were 
disposed  to  listen  to  this  reformer,  and  might 
have  adopted  his  self-denying  doctrine,  had  not 
the  epistles  of  Bernard  stimulated  their  dying 
zeal. 

Persecuted  in  Switzerland,  Arnold,  after  the 
death  of  Innocent  II.  in  1141,  doubtless  encou- 
raged by  secret  friends,  ventured  to  return  to  Italy, 
and  even  to  set  up  the  standard  of  ecclesiastical 
reform,  and  of  civil  freedom  in  Rome.  In  the 
face  of  the  pontiff  he  declaimed,  in  a  strain  of 
bold  invective,  against  clerical  ambition  and 
avarice  :  he  called  upon  the  people  of  Rome  to 
compare  the  present  degenerate  state  of  the 
church  with  its  primitive  purity  and  simplicity, 
and  to  recollect  the  days  of  ancient  Roman  li- 
berty :  he  exhorted  them  "  to  assert  the  inalien- 
able rights  of  men  and  Christians  ;  to  restore 
the  laws  and  magistrates  of  the  republic;  to  re- 
spect the  name  of  the  emperor;  but  to  confine 
their  pastor  to  the  spiritual  care  of  his  flock." 
His  bold  harangues  produced  a  general  ferment. 
The  inferior  clergy  threw  oiF  the  despotic  yoke 
of  the  cardinals,  and  the  mob  pillaged  their  pa- 
laces. The  people  new  modelled  the  civil  go- 
vernment of  the  city  ;  the  dignity  of  prefect  was 
abolished ;  and  Arnold,  in  fact,  possessed  the 
chief  power  in  Rome  during  ten  years,  while 
the  pojies  "  either  trembled  in  the  Vatican,  or 
wandered  as  exiles  in  the  adjacent  cities."  On 
the  accession  of  Adrian  IV.  the  city  was  laid 


A  R  N 


(    405    ) 


A  R  N 


nnder  an  interdict,  in  punishment  for  the  insult 
oiFercd  to  the  church  in  the  person  of  a  cardi- 
nal, who  had  been  killed  or  wounded  in  the 
street.  The  banishment  of"  tlie  seditious  preach- 
er was  made  the  indispensable  condition  of  ab- 
solution ;  and  Arnold  and  his  followers  were 
driven  from  Rome.  Thev  fled  to  Otricoli  in 
Tuscany,  where  they  met  with  protection  and 
favour,  the  people  regarding  Arnold  as  a  perse- 
cuted prophet.  The  viscounts  of  Campania 
afforded  him  countenance  and  patronage,  and 
he  remained  in  quiet,  till  the  coronation  of  Fre- 
deric Barbarossa  afforded  the  pope  an  opportu- 
nity of  completing  his  revenge.  In  an  inter- 
view, previous  to  that  ceremony,  pope  Adrian 
represented  to  the  emperor  the  restless  spirit 
■which  Arnold  had  excited  in  Rome,  and  the 
tendency  of  his  heresy  to  destroy  all  civil  as 
W'ell  as  ecclesiastical  subordination.  Frederic 
thought  it  expedient  to  gratify  the  pope ;  and 
the  life  of  the  troublesome  reformer  was  sacri- 
ficed. Though  every  effort  was  made  by  the 
viscounts  of  Campania  for  his  preservation,  he 
was  apprehended  by  cardinal  Gerard  and  brought 
to  Rome :  the  prefect  of  the  city  pronounced 
upon  liim  the  sentence  of  death ;  and  he  was 
suffered  to  be  burnt  alive  in  the  presence  of  the 
citizens,  whose  liberty  he  had  in  vain  endea- 
voured to  restore.  His  ashes  were  thrown  into 
the  Tiber,  lest  the  people  should  worship  them 
as  a  sacred  relic.  This  memorable  event  hap- 
pened in  the  year  1 155. 

The  spirit  of  Arnold  of  Brescia  was  impe- 
tuous, and  his  proceedings  were  violent ;  vet  it 
must  beownedjthat  he  lived  in  an  age  which  pro- 
voked reform  ;  and,  however  heretical  his  doc- 
trine may  have  appeared  in  an  ecclesiastical  sy- 
nod, it  may  still  be  true,  that  it  is  neither  for  the 
credit  of  religion,  nor  for  tlie  benefit  of  society, 
that  the  clergy  should  possess  large  independent 
emoluments.  Gibbon  has  said,  that  with  the 
ashes  of  Arnold  of  Brescia  his  sect  was  dis- 
persed ;  IVIoshcim  contradicts  this,  and  asserts 
that  "  he  drew  after  him  a  great  number  of 
disciples,  who,  in  succeeding  times,  discovered 
the  spirit  and  intrepidity  of  their  leader,  as  often 
as  any  favourable  opportunities  of  reforming 
the  church  were  offered  to  their  zeal."  For 
our  part  we  incline  to  the  latter  opinion:  re- 
cent events  render  it  highly  prcbable,  that  even 
to  this  day  the  sect  of  the  jlrnoldists  is  not  ex- 
tinct. Muratori  Script.  Rer.  Ital.  torn.  iii.  p. 
441.  Dupin.  Gibbon,  c.  69.  Mosheim,  cent, 
xii. — E. 

ARNOLD,  Nicholas,  professor  of  divi- 
nity at  Franekcr,  was  born  at  Lcsna  in  Po- 
land in  1618.     After  havir.g  studied  in  several 


universities,  he  was,  in  1639,  appointed  rector 
of  the  school  of  Jablonow.  In  1644  he  visited 
England,  in  hopes  of  attending  lectures  at  Ox- 
ford or  Cambridge,  but  was  disappointed  through 
the  disturbances  of  the  civil  war.  In  1652,  he 
was  chosen  professor  of  divinity  at  Franeker  in 
Friseland,  and  reputably  01  cupicd  this  post  till 
his  death,  which  happened  in  1680.  He  is 
known  as  the  author  of  several  tracts  against  the 
Socinlans,  particularly  "  A  Refutation  of  the 
Catechism  of  the  Socinians  ;"  "  A  Commen- 
tary on  tlie  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  ;"  and  "  Lux 
in  Tcncbris,"  printed  in  8vo.  at  Leipsic  in 
1698,  containing  an  explanation  of  passages  of 
Scripture  brought  by  the  Socinians  in  support 
of  their  system.  Bayle.  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. 
— E. 

ARNOLD,  Geoffry,  a  German  divine 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  a  writer  of  celebrity 
in  ecclesiastical  history,  was  professor  of  histo- 
ry at  Giessen.  Disapproving  of  the  forms  of 
admission  required  in  the  German  universities, 
he  resigned  his  charge,  and  went  to  Alstedf, 
where  he  became  chaplain  to  the  duchess  dowa- 
ger of  Eisenach.  He  afterwards  was  minister 
of  Parleberg  in  Bramlenburg,  where  he  died  in 
1 7  14.  He  was  regarded  as  the  patriarch  of  the 
sect  of  the  Pietists,  a  German  sect  of  mystics. 
He  wrote  in  German,  besides  many  other 
works,  "  A  History  of  the  Church  and  of  He- 
resies," printed  in  Svo.  at  Leipsic  in  1700, 
which  brought  upon  him  the  reproach  of  being 
the  defender  of  heretics  ;  and,  in  Latin,  "  The 
History  of  Mvstic  Theology."  Morni.  Nouv. 
Diet.  Hist.-^E.  , 

ARNOLD  OF  HiLDESHEiAt,  an  historian 
of  the  thirteei'.th  century,  flourished  under  the 
emperors  Philip  and  Otho  W.  He  wrote  a 
"  Continuation  of  the  Chronicle  of  the  Sclavo- 
nians  by  Helmeldus,"  with  which  he  connects 
the  affairs  of  other  countries  :  the  work  is 
chiefly  valuable  with  respect  to  the  affairs  of 
Sdavonia.  It  was  published  at  Lubeck  in 
1659  •  ''"*'  afterwards  by  Meibomius  in  the 
"  Opuscula  Historica,"  printed  at  Helmstadt  in 
1660.     Dupin. — E. 

ARNOLUUSDE  VILLANOVA,  a  ce- 
lebrated physician  and  philosopher  of  the  lattvr 
part  of  the  thirteenih  and  i)eginning  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  took  his  name  from  Villeneiivo, 
the  place  of  his  birth,  but  whether  in  Langue- 
doc,  Provence,  or  Catalonia,  is  not  known. 
His  family  name  is  said  to  have  been  Bacliiioite. 
After  studving  at  Paris  and  Montpelier,  and 
perfecting  himself  in  the  Greek,  Hebrew,  an4 
Arabic  tonguts.he  travelled  into  Italy  and  Spain, 
and  tiually  settled  at  Paris,  where  he  practised 


A  R  N 


(    406    ) 


A  R  N 


as  a  physician,  ami  taught  akhemv  and  astrolo- 
gv.     He  wasconieinpoiary  with  Peter  dc  Apo- 
110  and  Ravinund  Lullv,  and  seems  to  liavc  iin- 
bihed  the  same   thirst   tor  science  with  them, 
mixed  with  the  fanciful  doctrines  and  extrava- 
gant pretensions  which  in  tliose  dark  ages  usu- 
ally accompanied  it.     He  wrote  a  great  variety 
of  works  on  medical  and  clieniical  topics,  in 
which  he  united  the  Galenical  theories  with  the 
Rosycrucian  mysteries.    Such  a  man  was  likely 
cnougii  to  fall  under  the  imputation  of  magical 
arts  ;  and  he  aggravated  the  suspicions  against 
liim,  by  the  freedom  of  discussion  with  which 
he  entered  into  theological  topics.   In  his  books 
on  the  humanity  and  suffering  of  Christ,  on  the 
end  ot  the  world,  &cc.  iie  published  various  le- 
vcrics,  the  offspring  of  a  heated  imagination,  to- 
gether with  several  tenets  which  a  modern   le- 
former  would  by  no  means  disown.     He  par- 
ticularly called  in   question   the  efficacy  of  the 
sacrifice  of  the  mass,  and  preferred  to  it  works 
of  mercy  and  the  religion  of  the  heart.  His  he- 
resies were  condemned  by  a  board  of  inquisitors 
of  the  faith,  held  at  Tarascon,  and  by  the  uni- 
versity of  Paris;  and  his   person  would  have 
been  in  danger,  had  he  not  made  a  timely  retreat 
to  I'rederic  of  Arragon  king  of  Sicily,  who  en- 
tertained him  with  great  respect  and  kindness. 
Some  time  afterwards  he  was  sent  by  that  prince 
to  inidertake  the  cure  of  pope  Clement  V.  at 
Avignon,  a  proof  of  his  great  medical  reputa- 
tion, since  that  pontiff  was  his  persecutor  as  a 
theologian.    In  the  way  he  died  at  sea,  and  was 
buried  at  Genoa  in   1310  or  1313.     Various 
accusations  have  been  brought  against  the  me- 
mory  of   this    extraordinary    jieison ;    amonf 
others,  that  he  was  author  of  the  famous  book 
(which  pcrliaps  never  existed),   "  De   Tribus 
Impostoribus."     But  his  character  as  a  heretic 
will  account  for  any  slanders  against  him.     It 
is  probable  enough  that  he  really  availed  him- 
scU  ot  his  astrological  and  akiicmistical  preten- 
sions to  delude  the  ignorant  in  his  medical  capa- 
city.    His  works,  in  two  vols.  fol.  have  been 
published  at  Lyons  in   1520  ;  and  at  Basil  in 
1585;  as  well  as  many  of  them  separate  or  in 
collections.     They  are  written  in  a  very  barba- 
rous style,  and  contain  a  vast  farrago  of  Arabic 
and  Galenical  practice,  with  little  or  nothing  of 
his  own.     His  chief  merit  seems  to  have  been  as 
an  introducer  of  chemical    remedies.      Fand,:r 
L'mdcn,    Script.    Med.      Frc'ind,    Hist.    Phys. 
Hallo;  Blhl.  Med.  Pract.     Moreri. — A. 

ARNUI.PH,  or  Arnoul,  natural  son  of 
Carloman  king  of  Bavaria,  who  was  the  grand- 
.son  of  Charlemagne,  was  called  to  the  empire  of 
Germany  in  887  or  888  on  the  deposition  of 


Cliarles  the  Fat.  After  repressing  the  Stlavo- 
nians  who  were  settled  in  Moravia,  and  the 
Normans  who  ravaged  Lorraine,  he  marched 
into  Italy,  where  the  princes  refused  to  recog- 
nize him  as  emperor,  and  where  Guy  duke  of 
Spoletto  was  declared  his  competitor.  He  took 
Bergamo  and  proceeded  to  Rome,  which  he  re- 
duced partly  by  force,  partly  by  composition  ; 
and  was  crowned  in  896  by  pope  Formosus. 
He  then  laid  siege  to  Spoletto,  which  was  de- 
fended by  Agiltrude,  the  duchess,  a  w^oman  of 
masculine  spirit.  Here  it  is  said  that  one  of  his 
doinestics,  bribed  by  Agiltrude,  administered  to 
him  a  slow  poison,  whicli  laid  him  asleep  for 
three  days,  and  afterwards  threw  him  into  a 
lingering  disease.  Wliat  is  certain  is,  that  he 
laised  the  siege  of  Spoletto,  and  returned  into 
Germany,  where  he  died  in  899.  By  his  wife 
Otta,  or  Oda,  who  was  accused  of  unchastity, 
he  had  Lewis  IV.  surnamed  the  infant,  who 
succeeded  him.  To  his  natural  son,  Zuintibold, 
he  gave  the  kingdom  of  Lorraine.  Umvcrs. 
Hist.     Moreri.     Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — A. 

ARNULPH,  or  Ep.nulph,  bishop  of 
Rochester,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  L  was  bom 
at  Beau\iais,  in  France,  about  the  year  1040, 
and  was  in  his  early  days  a  monk  of  St.  Lu- 
cian  de  Beauvais.  At  the  solicitation  of  Lan- 
franc,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  under  whom 
he  had  studied  in  the  abbey  of  Bcc,  he  came 
over  into  England,  and  was  successively  prior 
of  the  monastery  of  Canterbury,  abbot  of  Pe- 
terborough, and  bisliop  of  Rochester.  He 
was  deeply  tinctured  v^'ith  the  superstition  of 
the  age.  On  the  day  of  his  election  to  the  sec 
of  Rochester,  he  told  the  monks,  (Monachus 
RotFcns  de  Vit.  Gundulf,  pars.  iii.  en  fin) 
that  a  few  days  before,  in  his  sleep,  Gun- 
dulphus,  (the  last  bishop  of  Rochester  but  one) 
had  appeared  to  him  in  his  sleep,  offering  him 
a  ring  of  great  weight,  which,  being  too 
heavy  for  him,  he  refused  to  accept  ;  but  that 
Gundulphus  obliged  him  to  take  it,  and  dis- 
appeared. The  monks,  as  superstitious  as 
himself,  \vere  convinced  that  this  was  no  fan- 
tastic illusion,  for  this  prelate  received,  at  his 
consecration,  the  very  ring,  which  hishoj) 
Gunduiphus  had  given  to  Ralph,  then  an  ab- 
bot, afterwards  the  predecessor  of  Arnulpii, 
in  the  see  of  Rochester.  This  bisliop  wrote  an 
history  of  the  church  of  Rochester,  known 
by  the  name  of  "  Textus  Roffenfis,"  pre- 
served in  the  archives  of  the  cathedral,  from 
which  Mr.  Warton,  in  his  "  Anglia  Sacra," 
has  published  an  extract.  There  are  extant, 
besides,  "  An  Epistle  of  Arnulph  on  Inces- 
tuous Marriages,"  and  "  An  Epistle  contain- 


"^ijues  0£)auiusJ-eos 


Jioman-' pi^forfeeu 


A  R  O 


(    407     ) 


A  R  P 


iiig  some  Answers  to  divers  Qiiestions  of  Lnm- 
bcrt,  abl'Ot  of  Munster,  csijccially,  concern- 
ing the  body  and  blood  of  our  Lord."  The 
following  specimen  of  these  questions  and 
answers  iTi;iy  serve  to  shew  how  idly  the  eccle- 
siastics at  tiiis  period  occupied  their  leisure. 
Qh',-jt!on,  "  Why  is  a  third  part  of  the  lio>.t 
put  into  the  ch^.Wne  V  ^nszucr,  "  BccaMS^- the 
body  oi'  Jesus  Christ,  whicii  is  ofFcied  upon 
the  ahar,  is  the  sacrament  or  figure  of  tiic 
mystical  body  of  Chi  i?t,  which  is  composed  of 
three  oidcrs, — .superiors,  virgins,  and  married 
persons  ;  or  because  it  represents  the  mystery 
of  the  Trinity,  or  the  three  estates  of  our  sa- 
viour, his  morality,  death,  and  resurrection." 
Arnulph  died  in  March  1124,  aged  84.  ff^. 
JUalms.  dc  gcst.  Pont.  ap.  Stript.  post  Bedam. 
Godwin  dc  Frasul.      Bio^r.   Brit.- — -E. 

ARNULPHUS,  an  Egyptian  by  birth,  and 
a  magician  by  profession,  deceived  the  Ro- 
man peojile  by  pretended  miracles  and  enchant- 
ments, in  the  reign  of  Aiarcus  Antoninus. 
Dion,  the  historian,  writes,  that,  in  174,  by 
invoking  Mercury  and  odier  gods  of  the  air, 
lie  obtained  a  sliower  which  gave  the  Roman 
army  the  victory  in  an  engagement  with  the 
Germans.  Xephilon,  his  abridger,  ascribes 
the  same  events  to  the  prayers  of  a  Christian 
legion,  called  from  this  circumstance,  "  The 
'J'hundering  Legion.  Dion.  lib.  95.  Fiifib. 
Hist.  Ec.  lib.  V.  c.  5.    Xephilon.  Morcri.  —  E. 

ARNU,  Nicholas,  a  dominican  monk, 
■was  born  at  Merancourt,  near  Verdun,  in 
Lorrain,  in  the  year  1629.  He  taught  theology  at 
larragona  and  Perpignan.  About  the  year 
1675.  he  was  called  to  Rome,  and  appointed 
regent  of  the  college  of  St.  Thomas  ;  and  in 
1079,  ^•'^  removed  to  the  chair  of  metapliv- 
sics,  at  Padua,  where  he  died  in  1692.  He 
wrote  "  Clypcus  PhilosonlnE  Thomisticx", 
[The  Shield  of  the  Thomistic  Philosophy] 
printed  in  eiglit  volumes  bvo.  at  Padua,  in  16S6, 
and  "  a  Commentary  on  the  Summary  of  St. 
Thomas,"  the  angelic  doctor,  whose  sub- 
tleties were  again  subtilised  by  his  commenta- 
tor. This  work  was  publisiicd  in  four  volumes 
i2mo.  at  Rome,  in  1679,  and  Lyons,  in  ibB6. 
A  third  work  was  written  by  this  monk,  en- 
titled, "  The  League,"  which  appeared  at 
Padua,  ill  1684 :  it  was  a  defence  of  the 
league  between  the  emperor  of  Germany  and 
the  king  of  Poland,  for  the  destruc  tion  of  the 
Turkish  empire,  and  encouraged  the  project, 
by  bringing  together  many  pro|>hecies,  ancient 
and  modern,  in  its  support.  Alorcrl.  Nowj. 
Diet.   Hist. — E. 

ARON,  Peter,  a   voluminous  writer  on 


music,  in  the  i6th  century,  was  a  native  of 
Florence,  of  the  order  of  Jerusalem,  and  a 
canon  of  Rimini.  From  a  dedication  to  one 
of  his  works,  it  appears,  that  the  author  was 
adniitted  into  the  pajial  chapel  at  Rome,  in  the  ■ 
])ontificate  of  Leo.  X.  and  that  he  studied  mu- 
sic as  a  profession,  under  the  patronage  of  that 
munificent  encourager  of  the  arts.  His  fiist 
work  was  a  small  tract  in  thiee  books,  entitled 
"  J3e  Institutione  Harmonica",  1516,  written 
by  him  oiiginally  in  Italian,  and  translated  in- 
to Latin  by  his  friend  Joh.  Ant.  I'laminius.  His 
second,  and  most  considerable  work,  entitled 
"  Toscannello  dclia  Musita",  was  printed 
first  at  Venici.-,  in  1523,  and  a  third  edition 
with  additions,  in  1539-  J  his  is  divided  into 
two  books  ;  the  first,  containing  a  ])anegyric 
on  music,  an  account  of  its  inventois,  defini- 
tions of  terms,  and  explanations  of  characters, 
&c.  ;  the  second,  an  impartial  account  of  the 
genera  of  the  ancients  ;  a  decalogue,  or  ten 
precepts  concerning  counterpoint,  an  expla- 
nation of  proportions,  arithmetical,  geometri- 
cal, and  harmonical,  and  directions  lor  divid- 
ing tlic  monocliord,  according  to  the  princi- 
ples of  Guido  Arctino.  There  is  little  new  in 
this  woi  k,  but  it  was  valuable  at  the  time,  as 
one  of  the  first  on  that  subject,  written  in  the 
lariguage  of  the  country.  His  third  book, 
publisl  ed  at  Venice  in  \<^2^-,  is  "ATreatise 
upon  the  Tones  (or  Keys)  of  Canto  fig;irato." 
The  fourth  work  of  this  author,  in  tlie  title-page 
of  \\  hich  he  is  termed,  "  an  excellent  and  con- 
summate musician,"  is  called  "  Lucidario  in 
Musicadi  akuneOppenioniantichee modernc," 
Venice,  1545,  [An  Elucidation  of  certain  an- 
cient and  modern  Opinions  in  Music].  This 
piece  contains  discussions  of  many  doubts,  ques- 
tions, and  diiliculties  never  solved  before.  A 
kind  of  sii))j)lement  to  tliis,  without  a  da:e,  is  a 
small  work  entitled,  "  Compendiolo  di  molti 
Dubbi  Segreti  et  Sentenzc  interne  il  Canto  fer- 
mo  e  figurato,"  [A  brief  Account  of  many  du- 
bious Secrets  and  Opinions  concerning  the 
Canto-fermo  and  figurato.  Burney's  Hnl.  of 
Music,   vol.  iii.      Hawkins,  \o\.\\. — A. 

ARPIN'AS,  JosEHii-C.ES.\R  d',  usually 
called  Josepiii,  an  eminent  painter,  was  bora 
in  1560  at  the  castle  oi  Arpinas  in  the  kingdom 
of  Naples.  His  father  was  an  artist,  reduced 
by  poverty  to  paint  cx-votos.  He  gave  his  son 
some  instructions  in  drawing,  and  sent  him  to 
Rome  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  For  want  of  other 
emplovment,  young  Joseph  put  himself  to  w;iit 
upon  the  jiaintcrs  who  were  at  work  in  the  ^'a- 
tican  ;  and  at  leisure  hours  he  sketched  figures 
on  the  pilasters,  whicli  surprised  the  other  ar- 


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A  R  R 


tists.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  was  so  struck  witli 
them  that  he  gave  him  money  to  pursue  his 
studies.  He  was  placed  under  the  care  of  the 
cavalier  Poinerani,  who  first  employed  him  in 
the  ornaments  of  the  Vatican,  and  afterwards 
raised  him  to  lii  tory  painting.  His  reputation 
incieastd,  and  several  popes  patronised  him.  He 
painted  in  a  capricious  style,  but  liis  hold  and  free 
manner  was  generally  admired.  After  an  ab- 
sence for  some  time  at  Naples,  where  he  painted 
the  cupola  of  the  Chartreux,  he  returned  to 
Rome,  and  in  1596  began  to  paint  the  great  hall 
of  the  capitol  in  fresco.  Cletnent  VIII.  was 
his  great  protector,  and  admitted  him  to  imnsual 
familiarity.  He  made  him  a  knight  of  tlic  or- 
der of  Christ,  and  took  him  as  a  companion 
when  he  went  to  receive  possession  of  the  du- 
cliy  of  Ferrara.  In  1600  Josepin  took  a  jour- 
ney to  France  with  cardinal  Aldobrandiiii, 
where  he  was  created  knight  of  the  order  of  St. 
Michael  by  Hcnrv  IV.  Notwithstanding  the 
honours  he  received  from  princes  and  men  of 
lank,  he  was  discontented  with  his  condition, 
and  seemed  to  think  every  distinction  uneipial  to 
his  merit.  He  quarrelled  with  Caravaggio,  his 
rival  in  reputation,  but  refused  to  fight  that 
painter,  because  he  was  not  a  knight  as  well  as 
himself.  His  later  labours  were  inferior  to  his 
earlier  ones,  as  appears  by  his  concluding  piece 
in  the  capitol,  finished  forty  years  after  his  first. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  eighty,  and  leftiiis  family 
Binplv  provided  for.  Josepin  had  a  greater  re- 
pntation  in  his  life-time  than  since  his  death. 
His  stiff  and  forced  attitudes,  manner  remote 
from  nature,  and  cold  and  languid  colouring, 
have  almost  effaced  his  name  from  the  list  of 
great  artists  ;  and  though  his  school  was  much 
frequented,  he  seems  to  have  lett  no  distinguish- 
ed disciples.  His  principal  works  are  at  Rome 
and  Naples.  Several  of  them  iiave  been  engraved. 
D'Jrgetivil.'e  Vies  ciis  Peintres.—A. 

ARRTA,  a  Roman  lady  celebrated  for  he- 
roic courage  and  conjugal  affection,  was  the 
wife  of  Caecina  Pastus,  a  man  of  consular  dig- 
nity. Pliny  the  younger  has  delivered  to  pos- 
terity several  anecdotes  concerning  her,  which 
arc  highly  wortiiy  cf  preservation.  Her  hus- 
band and  son  were  at  the  same  time  attacked 
with  a  very  dangerous  illness.  Her  son,  a  youth 
of  the  greatest  hopes,  died.  Arria  concealed  his 
death  from  the  sick  father;  and  whenever  she 
entered  his  chamber,  put  on  chearful  looks,  and 
answered  his  enquiries  w  ith  apparent  pleasure, 
■while  her  heart  was  torn  with  grief.  Pretus, 
afterwards  joining  Scviboniaiuis  in  a  rebellion 
against  the  emperor  Claudius,  was  taken  and 
carried  prisoner  to  Rome  by  sea.     Arria,  not 


being  able  to  persuade  the  soldiers  to  suffer  her 
to  attend  upon  her  husband  in  the  same  ship, 
hired  a  fishing-boat  and  followed  hiin.  Arrived  at 
Rome,  she  declared  her  intention  of  dying  with 
her  husband;  and  when  her  son-in-law,  Thra- 
sea,  temonstrating  with  her,  asked  her,  "  Would 
you  then  choose  that  your  daughter  should  ac- 
companv  me  were  I  to  die?"  "  Yes,  (said  she) 
provided  she  had  lived  so  long  and  so  happily 
with  you  as  I  with  Psetus."  Perceiving  that 
her  family  watched  her  lest  she  should  put  her 
design  into  execution,  "  You  may  make  me 
die  more  painfully,  (she  cried)  but  you  cannot 
prevent  me  from  dying ;"  and  with  these 
words,  she  sprung  up  suddenly,  and  dashing  her 
head  against  the  opposite  wall  of  the  cliambcr, 
fell  senseles.  On  her  recovery  she  calmly  said, 
"  I  told  vou  I  would  find  a  difficult  road  to 
death  if  you  excluded  me  from  an  easy  one." 
When  her  husband  had  received  the  command 
for  putting  himself  to  death,  Arria  seeing  him 
hesitate,  took  a  dagger,  and  plunging  it  into  her 
breast,  drew  it  forth  all  bloody  and  presented  it 
to  her  husband,  with  these  words  celebrated  by 
all  antiquity,  "  Paetus,  it  is  not  painful !"  Mar- 
tial has  made  this  scene  the  subject  of  a  noted 
epigram,  but  he  has  given  an  ingenious  turn  to 
the  speech  which  injures  its  noble  simplicity. 
Pllnil  Secund.  Epist.   Tacit.  Annal. — A. 

ARRIAGA,  RoDERic  de,  a  Spanish  Je- 
suit, was  born  at  Lucrona  in  the  year  1592. 
He  taught  philosophy  at  \^alladolid,  and  theo- 
logy at  Salamanca.  By  the  appointment  of  the 
general  of  his  order  he  went  into  Bohemia  in 
1624  to  teach  these  sciences  at  Prague.  The 
provinces  of  Bohemia  deputed  him  three  times 
to  Rome,  to  assist  at  the  general  congregations 
of  the  order:  he  died  at  Prague  in  1667.  Ar- 
riaga  appears  to  have  possessed  a  penetrating  ge- 
nius, and  to  have  exercised  great  freedom  of 
enquiry.  He  gave  up  most  of  the  received  opi- 
nions of  the  schools  on  points  of  natural  philo- 
sophy, but,  for  want  of  the  right  clue,  he  ran 
into  wild  conjectures  in  his  attempts  to  explain 
the  ph?enomena  of  nature.  He  inclined  to- 
wards scepticism,  and  was  more  successful  in 
overturning  the  opinions  of  others  than  in  estab- 
lishing any  of  his  own.  He  has  been  compared 
to  a  general  who  destroys  the  enemy's  country 
with  fire  and  sword,  but  is  unable  to  put  his 
own  frontiers  in  a  posture  of  defence.  His 
works  are,  "  A  Course  of  Philosophy,"  printed 
at  Antwerp  in  16^2,  and  since  several  times  re- 
printed ;  and  "  A  Course  of  Theology,"  first 
published  in  eight  volumes  folio,  I)etv\een  the 
years  164.3  ^"^  ^^55'  ''Y  floret  at  Antwerp. 
The  author  was  writing  a  ninth  volume  when 


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A  R  S 


he  tiled.  The  reader  of  this  work  would  pro- 
bably, before  he  finished  it,  recollect  the  old 
adage,  "  A  great  hook  is  a  great  evil."  N'lch. 
Anton.  Bibl.  Hhp.  torn.  ii.  Bayle.  AIo- 
rcri. — E. 

ARK  IAN,  a  Greek  historian,  a  native  of 
Nicomedia,  (Eiiseb.  Chroii.  Olymp.  231.) 
flourisl'.cd  in  the  second  century,  under  the  em- 
perors Adrian  and  the  Antonines.  In  his  own 
country  he  was  a  ])riest  of  Ceres  and  i'roscr- 
])ine.  Taking  up  his  residence  at  Rome,  he 
became  a  disciple  of  Epietetus,  (Pliot.  Cod. 
58.)  and,  on  account  of  liis  Icarriing  and  ta- 
lents, was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Adrian. 
He  was  honoured  with  the  citizcnsliip  ot  Rome, 
and  appointed  prefect  of  Cappadocia.  In  tiiis 
capacity  he  distinguished  himself  by  Iiis  pru- 
dence and  valour  in  the  waragainst  the  Alans  and 
Massageta;,  and  was  afterwards  advanced  to  the 
senatorial  and  even  consular  dignities.  (Phot.  ib. 
Dion.  lib.  Ixix.)  Like  Xenophon  he  united 
the  literary  with  the  military  character  ;  and 
through  his  whole  life  he  was  conversant  with 
subjects  ot  leaniing  and  philosophy.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Pliny  the  Younger,  of  whose  epis- 
tles, still  extant,  seven  are  addressed  to  Arrian. 

The  historical  writings  of  Arrian  were  nume- 
rous ;  but  of  these,  except  some  fragments  pre- 
served in  Photius,  (Cod.  92,  93.)  and  Tzctzes, 
(Chii.  3.  c.  115.)  only  two  remain.  The  first 
is,  "Seven  Books  on  the  Expedition  of  Alex- 
ander," a  valuable  work,  in  which  the  ex- 
ploits of  that  hero  are  related  with  every  ap- 
pearance of  fidelity.  The  author  compiled  his 
history  from  the  best  authorities,  particularly 
from  the  memoirs  left  by  Ptolemy  Lagus,  and 
by  Aristobulus,  who  both  served  under  Alex- 
ander. Arrian  was  well  acquainted  with  mili- 
tary and  political  science,  and  possessed  a 
sounder  judgment,  and  less  dis|)osition  towards 
the  marvellous,  than  Quintus  Curtius.  He 
made  Xenophon  his  model,  and  in  this  work  has 
imitated,  not  unsuccessfully,  the  simplicity  and 
sweetness  of  his  style  ;  he  has  even  copied  him 
in  the  title  and  number  of  his  books  :  he  lias 
been  called,  not  altogether  without  reason,  a 
second  Xenophon.  To  this  work  is  added  a 
book  on  the  affairs  of  India,  which  pursues 
the  history  of  Alexander.  It  is  considered  by 
many  as  an  eighth  book  of  the  former  work  ; 
but  to  this  it  has  been  objected,  that  this  book 
is  vyritten  in  the  Ionic,  but  the  former  seven,  in 
the  Attic  dialect.  This  book  is  of  more  doubt- 
ful authority  than  the  former ;  its  facts  being 
chiefly  taken  from  Megasthenes,  to  whom 
Strabo  allows  little  credit.  An  epistle  finm 
Arrian  to  Adrian  is  also  extant  entitled,  "  Peri- 

VOL.  I. 


j)lus  Ponti  Euxini,"  probably  written  while 
Arrian  was  prefect  of  Cap|)udocia,  contaiiung 
a  description  of  a  voyage  along  the  borders  ot 
the  Euxine  .sea.  Arrian's  "  Expedition  of  Alex- 
ander" was  first  printed  in  Greek  at  Venice,  in 
8vo.  by  Trincavellus,  in  1535;  afterwards  at 
Basil,  in  8vo.  in  1539,  by  Gcrbelius  ;  and  in 
folio  by  Henry  Steplicns,  at  Geneva,  in  1575  ; 
in  Greek  and  Latin  by  Blancard,  in  8vo.  with 
useful  notes,  at  Amsterdam,  in  1668  ;  l)y  Gro- 
novius,  in  folio,  at  Leyden,  in  1704;  and  in 
8vo.  with  the  notes  of  Rapheliusand  others,  at 
Ain'sterdam,  in  1757.  The  book  "  De  Indi- 
cis,"  has  usuallv  been  published  with  the  "  Ex- 
peditio  Alexandri."  The  "  Periplus,"  toge- 
ther with  "  Periplus  Maris  Erythrxi,"  of 
which  the  author  is  doubtful,  was  published  at 
Basil  by  Stuckius,  in  folio,  at  Leyden,  in  1577, 
and,  among  the  ancient  geographers,  in  4vO.  by 
Gronovius,  at  [>eyden,  in  1697  ;  and  at  Ox- 
ford, in  8vo.  1698. 

Arrian  is  also  the  author  of  a  book  "  On 
Tactics,"  written  in  the  twentieth  year  of 
Adrian  ;  and  of  a  book  "  On  Hunting,"  both 
published  in  Blancard's  edition  of  the  works  of 
Arrian  ;  and  he  has  left  an  invaluable  moral 
treatise,  his  **  Enchiridion,"  containing  the 
Discourses  of  Epietetus,  of  which  the  most 
valuable  edition  is  by  Upton,  printed  at  Lon- 
don in  two  volumes  410.  in  1739.  Voss.  de 
Hht.  Gra-c.  lib.  ii.  c.  II.  Fiil»lc.  Bib/.Giar. 
lib.  iv.  c.  8.— E. 

ARSACES  1.  founder  of  the  Parthian  mo- 
narchy, began  his  career  by  exciting  a  revolt 
against  the  governor  of  Parthia  under  Antiochus 
Theos,  who  had  offered  a  shameful  aiTront  to 
his  brother.  The  governor  was  killed  in  the 
quarrel,  and  Arsaces  persuaded  his  lountrymen 
to  join  him  in  totally  expelling  the  Macedo- 
nians, and  establLshing  the  national  indepen- 
dence. This  happened  about  B.C.  250.  TJic 
success  of  Arsaces  caused  the  Parthians  to  ele- 
vate him  to  the  throne,  an<l  he  fixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Hecatompolis.  Seleueus  Callinicus, 
the  successor  of  Antiochus,  attempted  to  reco- 
ver the  Parthian  provinces  ;  but  he  was  de- 
feated in  a  great  battle  by  Arsaces,  and  nia<le 
captive;  and  this  event  was  by  the  Parthians 
commemorated  as  the  commencement  of  their 
independence,  and  its  anniversary  celebrated 
with  great  solemnity  for  many  ages.  .Arsaces 
behaved  with  generosity  to  the  captive  king, 
who  finished  his  days  in  Parthia.  He  possessed 
himself  of  Hyrcania  and  some  neiglibouring 
provinces;  and  was  at  length  killed  in  battle 
against  the  king  of  Cappadocia  after  a  prospe- 
rous reign  of  about  thirty-eight  years.     Helcfc 


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behind  him  a  great  reputation  throughout  the 
east ;  and  his  successors,  tlie  Parthian  kings, 
all  took  his  name,  as  tlic  Roman  emperors  did 
that  of  Ccesar.  The  empire  he  founded  proved 
an  impenetrable  barrier  against  the  Romans  in 
their  attemjits  to  extend  their  dominions  east- 
ward.    Uii'iveis.  Hist. — A. 

ARSACES  II.  king  of  Parthia,  succeed- 
ed his  father  Arsaces  f.  and  i>roved  like  him 
a  warlike  prince.  When  Antioclius  tlie  Great 
was  engaged  in  a  war  with  Ptolemy  king 
of  Egypt,  he  entered  Media,  and  made  liim- 
self  master  of  the  country.  Antiochus,  as 
soon  as  he  was  at  liberty,  marclied  against  Ar- 
saces, and  drove  him  out  of  Media,  and  pursu- 
ing him  into  Parthia,  obliged  him  to  take  re- 
fuge in  Hyrcania.  In  the  mean  time,  Arsaces. 
colk'Cting  a  great  army,  returned  to  the  charge, 
and  proved  so  formidable  to  Antiochus,  that  this 
king  was  glad  to  terminate  the  war  by  a  treaty 
which  confirmed  Arsaces  in  the  possession  of 
Hyrcania  and  Parthia,  on  the  condition  of  be- 
coming an  ally  to  Antiochus.  Of  the  further 
history  of  this  prince  nothing  is  known,  but  that 
he  left  his  crown  to  his  son  Arsaces  Priapatius. 
Univcrs.  Hist. — A. 

ARSACES  TIRANUS,  king  of  Armenia, 
reigned  at  the  time  wiien  the  emperor  Julian 
made    his    invasion    of  Persia      Julian,    in    a 
haughty  and  menacing  epistle  (if  that  extant 
under  his  name  be  not  a  forgery)  summoned 
Arsaces  to  join  him  with  his  forces  in  this  expe- 
dition.    The  Armenian,  who,  as  a  Christian, 
did  not  wish  him  success,  and  was  besides  of  an 
unwarlike  disposition,  is  supposed  to  have  or- 
dered or  connived  at  the  desertion  of  his  auxi- 
liary troops  from  the  Roman  camp  at  a  time 
when  their  aid  was  most  wanted  by  the  empe- 
ror, which  was  a  considerable  cause  of  his  fai- 
lure.  When  Jovian  was  compelled  to  make  an 
ignominious  peace  with  the  Persian  king,  it  was 
particularly  specified  that  the  Romans  should 
renounce  the  sovereignty  of  Armenia,  and  give 
no  assistance  to  Arsaces  if  attacked  by  the  Per- 
sians.    Some  years  afterwards  Sapor  entered 
Armenia  with  an  army,  Init  without  declaring 
any  hostile  intentions  against  Arsaces.  Heevcn 
invited  him  to  a  banquet ;  but  in  the  midst  of  it 
he  caused  him  to  be  bound  with  chains  of  silver, 
and  committed  him  to  custody.     After  a  short 
confinement  in  the  Tower  of  Oblivion  at  Ec- 
batana,  the  unhappy  prince  ended  his  days  by  as- 
sassination, B.  C.  369.     Armenia  thenceforth 
became  a  province  of  Persia.  Gibbon.  Univers. 
Hist— A. 

ARSENIUS,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  was 
in  1255  called  by  the  emperor  Theodore  Las- 


caris  from  a  private  monastic  life  to  the  pa- 
triarchal see.  At  his  death  the  emperor  appointed 
Arscnius  guardian  and  tutor  to  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor [ohn  Lascaris,  in  whose  minority  Mi- 
chael Palcologus  usurped  the  empire,  and  blinded 
and  banished  the  young  emperor.  Arscnius,  in 
this  situation,  employed  superstition  in  the  ser- 
vice of  his  pupil.  He  pronounced  a  sentence  of 
excommunication  upon  Michael  for  his  inhu- 
manity. The  emperor  confessed  his  guilt,  and 
seemed  ready  to  make  atonement  by  abdicating 
the  empire.  But  when  the  patriarch  perceived 
that  he  drew  back  the  sword  of  state,  which  he 
had  seemed  ready  to  give  up,  he  refused  him 
absolution.  He  kept  his  monarch  long  in  a 
state  of  penitence.  The  emperor  found  means 
at  length  to  bring  Arscnius  into  discredit  with 
his  brethren,  and  to  obtain  his  deposition  in  a 
synod  ;  after  which  he  banished  him  to  a  small 
island  of  the  Propontis.  Still,  however,  the  un- 
relenting patriarch  refused  with  his  last  breath 
the  paiclon  which  was  implored  by  the  royal 
oflFender :  and  it  was  not  till  six  years  after  the 
excommunication  that  Arsenius's  successor  re- 
stored Michael  Paktologus  to  the  communion 
of  the  church.  The  last  will  of  Arscnius  is  still 
extant.  Pachymer.  lib.  iii.  c.  10,  Sec.  Grego- 
ras,  lib.  iv.  c.  4.  Dupin.  Cav.  Hist.  Lit, 
Gibbon,  c.  62. — E. 

ARSENIUS,  a  deacon  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  who  flourished  towards  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century,  was  preceptor  to  Arcadius,  son 
of  the  emperor  Theodosius.  The  emperor  one 
day  coming  into  the  apartment  where  Arsenius 
was  instructing  his  pupil,  was  displeased  to  find 
the  former  standing  and  the  latter  sitting,  and 
commanded  Arcadius  to  lay  aside  his  dignity, 
and  receive  his  lessons  from  his  master  with 
due  respect.  The  hauglity  youth  submitted 
reluctantly  ;  and,  some  time  afterwards,  when 
the  preceptor  had  found  it  necessary  to  enforce 
his  precepts  with  rigour,  the  young  prince  was^ 
so  incensed,  that  he  ordered  an  officer  to  kill 
him.  The  officer  gave  Arsenius  notice  of  the 
order,  and  he  retired  privately  into  the  deserts  of 
Egypt,  where  he  led  a  life  of  mortification  and 
devotion  among  the  anchorites  of  Scetis  till  the 
age  of  ninety- five.  I'heodosius  sought  in  vaiiv 
to  discover  the  place  of  his  retreat. 

A  small  tract  of  Arsenius  remains,  written  in 
the  true  monastic  spirit,  entitled,  "  Instructions 
and  Exhortations  to  the  Monks  ;"  it  will  be 
found  in  Greek  and  Latin  in  Combefisii  Auct. 
Noviss.  Paris,  1672.  CotcUer.  Apophthegm. 
Pat.     Bayle.     Cav.  Hist.  Lit. — E. 

ARSENIUS,  archbishop  of  Malvasia  in 
the  Morca,  was  a  learned  philologist  m  the  sI.k- 


ART 


(    411     ) 


A  R  r 


teenth  century.  He  submJttetl  to  the  church  of 
Rome,  and  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  pope  Paul 
III.  which  gave  great  offence  to  his  brethren  of 
the  Greek  church,  and  brought  upon  him  a  sen- 
tence of  excommunication  from  the  patriarcli 
of  Constantinople.  He  died  at  Venice  in  1435. 
He  publislied  at  Rome  a  *'  Collection  of  Greek 
Apophthegms;"  and  at  Venice,  in  8vo.  in  1534, 
"  A  Collection  of  Scholia  on  seven  of  the  Tra- 
gedies ot  Euripides."  Bayle.  Fabric.  Bibl. 
Grtvc.  lib.  V.  c.  41.  §  8  note. — E. 

ARTABANUS  I",  king  of  the  Parthians, 
was  third  son  of  Priapatius,  and  succeeded  his 
nephew  Plirnhates  11.  He  received  a  wound 
in  a  battle  widi  the  Thogarians,  a  tribe  of  Scy- 
thians, in  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  of  which 
he  died  about  B.  C.  129,  and  was  succeeded  by 
bis  son  Pacorus  I.  Bayle.   Un'ivcrs.  Hist. — A. 

ARTABANUS  II.  of  the  race  of  Arsaces, 
was  king  of  Media  when  he  was  called  by  the 
Parthians,  about  A.  D.  16,  to  take  possession 
of  their  throne,  to  the  exclusion  of  ^^onones, 
whom  they  considered  as  a  slave  to  the  Ro- 
mans. Artabanus  drove  Vonones  into  Arme- 
nia, and  thence  into  Syria  ;  and  desirous  of 
strengthening  himself  on  the  throne,  he  sent  an 
embassy  to  Gcrmanicus  in  order  to  renew  tlie 
alliance  between  the  two  empires.  After  the 
death  of  Germanicus,  Artabanus  showed  great 
contempt  of  Tiberius  ;  and  invading  Armenia, 
placed  his  eldest  son  Arsaccs  on  the  throne  of 
that  country,  and  even  laid  claim  to  all  the  coun- 
tries which  had  been  possessed  by  Cyrus  and 
Alexander.  At  the  same  lime  he  treated  the 
Parthians  with  great  severity;  so  that  a  conspi- 
racy was  formed  to  set  on  tlie  throne  Phrahates, 
who  was  sent  for  on  that  account  from  Rome. 
Phrahates  dying,  another  prince  of  the  blood 
royal,  Tiridates,  was  substituted  by  Tiberius, 
and  Pharasmanes,  king  of  the  Iberians,  was  ex- 
cited to  make  an  attack  upon  Armenia.  Ar- 
saccs, the  son  of  Artabanus,  who  reigned  there, 
was  killed  by  treachery  ;  and  his  brother  Orodes 
was  vanqurshed  hy  Rliarasmanes,  who  pos  • 
sessed  himself  of  all  Armenia.  Artabanus  was 
then  attacked  by  the  Romans  and  the  Parthian 
malcontents,  and  obliged  to  quit  his  dominions, 
and  take  refuge  in  Hyrcania.  He  was  rein- 
stated by  another  party,  reigned  some  years  in 
peace,  and  obtained  the  friendship  of  Caligula, 
who  had  succeeded  to  the  empire  in  Rome.  His 
tyrannical  conduct  again  caused  his  expul- 
sion, and  he  was  again  restored  by  the  good  of- 
fices of  Izates,  king  of  Adiabcne.  After  this 
time  he  governed  v  ith  equity,  and  died  much 
lamented  by  his  subjects  about  the  year  48. 
Tacitus  cliarges  his  son  or  brother  Goiarzet 


with  procuring  his  death.  Bayle.  Univeis. 
Hist.— A. 

ARTABANUS  III.  successor  and  probably 
son  of  Vologeses,  lived  In  the  reign  either  of 
Vespasian  or  Titus,  and,  through  enmity  to  the 
Roman  emperor,  espoused  the  caus;  of  a  coi'n- 
terfeit  Nero.  He  had  a  design  of  invading 
Armenia,  but  died  before  it  could  be  put  in  ex- 
ecution.     Bayle.     Univers.  hfist. — A. 

ARTABANUS  IV.  was  brother  to  Volo- 
geses III.  and,  encouraged  by  some  malcontent 
nobles,  contended  with  him  for  the  crown.  At 
his  brother's  death  he  succeeded  without  opposi- 
tion, and  reigned  for  some  time  in  prosperity. 
Being  at  peace  with  tlie  Roman  empire,  lie  was 
not  sufficiently  on  his  guard  when  Severus  ra- 
vaged the  neighbouring  countries ;  and,  on  an 
incursion  of  the  Roman  troops,  it  was  with 
difficulty  that  he  made  his  escape  to  Ctesiphon. 
Caracalla,  bv  one  of  the  basest  acts  of  perfidy 
recorded  in  history,  brought  him  into  more  im- 
minent danger.  Pretending  to  secure  a  lasting 
peace  between  the  tuo  nations,  he  demanded  the 
daughter  of  Artabanus  in  marriage ;  and,  though 
the  Parthian  king  at  first  rejected  the  proposal, 
he  was  at  length  prevailed  upon  to  consent.  Ca- 
racalla thereupon  marched  his  army  into  Par- 
thia,  and  was  every  where  received  as  a  friend. 
When  he  approached  the  capital,  Artabanus 
went  to  meet  him  with  a  splendid  retinue,  and 
all  the  demonstrations  of  joy  and  respect.  But 
while  the  Parthians  were  unbending  in  the  song 
and  dance,,  the  bloody  Caracalla  gave  the  signal 
to  his  troo[)s,  who  rushed  on  t!ic  multitude  sword 
in  hand,  slaughtered  till  they  were  weary,  and 
dispersed  the  rest,  Artabanus  himself  hardly  es- 
caping the  massacre.  Caracalla  pillaged  and 
burned  all  the  adjacent  country,  and  then  re- 
tired into  Mesopotamia.  Artabanus,  burning 
for  revenge,  assembled  an  army,  crossed  the 
Euphrates,  and  entered  Syria  with  fire  and  sword, 
where  he  was  met  by  the  Romans,  who  had 
now  sub-nituted  Macrinus  to  Caracalla.  A 
desperate  battle  of  two  days  ensued  ;  and  Arta- 
banus, resolved  not  to  yield,  had  commenced  the 
third  day's  fight,  when  a  herald  from  Macrinus 
informed  him  of  the  fate  of  Caracalla,  and  pro- 
posed a  treaty  between  the  empires.  The  pro- 
posal was  acce])ted,  and  Artabanus,  having  re- 
ceived back  his  cajjtive  subjects  and  the  cx- 
penccs  of  the  war,  returned  to  his  Oivn  country 
in  217. 

His  prosperity,  which  had  elated  him  so  much 
that,  first  of  all  the  Parthian  monarchs,  he  as- 
sumed the  double  diadem,  and  the  title  of  the 
Great  King,  did  not  continue  much  longer. 
Ardshir  Babcgau,  or  Anaxerxes  (sec  his  lifcj 


A  R  T 


(       412       ) 


ART 


exciieil  the  Persians  to  revolt  against  him  ;  and 
in  a  Jcspcrate  battle  lie  was  (k-featcil,  taken,  and 
soon  after  put  to  deatli  in  226.  By  tiiis  event 
the  Parthian  empire,  which  had  subsisted  tour 
hundred  and  seventv-five  years,  was  tinally 
overthrown.  The  family  of  Arsacidae,  how- 
ever, was  not  extinguished  in  Artabanus  ;  lor 
thev  continued  to  reign  in  Anncnia  till  the  time 
of  the  emperor  Justinian.  Ba\'!c.  Unlvers. 
Hi  St. -A. 

ARTAVASDES  T.  king  of  Armenia,  was 
son  and  sueeessor  of  Tigranes.      In  the  expedi- 
tion of  Crassus  against  the  Parthians,  he  joined 
that  general  witli  a  body  of  horse,  and  promised 
him  a  much  larger  succour;  but  failing  in  his 
word,  he  was  a  principal  cause  of  the  tragical 
defeat  and  death   of  the  Roman.      In  fact  he 
had  been  gained  over  to  the  Parthian  interest, 
and  had  agreed  upon  the  marriage  ot  his  sister 
to  Pacorus  son  to  the  Partliian  king  Orodes. 
He  was  at  the  court  of  this  monarch  when  re- 
joicings were  made  for  the  destruction  of  Cras- 
sus, and  joined  in  the  application  of  verses  from 
the    ])lays  of  Euripides   to  that  event ;   which 
Bavlc    supposes    to    have    given    occasion    to 
Plutarch  to  represent  Artavasdes  as  a  writer  of 
tragedies,  harangue-;,  and  histories.    Afterwards 
he  persuaded   Marc  Antony  to  engage  in  an 
expedition  against  the  king   of  Media,   (also 
uamed  Aitavasdes)  with  whom  he  was  at  en- 
mity ;    and,   having  been    privately  reconciled 
with  the  Mede,  he  treacherously  misled  and  de- 
serted the  Roman  army,  and  caused  rhe  enter- 
prize  to  fail.     Antony,  who  did  not  forget  this 
injury,  two  years  afterwards,  by  means  of  pro- 
mises and  artifices,  drew  him  to  an  interview, 
when  he  put  him  in  chains,  compelled  him  to 
discover  his  treasures,  and  carried  him  with  his 
wife  and  children  to  Alexandria.      Here  they 
were  dragged   in  chains   of  gold  at  his  chariot 
wheels  amid  the  gazing  populace.   Low  as  tliey 
were  fallen,  they  could  not,  however,  be  induced 
to  kneel  as  suppliants  at  the  feet  of  Cleopatra, 
or  call  her  by  any  other  appellation  than  her 
name.     After  the  battle  of  Actium,  Artava.sdes 
was  put  to  death,  and  his  head  was  sent  by  Cleo- 
patra as  a  present  to  the  king  of  Media.   Baylc. 
Uiiivers.  Hist. — A. 

ARTAVASDES    II.    by    some    reckoned 

frandson  to  the  preceding,  and  son  to  Artaxias 
I.  by  the  favour  of  Augustus  succeeded  Tigranes 
II.  and  his  sons  in  die  throne  of  Armenia, 
■which  he  had  not  long  possessed  before  he  was 
expelled  by  his  subjects,  who  chose  to  live  un- 
der the  dominion  of  the  king  of  Parthia.  The 
emperor  sent  his  adopted  son  Caius  Ciesar  to 
settle  aftairs  in  Armenia,  by  whom  Artavasdes 


was   restored     but   he   died  soon    afterwards. 
Ba\le.      IJnivers.  H'st. — A. 

ARTAXERXES  I.  surnamed  Longimanus, 
or  the  Long-handed,  in  Greek,  May-ioyjip,  was 
third  son  of  Xerxes  king  of  Persia.     When  that 
monarch  was  murdered  bv  Artabanus,  captain 
of  his  guards,  the  traitor  persuaded  Artaxerxes 
that  his  eldest  brother  Darius  had  been  guilty 
of  the  deed,  and  had  the  same  intentions  against 
himself.     The  young  prince,  believing  him,  as- 
sassinated Darius,  and  was  placed  on  the  throne 
by  Artabanus,  B.  C.  465,  to  the  prejudice  of 
his  second  brother  Hysraspes,  then  ab;ent.  Ar- 
tabaniLS,  who  meant  to  secure  the  crown  to  his 
own  family,  soon  fonricd  a  conspiracy  against 
Artaxer.xes,   which  being  disclosed  by  Mcga- 
by/.us,  the  king  prevented  its  execution  by  put- 
ting the  traitor  to  death.     Artaxerxes  had  then 
to  contend  with  his  own  brother  and  with  the 
sons  of  Artabanus.     He  was  successful  against 
both  ;  and,  obtaining  peaceable  possession  of  the 
whole  Persian  empire,  he  employed  himself  in 
the  restoration  of  order,  and  the  correction  of 
abuses,  and   bccaine  very   popular  among  his 
subjects.      It  was  at  his  court  that  Themistocles 
took  refuge,  and  he  treated  him  with  great  dis- 
tinction and  hospitality.    In  the  fifth  year  of  his 
reign,  the   Egyptians    revolting    under    Inarus 
prince  of  Lybia,  and  being  aided  by  the  Athe- 
nians, a  bl'jody  war  ensued,  in  which  the  Per- 
sians, after  sustaining  great  losses,  at  length  en- 
tirely suppressed  the  revolt,  and  recovered  the 
dominion  of  Egypt.      War  with  the  Athenians 
still  continued,  and  Cimon,  their  admiral,  had 
great  success  against  the  Persian  fleet  at  Cy- 
prus ;  but  peace  was  finally  concluded  between 
the  two  nations  upon  honourable  terms  for  the 
Greeks,  and  thus  a  warfare  of  fifty-one  years 
was  terminated,  which  had  caused  the  death  of 
vast  multitudes.     Artaxerxes  was  very  favour- 
able to  the  jews,  and  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been   the  Ahasucrus   of   scripture,  who 
married  Esther,  and  by  whose  permission  Ezra 
restored  the  Jewish  worship  and  civil  govern- 
ment  at   Jerusalem.     The   seventy   weeks   of 
Daniel  are  reckoned  to  coinmence  in  his  reign. 
Artaxerxes,  being    long  importuned  by  his 
modier  to  deliver  up  to  her  Inarus  and  the  Athe- 
nians taken  with  him  in  Egypt,  that  she  might 
sacrifice  them  to  the  manes  of  her  son  Achaj- 
menes,  slain  in  that  war,  at  length  yielded  to 
her  intrcaties,  and  she  cruelly  put  them  all  to 
death.     Megabvzus,  who  had  given  his  word 
that  they  should  be  spared,  was  so  much  of- 
fended at  this  action,  that  he  raised  a  revolt  in 
Syria,    and    defeated    two    royal    armies    sent 
against  him.     A  reconciliation  being  at  length 


ART 


(    413    ) 


ART 


effected  between  him  and  the  king,  he  returned 
to  court ;  but  he  had  too  deeply  oftl-ndeJ  liis 
master  to  be  cordially  forgiven.  On  the  pretext 
of  his  having  thrown  his  dart  before  the  king's 
at  a  chace,  though  for  the  purpose  of  saving 
the  king  from  the  attack  of  a  fierce  lion,  he  was 
condemned  to  death;  and  it  was  with  difficuhy 
that  Artaxerxes  submitted  to  commute  the  sen- 
tence for  that  of  perpetual  banishment.  He  was, 
Jiowevcr,  reinstated,  and  enjoyed  the  king's  fa- 
vour till  his  death  at  an  advanced  age.  At  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Pcloponnesian  war,  both 
the  Athenians  and  Lacedemonians  sent  embas- 
sadors to  engage  the  king  of  Persia  in  their  fa- 
vour. He  sent  an  envoy  to  learn  the  real  state 
of  Greece,  and  the  pretensions  of  the  two  par- 
ties ;  but  dcadi  prevented  him  from  coming  to 
any  determination.  Artaxerxes  died  in  the  for- 
ty-first year  of  his  leign,  B.  C.  424,  leaving  his 
only  legitimate  son  Xerxes  his  successor.  Uni- 
vc-rs.  Hist. — A. 

ARTAXERXES  11.  surnamed  Mnemon, 
as  is  said,  on  account  ot  his  great  memory,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Darius  Nothus  by  Parysatis, 
and  bore  the  name  of  Arsaces  before  his  acces- 
sion, which  was  B.  C.  404.  His  long  reign 
was  full  of  events,  whicli,  however,  appear  to 
have  been  little  influenced  by  the  personal  exer- 
tions of  the  king,  who  was  governed  by  women 
and  favourites.  At  hi^  inauguration  he  disco- 
vered a  conspiracy  against  his  life  by  his  brother 
Cvrus,  who  was  seized  and  sentenced  to  death  ; 
but  by  the  intercession  of  Parysatis,  whose  fa- 
vourite he  was,  he  was  pardoned  and  sent  back 
to  his  government  of  Asia  Minor,  an  act  of  le- 
rity  diat  Arta.xerxes  had  soon  cause  to  repent. 
The  beginning  of  his  reign  was  disturbed  by 
quarrels  between  his  favourite  wife  Statira  and 
her  family,  and  a  nobleman,  involving  scenes  of 
abominable  wickedness,  which  were  terminated 
wiih  ciuel  vengeance  by  Parysatis.  Soon  after 
Cyrus  formed  a  design  of  dethroning  his  brother ; 
and  for  that  purpose,  levying  a  body  of  Greek 
mercenaries  under  Clearchus  the  Lacedemonian, 
and  joining  them  to  a  large  army  ot  Asiatics,  he 
marched  towards  Babylon,  and  at  the  field  ot 
Cunaxa  met  the  king  at  the  head  of  a  much 
more  numerous  host.  The  Greeks  comi)lctely 
defeated  the  wing  opposed  to  them,  and  pro- 
claimed Cyrus  on  the  held  ;  but  in  the  mean 
time  that  prince,  urged  by  impetuous  valour  and 
rage,  made  a  violent  charge  on  the  person  of  his 
brother,  whom  he  brouglit  into  great  danger,  but 
was  iiimself  dispatched  by  the  guards.  This 
event  decided  the  contest.  His  friends  were  all 
destroyed  ;  but  the  Greek  army  kept  entire,  and 
in  spite  of  all  the  force  and  artifice  of  tlic  great 


king's  lieutenants,  made  their  way  home  by  a 
retreat,  which  is  one  of  the  i.-.ost  brilliant  facts 
in  history,  and  is  recorded  by  Xenophon,  a 
principal  actor  in  it.  \Vhile  the  superior  valour 
and  discipline  of  the  Greeks  is  admired,  it  does 
not  appear  that  the  conduct  of  Artaxerxes  de- 
serves blame,  who,  failing  in  his  attempts  to  en- 
gage their  friendship,  used  all  his  efforts  to  des- 
troy a  band  of  mercenaries,  led  by  the  allure- 
ments of  pay  and  plunder  alone,  to  join  in  a 
most  unjust  and  unprovok'.d  attack  on  his  life 
and  dignity.  He  is  much  more  cer.surable  for 
the  weakness  with  which  he  gave  up  to  the  ven- 
geance of  Parasytis  all  who  were  instrumental 
in  the  death  of  Cvrus,  (though  he  himself  boasted 
of  having  given  him  his  mortal  wound)  whom 
that  detestable  woman  murdered  amidst  the  most 
exquisite  torments.  Sue  soon  after  poisoned 
the  queen  Statira,  which  so  much  excited  the 
indignation  of  her  son,  tllat  he  confined  her  to 
Babylon,  and  vowed  that  he  would  never  set  a 
foot  in  the  city  while  she  was  there.  At  lengdi, 
however,  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  recal  her 
to  court,  where  she  bore  a  great  sway  as  long 
as  she  lived. 

The  return  of  the  Greeks  was  soon  succeed- 
ed by  wars  between  the  Lacedemonians  and  the 
Great  King,  or  rather  his  lieutenants  in  Lesser 
Asia.  Agesilaus  passed  over  into  this  country 
B.  C.  396,  and  met  with  a  success  that  excited 
much  alarm  at  the  court  of  Artaxerxes,  by  the 
influence  of  whose  money  he  was  at  length  re- 
called. The  Athenians,  on  the  other  hand, 
united  with  tlie  ]'ei  sians ;  but  these  dilferences 
were  finally  settled  by  the  peace  of  Antalcidas, 
B.  C.  393,  which  left  die  Greek  cities  of  Asia 
subject  to  the  Persian  king.  The  power  of  Ar- 
taxerxes was  next  turned  against  Evagoras  king 
of  Cyprus.  In  diis  war  the  Athenians  and  La- 
cedemonians changed  sides,  the  former  being  the 
foes,  the  latter  the  auxiliaries  of  tlie  Perbians. 
It  ended,  after  much  bloodslied,  in  rendering  Cy- 
prus tributary.  Artaxerxes  in  person,  B.  C. 
384,  conducted  a  great  army  against  the  Ca- 
dusians,  a  hardy  people  inhabiiing  the  moun- 
tains between  the  Euxine  and  Caspian  seas,  liv 
diis  ill-planned  enierpri/e  the  king  was  near 
losing  his  whole  army  through  famiue.  but  die 
greatest  part  of  it  was  saved  by  a  timely  nego- 
eiation.  A  sense  of  the  difgracehe  had  incurred 
lendeied  him  on  liis  return  suspicious  and  irri- 
ritahle,  and  he  put  to  death  several  of  his  satraps, 
though  mildness  rather  thaw  cruelty  seems  to 
have" been  his  prevailing  disjiosition.  The  next 
war  he  undertook  was  for  the  purjiosc  of  re- 
covering Egypt,  which  had  thrown  otl'  die  Per- 
sian yoke  long  before.  This  cnterpriM,  though 


ART 


(    414    ) 


ART 


-at  first  aueiKltcl  w'nh  some  success,  cliiefly 
through  till-  aid  o."  Greek  mercenaries,  provcJ 
in  the  end  abortive. 

The  close  of  his  reign  was  embittered  by  the 
troubles  usually  attending  eastern  despots.  Da- 
rius, his  eldest  son,  whom  he  had  declared  his 
successor,  not  able  to  wait  the  course  of  nature, 
formed  a  conspiracy  against  his  father,  in  which 
he  is  said  to  have  engaged  tifty  of  his  brothers, 
for  the  family  of  Artaxcrxes  was  extremely  nu- 
merous. The  satrap  Tiribazus  was  instrumen- 
tal in  misleading  the  jirince,  enraged  at  the 
breach  of  word  of  the  king,  who  had  promised 
him  one  of  his  daughters  in  marriage,  but  had 
afterwards  chosen  to  many  her  himself;  such 
were  the  manners  of  the  age  and  family  !  The 
plot  was  detected,  and  Darius,  with  all  his  ac- 
complices, was  cut  off.  Three  others  of  the 
king's  sons  then  became  competitors  for  the 
succession,  and  the  worst  of  them,  Ochus,  got 
rid  of  the  other  two  by  poison  and  assassina- 
tion. Overcome  by  age  and  affliction,  Artax- 
crxes, now  ninety-four  years  old,  yielded  to  his 
fate,  after  a  reign  of  sixtv-two  years.  Flutarch 
gives  these  numbers  ;  but  Diodorus  says  that  he 
reigned  only  forty-three  years,  and  probably  an 
equal  deduction  should  be  made  from  the  length 
of  his  life.      Univers.  Hist. — A. 

ARTAXERXES  111.  whose  name,  till  he 
ascended  the  throne,  was  Ochus,  succeeded  his 
father  Artaxerxes  II.  B.  C.  359.  Doubtful  of 
the  allegiance  of  subjects  whom  he  had  acquired 
by  a  series  of  crimes,  he  kept  secret  his  father's 
death  for  ten  months.  When  it  was  made 
known,  what  he  tearcd  took  place.  All  the 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Phcenicia 
revolted  under  their  several  kings  or  governors  ; 
but  falling  out  among  theinselves,  and  mutually 
betraying  each  other,  this  formidable  rebellion 
was  easily  quelled.  Datames  alone,  governor 
of  Cappadocia,  a  man  of  great  vigour  and  abi- 
lities, maintained  his  independence  a  considera- 
ble time  till  he  was  assassinated  by  one  of  his 
intimates. 

Artaxerxes  Ochus  is  characterized  as  one  of 
the  most  bloody  tyrants  recorded  in  history.  He 
began  by  putting  to  death  all  the  members  of 
the  royal  family  within  his  reach,  without  dis- 
tintion  of  age  or  sex,  that  he  might  leave  no  one 
to  head  a  rebellion.  He  caused  Ocha  his  sister, 
who  was  also  the  mother  of  his  wife,  to  be  bu- 
ried alive  ;  and  having  enclosed  within  a  court 
of  his  palace  one  of  his  uncles,  with  a  hundred 
of  his  sons  and  grandsons,  he  made  his  archers 
shoot  them  all  to  death.  He  was  not  likely  to 
<reat  with  greater  lenity  the  suspected  nobles 
about  him,  numbers  of  whom  he  cut  ofF.  This 


severity  did  not  prevent  various  rebellions  of  his 
governors  and  revolts  of  his  subjects,  in  which 
the  Greek  states,  as  usual,  engaged  as  merce- 
nary troops  on  both  sides.  The  revolt  of  Phce- 
nicia was  quelled  by  the  utter  destruction  of  Si- 
don.  Judaea,  which  had  rebelled,  was  reduced, 
and  many  of  the  people  carried  away  into  cap- 
tivity. When  these  provinces  were  pacified, 
Ochus  himself  marched  with  a  great  army  into 
Egypt,  which  country  he  entirely  reduced, 
chietiy  by  the  aid  of  the  Greek  auxiliaries,  whom 
he  amply  rewarded.  He  sliowcd  his  contempt 
for  the  Egyptian  superstition  by  killing  the  sa- 
cred bull  Apis,  and  causing  his  people  to  eat  the 
flesh.  This  sacrilegious  deed  eventually  caused 
his  ruin.  He  had  delegated  a  great  share  of  his 
authority  to  Bagoas,  a  favourite  eunuch,  who 
was  an  Egyjjtian  by  birth,  and  zealous  for  the 
religion  of  his  counir)-.  Resolved  tluit  the  death 
of  the  king  should  expiate  that  of  Apis,  he  in- 
fluenced his  physician  to  administer  poison  to 
liim  instead  of  a  inedicine,  which  carried  him 
off:"  in  the  21st  year  of  his  reign,  B.  C.  338. 
The  revenge  of  Bagoas  did  not  end  with  his 
master's  death  ;  for  he  caused  his  body  to  be 
cut  into  small  pieces,  and  given  to  the  cats,  and 
knife  handles  to  be  made  of  his  bones.  After 
destroying  the  king's  other  sons,  he  placed  on 
the  throne  Arses,  whom  he  soon  after  murder- 
ed with  all  his  family  ;  and  thus  the  race  of 
Ochus  became  extinct.  Univers.  Hist. — A. 
ARTAXERXES  BABEGAN.  See  Ard- 

SHIR. 

ARTAXIAS  I.  king  of  Armenia,  was  go- 
vernor of  this  province  along  witli  Zadriades, 
under  Antiochus  the  Great,  towards  the  begin- 
ning of  his  reign.  Whilst  his  army  were  else- 
where engaged,  they  caused  themselves  to  be 
recognized  as  kings  ;  and  enlarging  their  terri- 
tories by  conquests  from  the  neighbojring  pro- 
vinces, they  constituted  the  two  kingc'oms  of 
Greater  and  Lesser  Armenia,  of  which  Artaxias 
had  the  former.  Antiochus  attempted  in  vain 
to  reduce  them  under  his  autliority.  After  the 
defeat  of  that  king  by  the  Romans,  they  formed 
an  alliance  with  the  conquerors,  by  whom  thev 
were  recognized  as  sovereigns.  Artaxias  reigned 
in  peace  till  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,by 
whom  he  is  said  to  have  been  defeated  in  battle, 
and  made  prisoner.  Four  years  afterwards, 
however,  he  appears  to  have  been  again  on  the 
throne  ;  but  the  rest  of  his  history  is  unknown. 
Plutarch  relates  that  Hannibal  took  refuge 
with  this  prince,  and  gave  him  many  good 
counsels;  also,  that  he  pointed  out  to  him  a 
place  very  proper  for  the  site  of  a  city,  on 
which,  under  the  directions  of  Haanibal,  Ai- 


ART 


(    415    ) 


ART 


taxata  was  afterwards  built.  Bayle,  Untvers. 
Bist.—A. 

ARTAXTAS  II.  king  of  Armenia,  was 
proclaimed  by  his  army  on  the  captivity  of  his 
father  Artavasdes  I.  He  was,  however,  de- 
feated bv  Antony ;  and  obliged  to  take  refuge 
in  Parthia.  Bv  the  aid  of  the  Parchians  lie  was 
restored  to  his  kingdom  ;  but  his  subjects,  grow- 
ing dissatisfied  with  his  government,  sent  to 
Rome  for  his  younger  brotlier  1'igrancs.  Ti- 
berius was  employed  by  Augustus  to  ])lace  Ti- 
granes  on  the  throne  ;  but,  before  his  arrival, 
Ai  taxias  was  put  to  death  by  those  in  whom 
he  most  confided.    Bayle.    Umvers.  Hist. — A. 

ARTAXIAS  111.  son  of  Polemo  king  of 
Pontus,  and  first  named  Zeno,  was  made  king 
of  Armenia  by  Germanicus  in  the  place  of 
Oiodes  theson  of  Vonones.  He  took  the  name 
of  Artaxias  from  the  city  of  Artaxata,  where 
he  was  enthroned,  and  reigned  17  years.  Bayle. 
Uiiivers.  Hist. — A. 

ARTAUD,  archbishop  of  Rheims,  in  the 
tenth  century,  is  celebrated  for  a  contest  which 
he  had  with  Hebert  and  Hugues,  counts  of 
Paris.  These  nobles,  jealous  of  the  growing 
power  of  the  ecclesiastic,  in  the  year  940  en- 
gaged William  duke  of  Normandy  to  assist 
them  in  laying  siege  to  Rheims.  After  six  days 
the  prelate  was  deserted  by  his  vassals,  and 
submitted.  His  enemies  obliged  hitn  to  resign 
the  archbishopric,  and  to  quit  the  diocese.  He 
fled  to  Laon,  and  presented  iiimself  at  the  court, 
then  held  in  that  place.  Here  every  expedient 
was  tried  to  intimidate  him,  and  to  make  him 
consent  to  the  ordination  of  Hugues,  his  voung 
competitor,  not  more  than  twenty  years  of  age. 
Artaud,  however,  was  resolute,  and  threatened 
excommunication,  and  an  appeal  to  tiic  pope, 
if  any  one  was  ordained  to  the  archl)isliopric 
of  Riieims  during  his  life.  Hugues  was,  not- 
withstanding, ordained  in  a  council  of  bisliops 
held  at  Soissons  in  941.  From  this  time  the 
right  to  the  see  was  long  contested  by  the  two 
competitors.  In  the  year  947,  the  king  restored 
Artaud  to  his  see,  and  not  long  afterwards, 
Hugues  was  excommunicated  in  a  council  held 
at  'i'reves.  Artaud  consecrated  the  two  kings, 
Lothaire,  and  Louis  d'Outremer,  and  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  dignity  of  grand  chancellor.  He 
possessed  his  honours  till  the  year  948.  A/o- 
teii. — E. 

ARTEDI,  Peter,  an  eminent  naturalist, 
was  born  of  poor  parents  in  1705  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Ingermaniand  in  Sweden,  and  was 
educated  first  at  the  college  of  Hurnesand  in 
that  province,  and  afterwards  at  Upsal,  witii 
a  view  to  the  ecclesiastical  profesbion ;  but  such 


was  his  decided  inclination  to  the  study  of  na- 
tural history,  that  he  quitted  his  first  destination 
for  the  more  conformable  one  of  medicine. 
Wlitn  Linnaeus  first  arrived  at  Upsal  in  1728, 
he  found  Artedi  there,  and  in  high  reputation 
for  his  natural  knowledge  ;  and  lie  contracted 
a  most  intimate  friendsliip  with  him,  which 
some  diversity  in  their  tempers  and  pursuits  ra- 
ther favoured  than  obstructed.  Arledi  was  of 
a  graver  turn  than  his  companion,  and  better 
versed  in  chemistry,  though  inferior  in  botany 
and  some  other  branches.  Artedi  at  length 
confined  his  botanical  studies  chiefly  to  the  um- 
belliferous plants,  of  which  he  suggested  a  ne\y 
mode  of  classification,  afterwards  published  by 
Linn<-Eus.  But  his  capital  object  of  pursuit 
was  ichthyology,  which  he  studied  with  all  the 
ardour  of  a  reformer  and  inventor.  He  entirely 
new  methodised  it  u])on  philosophical  principles, 
and  has  obtained  great  applause  for  his  labours 
from  all  siicccedmg  naturalists.  When  Lin- 
nasus  departed  from  Upsal  for  his  Lapland 
journey,  and  Artedi  for  his  visit  to  England, 
they  mutually  made  each  other  the  heirs  of  all 
their  manuscripts  in  case  of  death.  They  met 
again,  however,  in  Lcyden  in  1735,  whereLin- 
na;us  introduced  his  friend  to  Seba,  and  engaged 
him  in  preparing  for  the  press  the  third  volume 
of  that  naturalist's  great  "  Thesaurus,"  which 
related  to  fishes.  When  this  einplovment  was 
finished,  Artedi  proposed  returning  to  his  na- 
tive country,  and  publishing  the  fruits  of  his 
various  Inquiries.  ^But  unfortunately,  on  going 
to  his  lodgings  from  Seba's  house  in  the  even- 
ing of  September  27,  1735,  he  fell  into  a  canal, 
and  was  drowned.  Linnaeus,  who  greatly  re- 
gretted his  loss,  obtained  possession  of  his 
MSS.  and  in  1738  published  at  Leyden  his 
"  Bibllotheca  Ichthvologica,"  and  "  Philo- 
sophia  Ichthvologica,"  in  Svo.  with  the  life  of 
the  author  prefixed.  Aforeri.  Stocvcr'i  Life  of 
Linntcus. — A. 

ARTEMAS,  or  ARTEMON,  one  of  ihc 
leaders  of  a  christian  sect,  probably  flourished 
about  the  beginning  of  the  third  century.  Eu- 
seblus,  early  in  the  fourth  century,  speaks  of 
his  heresy  as  the  same  with  that  which  Paul 
of  Samosaia  had  in  his  time  endeavoured  to 
revive  (Hist.  Ec.  1.  v.  c.  27,  28.  He  cites  seve- 
ral passages  from  a  book  written  against  the 
heresy  of  Artemon,  also  cited  by  Theodorct 
(Haei.  Fab.  1.  ii.  c.  4,  5.)  and  places  his  ac- 
count of  this  work  in  his  narrative  of  affairs 
which  happened  about  the  time  of  the  emperors 
Commodus  and  Sevcrus,  or  between  the  years 
180  and  210.  Artemon,  together  with  Thco- 
dotus,  Asclcpiodotus,  and  others  mentioned  by 


A  R  T 


(     4i6     ) 


ART 


Eusehius,  arknowlcdgod  one  supreme  deity, 
the  creator  ot  the  universe,  and  taught  that 
jcsus  was  a  mere  man.  'I'licy  asserted,  that 
all  the  ancients,  and  even  the  ajiostles  them- 
selves, received  and  taught  this  doctrine  con- 
cerning; Christ,  and  that  the  truth  of  the  gos- 
]k1  hail  heen  preserved  till  the  time  of  Victor, 
the  thirteenth  bishop  of  Rome  irom  Peter;  Init 
that  by,  or  from  the  time  of,  his  successor 
Zcphvrinus,  the  truth  liad  been  corru])ted. 
Artemon  and  his  associates  are  also,  in  the 
work  cited  by  Euscbius,  accused  of  corrupting 
the  scriptures,  and  applying  the  syllogistic  art 
in  explaining  them:  they  are  charged  with 
transcribing  the  scriptures  with  variations, 
which  they  calkd  emendations,  but  v\hich  their 
enemies  pronoi  iKcd  corruptions.  A  further 
complaint  against  t'lese  men  was,  that,  leaving 
the  holy  scriptures,  they  studied  geometry,  and 
admired  Aristotle  and  Theo])hrastus,  and  that 
by  some  of  them  Galen  was  even  adored.  It  is 
plain,  from  this  accoiuil,  that  these  were  in- 
cjuisitivc  men,  who  possessed  a  consideiable 
share  of  learning ;  and  as  they  took,  the  pains 
to  make  sucii  alterations  in  their  copies  of  the 
scriptures  as  they  judged  to  be  emendations, 
they  certainly  did  not  in  general  neglect  or 
slight  the  scriptures;  although  some  of  them 
are  said,  not  to  have  tliought  it  worth  the  while 
to  corrupt  the  serijiturcs,  but  to  have  plainly  re- 
jected the  law  and  the  iirojihets.  The  truth  pro- 
bably was,  as  Dr.  Lardncr  conjectures,  that  they 
only  joined  with  the  study  of  the  scriptures  that 
of  mathematics  and  philosophy.  Whether  Ar- 
temon and  his  followers  were  right  in  their  lead- 
ing tenet,  this  is  not  the  proper  place  to  en- 
ijuire.  It  is  not  certain,  ^^hether  this  sect  ori- 
ginated with  Artemon,  or  Theodotus,  but  it 
appears  from  the  accounts  of  Eusebius  and 
Theodoret,  that  Artemon  was  a  man  of  some 
note,  and  that  a  considerable  number  of  per- 
sons embraced  his  opinions.  Concerning  Ar- 
temon himself,  none  of  whose  writings  remain, 
and  of  whom  nothing  is  known  but  from  the 
report  of  his  adversaries,  it  is  impossible  to  form 
a  certain  judgment.  Lardner^s  Cred.  Pt.  2. 
<;.  32.  §  2.  Hiit.  of  Heretics,  b.  ii.  c.  16. 
Cltrici  Hist.  Ecc.  duor.  prim.  Sac.  yjnn.  198. 
— E. 

ARTEMIDORUS,  of  Ephesus  [Lucian 
Philoi)at.  lib.  iv.  c.  74.]  who  might  not  im- 
properly be  distinguished  by  the  ajjpellation  of 
The  Dreamer,  lived,  as  appears  from  a  pas- 
sage in  his  work  [De  Somn.  lib.  i.  c.  26,  66.] 
in  the  time  of  Antoninus  Pius.  He  gave  him- 
self the  surname  of  the  Daldian,  to  give  cele- 
brity to  the  native  place  of  his  mother  [ib.  lib. 


iii.  c.  uU.],  who  was  of  Daldis,  a  town  in 
Lydia.  Suidas  calU  him  a  philosojiher,  but  he 
was  too  superstitious  and  credulous  to  deserve 
that  honourable  title.  He  has  left  a  treatise 
On  Dreams,  which,  though  abounding  with 
idle  absurdities,  bears  many  marks  of  erudition, 
and  may  rei)ay  the  trouble  of  perusal.  The 
work,  which  is  entitled  "  Oneirocritica,"  on 
the  interpretation  of  dreams,  contains  live  books, 
of  which  the  first  and  second  arraii',cs  dreams 
under  tlieir  several  classes,  the  third  and  ft)urth 
treat  of  the  interpretation  of  dreams,  and  the 
fifth  relates  wonderful  tales  of  dreams,  and 
their  accomplishment.  The  author  in  his  pie- 
face  informs  his  reader,  tb.at  he  had  not  only 
examined  carefullv  every  writer  who  had  treat- 
ed on  dreams,  but  had  also  travelled  for  many 
years  in  Greece,  Asia,  Jtaly,  and  among  the 
islands,  to  collect  all  possible  infonnalion  on 
this  subject,  and  to  obtain  from  the  most  skil- 
ful diviners  a  knowledge  of  the  true  principles 
of  the  art  of  interpreting  dreams.  He  even 
affirms,  that  he  was  led  to  this  singular  under- 
taking by  an  immediate  impulse  from  the 
divinity.  In  this  strange  vagary  of  human 
folly,  we  see  how  important  the  veriest  trifles 
may  become  by  constant  attention,  and  how 
easily  a  weak  or  superstitious  mind  may  ima- 
gine reality  and  certainty  in  things  altogether 
visionary.  "  I  always,"  says  Artemidorus, 
"  appeal  to  experience  as  the  rule  and  deinon- 
stration  of  what  I  advance  ;  for  by  studying 
oneirocrisy  day  and  night,  and  doing  nothing  else, 
1  have  arrived  at  an  universal  experience." 

The  Oneirocritica  was  first  edited  in  Greek 
by  Aldus,  in  8vo.  in  the  year  15 18.  Corna- 
rius  published  a  Latin  translation  at  Basil,  in 
1537,  which  was  reprinted  wtth  the  Greek 
text,  in  4to.  at  Paris,  in  1604,  by  Rigaltius. 
To  this  edition  are  annexed  die  writings  of 
Astampsychus,  Nicephones,  and  Achmet,  on 
the  same  subject.  Lucian.  Philopatr.  Suidas. 
Fabric.  Bib,  Gr.  lib.  iv.   c.  13.   §  5,  8.   Boyle. 

ARTEMIDORUS,  the  geographer,  of  E- 
PHESus,  frequently  mentioned  with  respect  by 
Strabo,  Pliny  and  others,  flourished  [Marcian. 
Herac.  in  Perijjlo]  about  an  hundred  years 
before  Christ.  He  wrote  a  description  of  the 
earth,  which  is  often  cited  by  the  ancients. 
Fragments  of  this  geographer  are  collected  bv 
Hudson,  in  the  first  volume  of  his  edition  of  the 
minor  Greek  geogra])hers,  printed  at  Oxford 
in  1703.  Voss.  dc  Hist.  Grac.  lib.  i.  c.  22. 
Fabric.  Bib.  Gr.  lib.  iv.  c.  13.  §  9. — E. 

ARTEMISIA  I.  queen  of  Caria,  daughter 
of  Lygdamis,  was  among   the   auxiliaries  of 


ART 


(    4t7     ) 


ART 


Xer\-es  against  the  Greeks,  and  in  person 
brought  him  five  ships  from  Halicarnassus, 
excellently  equipped.  She  was  the  onlv  one  who 
opposed  his  design  of  engaging  at  Salamis  ; 
but  bting  over-ruled,  she  acquitted  herself  with 
such  valour  in  the  combat,  that  the  king  ex- 
claimed, that  his  nien  beliaved  like  women, 
and  his  women  like  men.  She  was  among  the 
last  who  fled  ;  and  being  closelv  pursued  by  an 
Athenian  ship,  she  practised  a  stratagem  move 
to  the  honour  of  her  dexterity  than  her  justice. 
Seeing  near  lier  a  vessel  commanded  by  Dama- 
sithymus  king  of  Calyndus,  with  whom  slie 
was  at  variance,  she  directed  her  galley  against 
it,  and  sent  it  to  the  bottom,  not  one  of  tlie 
crew  escaping.  The  pursuer,  seeing  tliis,  ima- 
gined that  she  was  a  friend,  and  ceased  the 
chace.  She  arrived  in  safety  on  the  coast  of 
Asia,  and  was  entrusted  by  Xerxes  to  convey 
his  children  to  Ephe'ius.  The  Athenians  were 
so  incensed  against  her,  that  tliey  had  otFercd  a 
large  reward  to  any  who  should  take  her  alive. 
Her  statue  was  placed  at  Sparta  among  those 
of  the  Persian  commanders.  She  afterwards 
got  possession  of  the  city  of  Latmus,  in  which 
slie  was  admitted  under  pretence  of  sacrificing 
to  the  mother  of  tlie  gods.  In  revenge  for  this 
insidt,  it  is  fabled,  that  the  goddess  rendered  her 
desperately  in  love  with  a  young  man  ot  Ahv- 
dos,  whose  eyes  she  put  out  in  his  sleep,  on  his 
refusal  to  satisfy  her  passion  ;  and  that  she  then 
precipitated  herself  froiri  a  rock.  Herodotus. 
"Justin.  Pausoiiias.   Univ.  Hist. — A. 

ARTEMISIA  II.  queen  of  Caria,  daughter 
of  Hecatomncs,  is  principally  known  as  tlie 
affectionate  widow  of  her  husband  and  brother, 
Mausolus,  to  wliose  memory  she  erected  a  most 
splendid  monument,  the  work  of  tiie  architect 
Scopas,  popularly  reckoned  one  of  the  seven 
•wonders  of  the  world,  and  so  famous  as  to  have 
given  a  general  name  to  buildings  in  honour  of 
the  dead,  which  to  tliis  day  arc  called  Mausolaea. 
She  is  also  said  to  have  mingled  his  ashes  in  her 
drink,  and  to  have  instituted  a  prize  for  the 
best  eulogy  on  his  character.  She  appears, 
however,  not  to  have  given  herself  up  to  un- 
availing soinTnv  ;  for  when  she  had  succeeded 
her  husband  in  the  throne,  and  Caria  was  in- 
vaded by  a  Rhodian  fleet,  she  afforded  a  remark- 
able proof  of  ability  and  courage.  Having  or- 
dered the  jieople  of  Halicarnassus  to  give  an 
apparently  friendly  reception  to  the  Rhodians, 
they  were  induced  to  leave  their  ships  un- 
guarded, and  enter  the  city.  Artemisia,  in  the 
mean  time,  coming  witli  her  gallics  out  of  the 
lesser  port,  through  a  canal  cut  for  the  purpose, 
seized  the  whole  licet  of  the  enemy,  and  sailed 

VOL.  I. 


with  it  to  Rhodes.  The  Rhodians,  observing 
their  ships  approach  decorated  with  all  the  en- 
signs ot  victory,  jovfully  admitted  them  into 
their  port ;  and  beff.re  rhev  discovered  their 
mistake,  Artemisia  landed  her  troops,  and  fall- 
ing upon  the  unaiintd  midtitude,  took  pos- 
session ot  the  citv.  She  jiut  to  death  die  lead- 
ing citizens  who  had  promoted  the  expedition 
against  Caria,  and  erected  a  trophy  in  the  fo- 
rum, with  two  brazen  statues,  representing  her 
as  branding  the  captive  citv  of  Rhodes  with  a 
hot  iron.  This  event  is  placed  B.  C.  351. 
The  Rhodians  had  recourse  to  the  Athenians 
for  assistance,  bv  whose  aid,  as  some  say,  die 
town  was  recovered :  others  affirin  that  Arte- 
misia dying  soon  after,  the  Rhodians  them- 
selves regained  their  liberty.  Strabo.  Paii- 
sanias.     Univ.   Hist. — A. 

ARTHUR.  The  history  of  this  renowned 
British  prince  is  so  mingled  with  fable,  that 
some  critics  have  denied  his  very  existence ; 
but  the  circumstance  of  his  hcing  made  the 
subject  of  so  many  fabiduus  narrations  is  of  it- 
self a  strong  proof  that  such  a  person  really- 
lived,  and  perfonncd  great  exploits.  We  shall 
give  a  sketch  of  his  life,  as  transmitted  by 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  and  other  ancient  hi- 
storians, stripped  as  much  as  possible  of  incre- 
dible tales.  He  was  the  son  of  Igerna,  wife  of 
Gorlois  duke  of  Cornwall ;  but  Uther,  the 
pendragon  or  dictator  of  the  Britons,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  Iiis  fadier;  and  a  story  like 
that  of  Jui)iter  and  Alcmcna  has  been  invented 
in  order  to  dignify  the  adulterous  commerce,  in 
which  the  magical  arts  of  the  famons  Merlin 
are  said  to  have  effected  the  dece])tion.  On  the 
death  of  Uther  in  516,  Artliur  succeeded  hin\ 
in  his  office,  and  commenced  that  series  of  ex- 
ploits against  the  Saxon  invadeis  of  the  island 
which  has  made  his  name  so  illustrious.  He 
routed,  on  the  banks  of  the  J3ouglas  in  Lan- 
cashire, a  combined  army  ot  Saxons,  Scots,  and 
Picts,  under  Colgrin  the  Saxon  chief".  Thence 
he  marched  to  York,  and  laid  siege  to  it;  but 
a  powerful  succour  arriving  to  the  Saxons,  he 
withdrew  to  London,  and  requested  aid  from 
Hoel  king  of  Armorica,  or  Britany,  his  sis- 
ter's son.  Obtaining  what  he  asked,  l)e 
mardicd  again  to  meet  the  Saxons,  tlicn  be- 
sieging Lincoln,  whom  he  defcatcil ;  and  forced 
the  survivors  to  a  surrender,  or  condition  of 
departing  the  kingdom.  The  same  or  another 
jiarty  ot  Saxons  landing  in  the  west  of  Eng- 
land, mndc  great  ravages,  and  laid  siege  to  Ba- 
don,  or  Bath.  Arthur  was  recalled  by  this 
intelligence  from  an  intended  expedition  against 
the  Scots  ;  and  hastily  marching  against  the 
:?  H 


A  R  r 


(     4^3     ) 


ART 


Saxons,  ovei  threw  tlicm  in  a  obstinate  combat, 
which  lasted  two  days,  took  their  camp,  and 
slew  Colgrin  and  another  principal  leader. 
Thence  he  with  equal  Speed  retinncd  to  the 
noith,  in  order  to  relieve  his  nephew  Hoel, 
whom  the  Scots  and  Picts  had  invested  in  Dun- 
britton.  Here,  too,  he  was  victorious;  oblig- 
ing the  foe,  who  fled  before  him,  to  enter  into 
a  composition  with  him,  and  setting  up  a  sove- 
reign of  his  own  choice  over  Scotland.  Re- 
turning to  York,  he  there  re-established  the 
Christian  worshij)  on  the  ruins  of  the  Pagan, 
and  married  a  lady  called  Guanhumara,  bred  in 
the  family  of  Cador  duke  of  Cornwall ;  the 
same  wIto,  under  the  name  of  Guenever,  is  the 
subject  ot  various  metrical  romances,  and  is 
more  famed  for  her  beauty  than  her  conjugal 
fidelity.  He  is  then  represented  as  invading 
Ireland,  and  entirely  reducing  it  to  subjection  ; 
and  atterwards  obtaining  the  same  success 
against  Iceland,  Gothland,  and  the  Orkneys : 
but  these  are  scarcely  among  the  more  credible 
of  his  adveiuures.  Resting  from  these  labours, 
he  governed  his  kingdom  for  twelve  years  in 
peace,  and  kept  his  court  with  a  degree  of  mag- 
nificence and  civilised  splendour  that  ill  accords 
with  the  barbarism  of  the  age  and  country. 
He  instituted  his  famous  order  of  knights  of  the 
round  table,  those  patterns  of  chivalry,  whose 
names  are  celebrated  in  so  many  poems  and 
romances.  What  remains  of  the  story  of  his 
hfe  is  all  conceived  in  the  most  licentious  spirit 
ct  fiction.  He  conquered  Norway  and  Den- 
mark ;  invaded  France,  took  Paris,  and  spent 
nine  years  in  conquering  tlie  rest,  of  that  king- 
dom, of  which  he  divided  the  provinces  among 
his  domestics.  Returning,  he  held  a  grand 
assembly  of  his  tributary  kings  and  chief  nobles 
at  Caerlcon  in  Alonmouthshire,  where  he  was 
solemnly  crowned.  He  then  slew  a  Spanish 
giant  in  Cornwall,  engaged  in  war  with  the 
Roman  empire,  and  defeated  all  its  forces  ;  after 
which  he  was  in  full  march  for  Rome,  when 
his  nephew  Modred,  who  in  his  absence  had 
prevailed  on  queen  Guanhumara  to  marry  him, 
and  had  .<et  up  the  standard  of  revolt,  recalled 
him  from  foreign  enterprises  to  the  defence  of 
his  own  kingdom.  Modred  called  in  the  Saxons 
and  northern  barbarians  to  his  assistance,  and 
three  battles  were  fought  between  the  uncle  and 
nephew,  in  the  last  of  which,  Arthur,  though 
victorious,  received  so  many  wounds,  that,  re- 
tiring to  the  isle  of  Avalon,  he  died,  A.  D.  542. 
and  was  buried  in  that  pbce.  On  tiiesc  mon- 
strous fables,  contradictory  to  the  histories  of 
all  the  nations  made  the  scene  of  them,  it  is 
needless  to  make  many  remarks ;  though  pro- 


bably some  trudi  respecting  home  transactions 
lurks  beneath  the  mass  of  invention.  No  one 
has  taken  so  much  pains  in  elucidating  the  real 
history  of  Arthur,  as  the  ingenious  Mr.  Whi- 
taker.  He  supposed  him  to  have  been  the 
yirt/i-uir,  great  man,  or  sovereign,  of  the  Si- 
lures,  and  to  have  fought  under  the  auspices  of 
Andirosius,  the  pcndragon  of  the  Britons,  who 
sent  him  to  the  relief  of  the  northern  Britons, 
oppressed  by  the  Saxons.  After  great  successes 
in  these  parts,  he  fought  his  twelfth  battle  in  the 
south  of  England,  after  he  was  elected  to  the 
pcndragonship,  against  Cerdic  the  Saxon.  Mr. 
Whitaker  believes  in  the  reality  of  his  insti- 
tuting a  military  order,  as  the  safe-guard  and 
ornament  of  the  throne,  and  tliat  it  was  the 
origin  of  all  others  of  the  like  kind  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe.  He  speaks  in  high  terms  of 
the  glories  of  his  reign,  at  lengtli  fatally  termi- 
nated by  the  civil  wars,  which  put  an  end  to 
the  hero's  life.  IVhitaker's  Hist.  ATanchtit 
Biog.  Britan. — A. 

y\RTHUR,  Duke  of  Brttany,  was  tlie 
postliumous  son  of  Geoffrey  Plantagenet  (4th 
son  of  Henry  II.  king  of  England),  by  Con- 
stantia,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Conan,  duke 
of  Britany  and  earl  of  Richmond.  Arthur  was 
born  on  March  31,  1187,  and  being  heir-ap- 
parent to  Britany  and  its  dependencies,  he  was 
educated  under  his  mother's  care.  His  uncle, 
Richard  Cosur-de-lion,  in  a  letter  to  the  pope, 
dated  from  Messina  in  1190,  declared  his  in- 
tention of  making  young  Arthur  his  heir, 
should  he  die  without  issue ;  yet  when  he  re- 
ceived his  mortal  wound  in  1199,  he  devised 
the  kingdom  of  England  and  all  his  other  do- 
minions to  his  brother  John.  Arthur's  claim 
(which,  according  to  the  regular  laws  of  suc- 
cession, was  irrefragable,  he  being  the  son  of 
an  elder  brother)  was,  however,  supported  by 
several  persons  of  distinction  in  the  I^-ench 
dominions;  and  his  party  was  openly  espoused  . 
by  Philip  king  of  France,  who  made  war  upon 
John,  under  that  pretext.  At  length  a  peace 
was  concluded  between  the  two  kings,  in  which 
Arthur  was  comprehended,  and  he  did  homage 
to  his  uncle  for  tlie  dukedom  of  Britany.  A 
suspicion  of  John,  however,  induced  him  to 
return  with  Philip  to  Paris.  In  1202,  Philip, 
apparently  with  a  design  to  make  a  quarrel, 
haughtily  required  of  John  to  give  up  to  his 
nephew  all  his  possessions  in  France ;  and  his 
refusal  caused  a  new  war.  Arthur,  entering 
Poitou  with  an  army,  subdued  that  country, 
with  Touraine  and  Anjou,  and  laid  siege  to  the 
castle  of  Mirabcau,  in  which  was  his  grand- 
mother Eleanor,  king  John's  mother.    He  had 


ART 


(    419    ) 


A  R  V 


nearly  taken  it,  when  John  came  to  his  mo- 
ther's relief,  entirely  defeated  Arthur's  army, 
and  made  him  prisoner.  This  event  proved 
the  ruin  of  tlie  young  prince,  who  a  little  while 
before  had  been  contracted  to  the  king  of 
France's  daughter.  His  uncle  first  sent  liim  to 
the  castle  of  Falaise,  under  the  custody  of  his 
chamberlain  Hubert;  and  paying  him  a  visit, 
spoke  to  him  gentlv,  and  endeavoured  to  per- 
suade him  to  break  off  his  connexions  with 
Philip,  and  bear  due  allegiance  to  his  uncle  and 
lawful  sovereign.  Arthur  spiritedly  replied, 
that  allegiance  was  due  to  himself,  as  the  true 
heir  to  the  English  crown  ;  and  added  some  in- 
cautious menaces.  John,  provoked  witli  this 
freedom,  removed  him  to  the  cascle  of  Rouen, 
and  kept  him  in  closer  custody;  and  thence- 
forth entertained  such  suspicions  of  him,  that 
he  had  resolved  to  put  his  eyes  out,  and  render 
liim  incapable  of  having  posteiity.  From  this 
cruel  design  he  was  diverted  either  by  Hubert, 
or  queen  Eleanor,  who  now  began  to  look 
upon  her  grandson  with  much  tenderness.  h\ 
the  spring  of  next  year,  however,  A.D.  1203, 
Arthur  disappeared,  and  was  never  more  heard 
of;  and  the  character  of  John  rendered  too  pro- 
bable the  general  suspicion  that  he  had  caused 
him  to  be  murdered,  though  the  fact  and  the 
mode  were  never  legally  proved.  The  fate  of 
this  unfortunate  prince  excited  much  com- 
passion, and  aggravated  the  hatred 'ins])ired  by 
the  tyranny  and  meanness  of  John;  against 
whom  a  process  was  carried  on  for  the  deed  in 
the  parliament  of  Paris,  which  condemned  him, 
as  duke  of  Normandy,  on  his  non-ajipearance, 
to  the  forfeiture  of  all  his  property  in  France. 
From  a  paper  in  Rymcr's  Focdcra  it  appears 
certain  that  Constantia,  Arthur's  mother,  died 
before  him  ;  a  fact  which  renders  entirely  fic- 
titious the  pathetic  scer.es  of  her  distress  and 
rage  in  Shakespear's  fine  play  of  king  John, 
though  thcv  were  supported,  as  usual  in  the 
works  of  that  dramatist,  by  Jhe  narrations  of 
some  jjopular  historians.  Biograph.  Britan. — A. 
ARTIGNI,  Anthony  Gachet,  canon 
of  the  archie|)iscopal  church  of  Vienna,  and  a 
native  of  that  city,  has  distinguished  himscU  in 
the  present  century,  as  a  writer  of  literary 
history.  He  is  the  author  of  "  Mcmoircs 
fl'Histoire,  deCritique  etde  la  Litterature,"  and 
published  in  seven  volumes  i2mo.  at  Paris  in 
I7.;9.  The  work  discovers  considerable  ta- 
lents for  literary  research,  and  for  criticism. 
The  author  is  said,  however,  to  have  been  much 
indebted  to  a  manuscript  history  of  the  French 
poets  by  the  abbe  Brun,  dean  of  St.  Agricola  at 
Avignon.     Artigni,  who  was  a  polite  scholar. 


and  an  entertaining  companion,  died  at  Vienna 
in  1769.  He  wrote  verses,  but  they  have  not 
given  him  any  distinguished  rank  among  the 
poets.     Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

ARTUSI,  GiA.MARiA,  a  writer  in  music 
about  the  end  of  the  i6th  centur)',  was  a  canon 
regular  in  tht:  congregation  del  Salvatore  in 
Bologna  He  published  at  Venice  in  1586 
"  L'Arte  de  Contrappunto  ridotta  in  Tavole" 
(The  Art  of  Counterpi)int  reduced  to  Tables); 
ni  which  he  had  admirably  analysed  and  brought 
into  a  compendium  the  diffuse  works  of  Zar- 
lino  and  other  preceding  writers  on  musical  com- 
position. In  1589  he  published  a  second  part 
ot  this  work,  wliich  is  an  useful  and  e.xcellent 
si.ipi)leinent  to  the  former.  In  1600  and  1603 
he  published  the  first  and  second  parts  of  a  work 
"  Dclle  Imjierfctiioni  d' Ua  moderna  Musica" 
(On  the  Imperfections  of  modern  Music).  In 
the  first  of  these,  a  curious  account  is  given  of 
a  concert  performed  by  the  nuns  of  a  convent 
in  Ferrara  in  1598,  on  occ.ision  of  a  double 
marriage,  between  Philip  III.  of  Spain  and 
Margaret  of  Austria,  and  the  archduke  Albert 
and  the  infanta  Isabella.  This  leads  the  writer 
to  a  description  and  critique  of  all  the  principal 
musical  instruments  used  in  his  time,  which 
forms  a  valuable  article  in  the  history  of  the  art. 
The  subsequent  comparison  of  ancient  and 
modern  music  diqjlays  much  judgment  and  sci- 
ence. The  second  part  of  his  work  consists  ot* 
a  defense  of  a  treatise  written  by  Francesco  Pa- 
tricio ;  and  also  of  an  inquiry  into  the  principles 
of  certain  modern  innovators  in  music.  Artusi 
published  at  Bologna  in  1604  a  small  tract  in 
4to.  entitled  •'  Impresa  del  molto  R.  M.  Gio- 
seffn  Zarlino  da  Chioggia,"  the  subject  of 
which  was  an  impress  or  device  chosen  by 
Zarlino,  and  forming  an  harmonical  scale  or 
diagram.  It  of  course  involved  the  doctrine  of 
harmonical  proportion.  We  learn  nothing  more 
of  this  ingenious  writer  and  musical  critic. 
Bti>ney\  Hist.  Music,  vol.  iii.  Hau-iins'  Hist. 
vol.  iii. — A." 

ARVIEUX,  Laurent  d',  a  celebrated 
French  resident  in  the  cast,  was  born  at  Mar- 
seilles in  1635,  of  a  family  of  rank,  originally 
from  Tuscany.  He  carlv  manifested  a  taste 
for  the  eastern  languages,  and  a  desire  for  tra- 
velling ;  and  a  relation  of  his  being  named 
consul  of  Scyde,  he  gladly  accompanied  him  in 
i()^^.  At  this  place,  and  other  towns  of  Syria 
and  Palestine,  lie  resided  twelve  years,  i>erfecting 
himself  in  the  principal  eastern  languages,  and 
bv  their  means  acquiring  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  history,  maimers,  and  politics  ot  all  the 
Levant.     He  relumed  to  France  io  IO65,  and 


A  R  V 


(    420    ) 


A  R  U 


in  1668  was  sent  envoy  to  Tunis  for  die  pur- 
pose of  negotiating  a  treaty.  He  succeeded  in 
the  object  of  his  niis\ion,  and  moreover  pro- 
cured tlie  liberation  of  380  French  who  had 
been  made  slave-;,  and  who  on  their  return, 
through  gratitude  for  Ills  services,  otFercd  iiim  a 
purse  of  600  pistoles,  which  he  refused  to  ac- 
cept. In  1672  he  was  sent  to  Constantinople, 
charged  with  a  number  of  demands  to  the 
Porte  of  ^rcat  importance  to  tlie  general  and 
commercial  interests  of  t!ic  state.  He  obtained 
all  that  he  asked,  and  greatly  astonished  the 
Turks  bv  holding  all  his  conferences  without 
the  aid  of  an  interpreter.  On  his  return  he  re- 
ceived several  marks  of  the  king's  approbation; 
and  was  sent  in  1674  to  Algiers,  where  he  ob- 
tained the  freedom  of  240  French  slaves.  In 
1679,  tliiough  the  interest  of  M.  Colbert,  he 
was  nominated  to  the  consulate  of  Aleppo,  the 
most  considerable  in  the  Levant.  Here  he  not 
only  attended  to  the  concerns  of  commerce,  but 
took  upon  himself  the  protection  of  the  mission- 
aries, to  whom  he  did  a  number  of  good  offices. 
These  were  so  much  esteemed  by  the  pope, 
Innocent  XI.  that  he  sent  him  a  brief  for  the 
bishopric  of  Babylon,  with  permission,  if  he 
chose  to  decline  it,  to  nominate  another  person 
in  his  stead.  In  consequence,  M.  d'Arvieux 
named  father  Pidou  to  that  dignity.  He  re- 
turned to  Marseilles  in  16S6,  where  he  fixetl 
himself  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  mar- 
ried in  1689,  and  devoted  his  time  principally  to 
letters.  He  wrote  several  memoirs  on  modern 
history  and  the  affairs  of  the  Levant.  The 
latter  years  of  his  life  he  spent  solely  in  study- 
ing the  scriptures  in  their  original  lantruacres, 
■with  trie  eastern  commentaries  and  paraphrases. 
He  died  in  1702,  aged  67.  M.  de  la  Rocque 
printed  in  l2mo.  in  1717,  a  MS.  left  unfinished 
by  M.  d'Arvieux,  containing  an  account  of  a 
journey  which  he  made  by  order  of  the  king, 
to  the  grand  emir  of  the  Arabs  of  the  desert, 
with  a  description  of  the  manners  and  customs 
of  that  people.  And  in  1734  there  appeared 
"  Memoirs,  of  the  Chevalier  d'Arvieux,"  with 
an  account  of  all  his  travels,  &:c.  &c.  in  6  vols. 
12mo.  collected  and  arranp;ed  by  father  Labat, 
a  Dominican.      A^IorerPs  Die}. — A. 

ARVIRAGUS,  a  British  king,  flourished, 
according  to  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  and  other 
native  writers,  in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Clau- 
dius ;  but  a  line  in  the  satirist  Juvenal  is  sup- 
posed to  prove  that  he  was  living  in  the  time  of 
Domitian.  That  poet,  representing  the  base 
Vejento,  as  breaking  out  into  a  projihetic  adu- 
lation of  the  emperor,  for  some  trifling  omen, 
makes  him  say, 


R'^jem  aliquem  capies,  aul  di^  tcmnnc  Britanno 
Lxcidct  Arvlragut. 

Sat,  IV.  Lib.  12s. 
I  see  some  captive  kin^;  or,  fumbling  down, 
Arviragus  Ucscrt  l<is  British  car. 

But  it  is  sufBciently  probable  that  the  name 
of  Arviragus,  as  a  British  chief  or  king  of  re- 
nown, might  be  used  in  a  general  sense  in  this 
instance,  without  regard  to  his  being  actually 
living  or  dead ;  just  as  in  the  very  same  satire 
Juvenal  calls  Domitian  the  l/ald  Nero.  Geof- 
frey, indeed,  gives  a  manifestly  fabulous  account 
of  Arviragus,  of  which  some  parts,  however, 
may  be  ti'ue  —  as,  that  he  was  the  younger  son 
of  Kymbcline ;  that,  after  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther and  brother,  he  headed  the  Britons  ;  that 
on  the  departure  of  Claudius  he  raised  himself 
to  the  state  of  an  independent  prince  ;  that  he 
was  engaged  in  war  against  Vespasian,  and 
made  a  compromise  with  him  ;  and  that  at 
length  he  ruled  over  the  Britons  to  a  good  old 
age,  and  after  his  death  was  buried  at  Glou- 
cester in  a  temple  which  he  had  erected  to  the 
honour  of  the  emperor  Claudius.  Biogr,  Bil- 
taii. — A. 

ARUNDEL,  Thomas,  an  English  di- 
vine, second  son  of  Robert  Fitz-Alan,  earl  of 
Arundel  and  Warren,  and  in  the  reigns  of  Ri- 
chard II.  Henry  IV.  and  Henry  V.  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  was  born  in  the  year  1353. 
Long  before  this  time,  the  pope  had  exercised 
a  kind  of  feudal  authority  in  England,  and  had 
claimed  th.e  right  of  bestowing  benefices,  and 
even  of  nominating  to  them  hy  provision,  or  an- 
ticipation, before  they  became  actually  void. 
Against  the  whole  of  this  usurpation  the  Eng- 
lish government  had  protested  ;  and,  in  the  year 
1350,  by  a  statute  bearing  date  25  Edw.  III. 
the  pope's  authority  in  providing  for,  or  filling 
up,  the  vacant  bishoprics,  was  taken  away. 
Still,  however,  in  defiance  of  the  English  law, 
he  continued  to  exercise  this  power.  It  was  to 
this  illegal  authority  of  the  pope,  that  Thomas 
Arundel  owed  his  preferment  frorn  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Taunton  to  the  bis!iopric  of  Ely : 
and  it  is  remarkable,  that  he  received  the  mitre 
at  an  earlier  time  of  life  than  has  been  known, 
in  any  other  single  instance,  in  the  whole 
English  history.  At  twenty-one  years  of  age 
he  was  consecrated  bishop,  and  two  years  after- 
wards was  enthroned  at  Ely  with  the  usual  so- 
lemnities. [Bentham'.s  Hist,  and  Antiq.  of  the 
Church  of  Ely,  p.  164 — 166.]  Godwin  re- 
lating this  singularly  Judicious  exercise  of  pon- 
tifical power,  humorously  describes  this  vene- 
rable prelate  as  full  of  years  and  gravity  ;  —  an 
old  man,  with  one  foot  in  the  grave,  who  had 


■ :  "^it^rl  ::  :.'u Liu  utO/^  L^mt^^  r..^. 


'      //'r//r.f/r//r     /V'////^<^,^. 


•  /W**4y*»*f  »-Jl.yrfjr  !»«*-«>  JL»   »  V  fU'*^  .*if»^  tUm..^*  t.^** . 


A  R  U 


(     4^1     ) 


A  R  U 


almost  completed  liis  tzventy-sccoiu!  vcar — an- 
nosum  quemque  vinim  facile  credas  gravissi- 
mum — cum  jam,  O  capularcm  senem  !  setatis 
anniiin  esplcvisset — -Jcrc  viccsimiim  secundum. 

Bishop  Anindel  seems  to  have  carried  with 
him,  through  every  stage  of  his  advancement, 
a  piieiile  taste  for  shew  and  splendour.  'W'liile 
in  the  see  of  Elv,  lie  presented  the  cluirch  and 
palace  with  a  curious  table  of  niassv  gold,  en- 
riched with  precious  stones  :  after  his  acces- 
sion, in  1388,  bv  virtue  of  the  jiope's  bull,  to 
the  archiepiscopal  sec  of  York,  besides  build- 
ing, at  a  vast  expense,  a  palace  for  his  residence 
and  that  of  his  successors,  he  gave  to  tiie 
church  several  jiicces  of  silver-gilt  plate  and 
other  rich  ornaments;  when,  in  1396,  bv  the 
same  authority,  he  was  raised  to  the  summit  of 
ecclesiastical  preferment,  he  was  enthroned  with 
great  pomp  at  Canterbury,  and  he  afterwards 
presented  to  the  cathedral  church  several  ricii 
vestments,  a  mitre  enchased  with  jewels,  a  sil- 
ver gilt  crosier,  and  a  golden  chalice.  During 
the  ten  years  wliich  preceded  his  a))pointmeut 
to  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury,  he  occu- 
pied, with  some  interruptions,  the  honourable 
and  important  post  of  lord  liigh  chancellor  of 
England.  He  removed  the  courts  of  justice,  in 
1393,  from  London  to  York,  for  the  purpose, 
as  he  said,  of  mortifying  the  insolence  and 
pride  of  the  inhabitants  of  London,  ^^ith  whom 
the  king  was  at  that  time  highly  displeased, 
and,  doubtless,  at  the  same  time,  to  bring  addi- 
tional splendour  and  wealth  to  his  own  diocese. 
After  two  or  three  terms,  however,  the  incon- 
veniencies  of  this  removal  were  sufficiently  ex- 
perienced, and  the  courts  were  brought  back  to 
their  old  station.  Soon  after  his  accession  to 
the  metropolitan  see,  he  revived,  on  his  visi- 
tation to  the  city  of  London,  an  old  institution, 
introduced  by  Simon  Niger,  bisliop  ot  London, 
requiring  the  inhabitants  of  each  parish  to  pay 
to  it's  rector  one  halfpenny  in  the  jiound,  out 
of  the  rent  of  their  houses  [Matt.  Parker.  An- 
tiq.  Brit.  p.  407.     Ed.  Lond.  1729.] 

Archbishop  Artmdcl  was  active  and  busy  in 
the  civil  affairs  of  his  time.  Having  taken  a 
leading  pait  in  the  fust  attempt  which  was 
made  to  deliver  the  nation  from  the  oppression 
of  Richard  II.  by  obtaining  a  conuuission  to 
the  duke  of  Gloccstcr,  the  carl  of  Arundel  and 
others,  to  assume  the  regency,  he  was  banished 
from  his  see,  and  from  the  kingdom.  Pope 
Boniface  IX.  seized  tliis  occasion  of  expressing 
liis  displeasure  against  the  king  and  parliament 
of  England  for  having  attempted  to  deprive  him 
of  his  provisionni  jurisdiction  in  iliat  country, 
and  gave  Arundel  an  honoinablc  reception  at 


the  court  of  Roine,  nominated  hirn  to  tlic  arch- 
bishopric of  St.  Andrew's,  and  declared  his  in- 
teiiiion  of  giving  jiim  other  prei'ermcnis  in  Eng- 
land. The  king  wrote  an  cxpostulatory  letter 
to  the  pope,  in  which  he  describes  Thomas 
Arundel  as  a  man  of  a  turbulent,  seditious  tem- 
per, who  was  endeavouring  to  undermine  his 
government  ;  and  entreats,"  that  his  holiness 
would  not  shock  his  interest  and  inclinations, 
by  granting  him  such  favoui-s,  as  might  create 
misunderstandings  between  the  miirc  and  the 
crown  ;  at  the  same  time  adding,  "  If  you  have 
a  mind  to  provide  for  him  others  isc,  we  have 
nothing  to  object,  only  we  cannot  allow  him 
to  dip  m  our  dish."  [Parker.  Antiq.  ib.]  The 
pope,  not  choosing  to  hazard  a  refusal  of  this 
request,  withheld  his  intended  favours  from 
Ariuidel. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the  en- 
creasing  dissatisfaction  of  the  people  of  Eng- 
land with  the  government  of  Richard  II.  af- 
forded archbishop  Arundel  an  opportunity  of 
returning  to  England,  and  regaining  his  digni- 
ties. Ha^■ing  left  Rome,  he  was  in  Britanny  at 
the  time  \\  lien  the  nobilitv  and  others  determined 
to  solicit  Henry,  duke  of  Lancaster,  who  had 
been  banished  by  Richard,  to  return  from 
France,  and  take  the  crown.  A  letter  of  invi- 
tation was  written  to  the  duke,  and  conveved  to 
his  hands  by  the  archbishop,  his  fellow-sufFerer. 
Arundel  willingly  undertook  the  commission, 
and,  strongly  representing  to  the  duke  the 
wretched  state  of  the  English  nation,  entreated 
him  to  attempt  the  redress  of  it's  grievances. 
The  duke  seemed  not  imwilling  to  comply,  but 
expressed  some  scruples  concerning  the  law- 
fidness  of  the  attempt.  The  archbishop,  to 
obviate  these  scruples,  enmuerated  many  cx- 
am)ilcs  of  kings  deposed  and  banished,  and  in 
conclusion  observed,  that  these  instances  were 
"  enough  to  clear  thi-;  action  of  rareness  in 
other  countries,  and  novelty  in  ours  [Complete 
Hist.  Eng.  Rich.  II.]  The  event  of  this  nego- 
tiation is  well  known. 

'I'he  accession  of  Henry  IV.  was  accom- 
panied by  the  leturn  of  the  archbishop,  and  his 
restoration  to  the  metropoHtan  sec.  Arundel 
had  the  gratification  to  place  the  crown  on  the 
head  of  his  new  master. 

Early  in  the  reign  of  Henry  W .  the  exigen- 
cies of  the  state  requiring  large  supplies,  a  de- 
sign was  formed  of  seizing  the  revenues  of  the 
t  hurch,  and  applying  them  to  the  public  service. 
In  a  parliament,  held  at  Coventry  in  1404, 
called,  from  it's  deficiency  of  lawyers  and  other 
learned  men,  the  lack-learning  parliament,  it 
was  urged,  that  the  wealth  of  the  church,  be- 


A  R  U 


(     4^2     ) 


ASA 


stowed  upon  men  who  ougln  to  be  despisers  of 
the  woild,  miglit  well  he  spared  ;  that  the  cler- 
gy, who  had  accumulated  immense  revenues, 
lived  in  idleness  and  luxury,  and  contributed  lit- 
tle to  the  public  benefit,  while  the  laity  were 
haz.arding  botii  their  persons  and  fo?  tunes  in  the 
service  ot  their  country,  and  that,  tiiereforc,  in 
a  moment  of  public  necessity,  it  was  reasonable 
to  have  recourse  to  tliis  plentiful  fund.  Arun- 
del, who  was  present,  to  avert  the  blow  which 
threatened  the  church,  pleaded,  that  the  clergy 
had  always  contributed  more  to  the  public  ser- 
vice than  tlie  laity  ;  and  that  tiiey  were  at  least 
as  serviceable  to  the  king  by  their  prayers  as  the 
laity  by  their  arms.  Sir  John  Cheney,  the 
speaker,  replied,  that  he  thought  the  prayers  of 
tiie  church  a  very  slender  supply,  and  was  of 
c;pinion,  tliat  their  lands  would  do  the  nation 
more  good.  The  archbishop  angrily  retorted, 
that  the  kingdom  coukl  not  expect  to  prosper,  as 
long  as  the  prayers  of  the  church  were  despised. 
At  the  same  time  he  importuned  the  king  to  pro- 
tect the  church  from  depredation  ;  and  these 
spirited  exertions  put  a  stop,  for  tlie  present,  to 
the  prosecution  of  this  violent  measure.  ( VVal- 
singham,  Hist.  Angl.  p.  371.) 

^^'hile  Arundel  /ealoiisly  defended  the  tem- 
poralities of  the  church,  he   discovered    equal 
veal  for  the  preservation  of  its  internal  consti- 
tution.    The   Lollards,    or   Wickiiffites,   who 
were  attempting  large  innovations  both  in  doc- 
trine and  worship,  excited  the  ardour  of  the  me- 
tropolitan ;  and  he  adopted  violent  and  unjusti- 
fiable measures  for  the  suppression  of  this   ri- 
sing sect.     Finding  that  the  university  of  Ox- 
ford was  beginning  to  be  infected  with  these 
new  opinions,  he  determined  to  pay  an  official 
visit  to  that  seat  of  learning,  on  the  ground  of 
an  ancient  claim  of  his  predecessors,  which  had 
been  confirmed  to  him  as  metropolitan  by  the 
late  king.     I'be  university  at  first  refused  to  re- 
ceive him  as  a  visitor,  but  afterwards  acquiesced 
on  the  king's  decision  in  iiLs  favour.     Sujiported 
by  thebo.ly  of  thecleijry,  assembled  in  convoca- 
tion at  St.  Paul's  in  London,  who  complained 
of  the  strange  degeneracy  and  contumacy  ot  the 
students  in  an  univer.'ity  hicherto  exemplary  for 
its  adherence  to  the  cafiiclic  faith,  and  for  or- 
derly and  obedient  behaviour ;  the  archbishop 
sent  delegates  to  the  university  to  enquire  into 
the  state  of  opinions  among  the  students.     A 
committee  of  twelve  persons  was  appointed  by 
the  university  to  sit  in  inquisition,  under  the  au- 
thority of  the  visitor's  delegates,  upon  heretical 
books,  particularly  those  of  WicklifFe,  and  to 
examine  such  persons  as  were  suspected  of  fa- 
\  curing  this  new  heresy,  and  compel  them  to  a 


declaration  of  their  opinions.  The  report  of 
these  inquisitors  was  transmitted  to  the  primate, 
who  confirmed  their  censures  :  and  the  persecu- 
tion was  carried  by  this  bigot  to  an  absurd  and 
cruel  extremity.  (Wood's  Hist,  and  Antiq.  of 
Oxford,  p.  205.)  Arundel  solicited  from  the 
pope  a  bull  for  digging  up  Wiekliff's  bones, 
which,  however,  was  wisely  refused  him.  Upon 
the  authority  of  the  horrid  act  for  burning  here- 
tics, passed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  a  Lol- 
lard, in  the  year  1410,  was  consigned  to  the 
stake  ;  and,  at  the  commencement  of  the  leign 
ot  Henry  V.  Sir  John  Oldcastle,  lord  Cobham, 
one  of  the  principal  patrons  of  the  sect,  was  in- 
dicted by  the  primate,  convicted  of  heresy,  and 
sentenced  to  the  flames.  Soon  after  the  arch- 
bishop had  pronounced  the  sentence  of  excom- 
munication on  lord  Cobham,  he  was  seized  with 
an  inflammation  in  his  throat,  which  speedily 
terminated  his  life  :  he  died  on  the  20th  of  Fe- 
bruary in  the  year  141 3.  The  Lollards,  who 
partook  of  the  superstitious  character  of  the 
times,  imputed  this  sudden  illness  and  death  to 
thejust  judgment  of  God.  A  more  enlightened 
age  may  condemn,  in  every  sect  alike,  such  pre- 
sumptuous attempts  to  point  the  thunderbolts  of 
heaven  ;  but  it  will  not  fail  to  pronounce  all 
endeavours  to  restrain,  by  violent  means,  the 
freedom  of  enquiry,  as  at  once  impolitic  and 
criminal.  This  prelate  might  possess  strong 
talents  and  a  courageous  spirit,  fit  for  the  sta- 
tion which  he  occupied  as  guardian  of  the 
church ;  but  he  was  too  zealously  attached  to  the 
papal  power,  to  set  a  just  value  on  the  civil  rights 
of  his  country  ;  and  the  severities  which  he  ex- 
ercised towards  the  Lollards,  together  with  the 
synodic  precept  which  he  issued,  forbidding  the 
translation  of  the  scriptures  into  the  vulgar 
tongue,  w  ill  leave  upon  his  memory  the  perpe- 
tual stain  of  bigotry  and  intolerance.  Godivln 
de  PteeMil.      Bio-z.  Brit. — E. 

ARZACHEL,  or  Arzchael,  a  Spanish 
mathematician,  lived  in  the  tenth  or  eleventh 
century.  He  wrote  an  astronomical  work  en- 
titled, "  Observationes  de  Obliquitate  Zodiaca." 
Bliincau.  in  Cliron.  Math.  Vossius.  Ado- 
rer i. — E. 

ASA,  king  of  Judah,  tl>e  son  of  Abijam,  be- 
gan his  reign  about  955  years  before  Christ. 
He  sliowed  great  zeal  for  religion,  demolishing 
the  altars  erected  to  idols,  and  restoring  the  wor- 
ship of  Jehovah.  He  obtained  a  victory  over 
the  Midianites,  commanded  by  Zerah  an  Ethio- 
pian. In  a  war  withBaasha,  king  of  Israel,  he 
called  in  the  assistance  of  Benhadad,  king  of  Sy- 
ria. The  prophet  Hanani  reproved  him  for 
calling  in  foreign  aid,  and  was  severely  punish- 


A  S  C 


( 


A'-3 


) 


A  S  C 


ed.  He  held  tlie  sceptre  of  Judab  fortv-one 
years.  i  Kings,  xv.  8 — 24.  2  C/iron,  xiv, 
XV,  xvi.     Joseph.  Aut.  lib.  viii.  c.  6. — E. 

ASAPH,  the  son  of  Berachius,  of  the  tribe 
of  Levi,  was  a  celebrated  Hebrew  musician  in 
the  time  of  David.  Twelve  of  the  Hebrew 
psalms  are  inscribed  with  his  name,  and  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  by  him  :  but  tin's 
cannot  be  true  concerning  several,  which  relate 
to  the  Babylonish  captivity,  i  Chron.  vi.  39. 
2  CInon.  xxix.  25.  xxxv.  1 5.  Nehem.  xii. 
46.      Psalms,  50.   73 — 83. — E. 

ASAPH,  a  monk,  who  flourished  about  the 
year  500,  under  Carentius,  king  of  the  Britons, 
obtained  the  appellation  of  Saint,  and  gave  name 
to  the  episcopal  see  of  St.  Asaph  in  Wales.  He 
wrote  the  "  Ordinances  of  his  Cliurch,"  and 
the  "  Life  of  Kcntigern,"  a  Scotch  bishop,  who 
presided  in  the  convent  of  Llan  Elvy,  which 
afterwards  came  under  the  care  of  St.  Asaph, 
and  took  his  name.  Balcus  de  Script.  Brit. 
Godwin  de  Prasul.      Biog.  Brit. — E. 

ASAR-HADDOX,  son  of  Sennacherib  king 
of  Assyria,  succeeded  his  father  about  712 
years  before  Christ.  He  reigned  thirty-two 
years  in  Niniveh,  when  he  became  also  king  of 
Babylon.  He  sent  a  colony  of  Babylonians 
andCutheans  into  the  kingdom  of  Israel  or  Sa- 
maria. His  reign  terminated  667  years  before 
Christ.     Esdra,  lib.  i. — E. 

ASCELIN,  a  monk  of  the  eleventh  century, 
a  native  ot  Poitou,  and  a  pupil  of  Lanfranc, 
was  a  zealous  defender  of  the  catholic  faith 
against  Bercnger.  In  a  public  disputation  at 
Brione  with  that  divine,  he  is  said  to  have  put 
him  to  silence.  Berenser  afterwards  wrote  to 
Ascelin  on  the  subject  ot  the  conference,  and 
Ascelin  replied  in  a  letter,  which  maintains  the 
catholic  doctrine  of  transubstanliation.  The 
letter  may  be  found  in  D'Acheri's  notes  on  the 
Life  of  Lanfranc  prefixed  to  his  works,  printed 
at  Paris  in  1648.     Aforeri. — E. 

ASCHAM,  Roger,  a  learned  Englishman, 
of  high  reputation  in  the  sixteenth  century,  was 
born  at  Kirby  Wiske,  a  village  near  Northal- 
lerton in  Yorkshire.  His  father,  John  Ascham, 
was  house-steward  in  the  family  of  Scroop  ; 
his  mother,  Margaret,  was  allied  to  several 
considerable  families.  They  are  said  to  have 
lived  together  in  perfect  harmony  and  aiFcction 
sixty-seven  years,  (Dr.  Johnson's  Life  ot  As- 
cham) and  to  have  at  last  died  almost  oa  the 
same  hour  of  the  same  day. 

Roger,  the  third  son  of  this  worthy  pair,  a 
short  time  before  his  father's  death,  was  re- 
ceived into  the  family  of  Sir  Anthony  Wintield, 
ind  enjoyed,  with  that  gentleman's  sons,  the  be- 


nefit of  private  education  under  a  domestic  tu- 
tor. He  discovered  an  early  fondness  for  reading, 
and  made  a  rapid  progress  in  classical  learning. 
His  friend  and  patron,  pleased  with  the  proof's 
which  the  young  scholar  gave  of  genius  and  do- 
cility, determined  to  afford  him  the  advantage 
of  an  university  education,  and,  in  1530,  sent 
him  to  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 

.W'ith  the  peculiar  talents  for  the  study  of  lan- 
guages which  Ascham  possessed,  it  was  fortu- 
.  nate  tor  him  that  he  entered  upon  life  at  a  pe- 
riod when  the  attention  of  the  whole  educated 
world  was  turned  towards  the  revival  and  ad- 
vancement of  learning,  and  Greek  and  Roman 
authors  were  edited  with  diligence,  and  read  and 
studied  with  avidity.  The  college  in  which  he 
was  to  study  had  caught  the  classical  spirit  01 
the  age.  Metcalf  the  master  was,  as  Ascham 
himself  informs  us,  "  though  meanly  learned 
himself,  no  mean  encourager  of  learning  in 
others."  Fitzhcrbert  his  tutor  was  a  good  scho- 
lar, and  possessed  a  happy  facility  of  teaching,; 
and  his  friend  Pember,  who  was  ready  on  all 
occasions  to  assist  him  in  his  studies,  was  a 
great  proficient  in  Greek  learning.  Ascham, 
Irom  his  entrance  upon  academic  life,  felt  the 
inspiration  of  an  ardent  desire  to  excel  in  learn- 
ing, and  devoted  himself  with  uncommon  indus- 
try to  his  studies.  According  to  the  maxim, 
"  Qui  docet,  discit,"  he  thought  a  language 
might  be  best  learned  by  teaching  it ;  and,  when 
he  had  made  some  progress  in  Greek,  he  under- 
took to  instruct  boys  in  the  rudiments  of  this 
language.  His  friend  Pember  approved  his  plan, 
and  said,  that  he  would  gaiii  more  knowledge  by 
reading  with  a  boy  a  single  fable  in  i'Esop,  than 
by  hearing  another  read  Latin  lectures  on  the 
wliolc  Iliad.  Under  the  direction  of  the  same 
valuable  friend  he  became  intimately  acquainted 
with  the  best  Greek  and  Roman  authors.  In 
his  reading  he  observed  a  rule  well  worth  the  at- 
tention of  students,  to  "  lose  no  time  in  the  pe- 
rusal of  mean  or  luiprofitable  books."  Cicero 
and  Ca.'sar,  in  particular,  he  diligently  studied, 
as  his  best  guides  in  writing  the  Jyatin  language, 
and  he  formed  his  style  upon  these  excellent  mo- 
dels. 

In  tlie  eighteenth  year  of  his  age,  Ascham 
took  his  first  degree  ot  bachelor  of  arts,  and  was, 
about  a  month  afterwards,  chosen  tclhnv  of  the 
college.  Notwithstanding  his  unconimon  me- 
rit, his  election  to  the  fcllow.ship  was  attended 
\v  ith  some  difficulty,  on  account  of  the  favour- 
able disposition  which  he  had  discoveied  to- 
wards the  reformed  religion  :  so  powerful  was 
the  influence  of  religious  bigotry  at  this  period, 
even  in  the  schools  of  the  learned.     At  tlic  age 


A  S  C 


(     424     ) 


A  S  C 


of  twenty-one,  in  the  year  1537,  he  was  inau- 
gurated master  of  arts,  and  from  this  time,  and 
perhaps  sooner,  publicly  took,  upon  him  the  of- 
licc  of  tutor. 

The  high  reputation  which  he  had  acquired 
in  Grcckkarning,  breuight  the  voung  tutor  many 
]!upils ;  and  tiiey  were  so  ably  instructed,  and 
so  happily  incited  to  industry  by  emulation,  that 
several  of  the  sdiolars  of  Ascham  afterwards 
rose  to  great  eminence.  Among  the  rest  Wil- 
liam Grindall  was  so  much  distinguished,  that, 
on  the  recommendation  of  Sir  John  Chckc,  he 
A\as  appointed  master  of  languages  to  the  lady 
Elizabetli.  Whence  it  happened  tliat  Ascham 
himself  was  not  nominated  to  tliis  lionourable 
post  is  not  certain  ;  bur  from  one  of  his  letters 
it  seems  probable  that  he  was  at  that  time  too 
ioiid  of  an  academical  life  to  exchange  it  for  a 
station  at  court.  Though  no  regular  lectureship 
in  Greek  had  thtn  been  established,  Ascham 
was  appointed  to  read  public  lectures  on  that 
language  in  the  schools,  and  received  an  hono- 
rary stipend  from  the  university.  At  this  time 
a  controversy  arose  in  the  university  concerning 
the  pronunciation  of  the  Greek  language,  in 
whicli  Ascham  at  first  opposed  the  method  in- 
troduced by  Sir  John  Cheke  and  Sir  Tliomas 
Smith,  but  afterwards,  upon  giving  the  matter  a 
fuller  examination,  he  came  over  to  their  opi- 
nion and  practice  ;  and  it  is  piobable  that  it  Is 
in  part  owing  to  the  ingenuity  with  which  he 
defended  it,  that  this  mode  of  pronunciation  was 
generally  adopted,  and  has  since  prevailed  in  the 
schools  of  England.  This  excellent  scholar 
was  so  generally  admired  for  the  purity  and  ele- 
gance of  his  Latinity,  that  he  was  constantly 
employed  to  write  the  public  letters  of  the  uni- 
versity ;  and  it  was  a  circumstance,  which  con- 
tributed not  a  little  to  recommend  him  to  this  ho- 
nourable office,  that  he  was  master  of  an  un- 
common neatness  of  hand-writing. 

Among  the  amusements  with  which  Ascham 
enlivened  his  hours  of  leisure,  was  that  of  instru- 
mental music ;  and  for  the  relief  and  entertain- 
ment which  this  elegant  art  afforded  him  lie  was 
indebted  to  his  friend  Pcmber,  by  whose  advice 
he  turned  his  attention  this  way.  He  also 
amused  himself  in  his  studv  by  embellishing  the 
pages  of  his  manuscripts,  according  to  the  cus- 
tom of  the  age,  with  elegant  draughts  and  illu- 
minations. In  the  open  air  he  frequently  exer- 
cised his  body,  and  relieved  his  mind  from  fa- 
tigue, by  the  liberal  diversion  of  archery.  At  a 
time  when  the  use  of  fire  arms  was  in  its  in- 
fancy, the  skilful  management  of  the  bow  was 
still  of  more  value  tl-.an  as  a  mere  amusement, 
and  the  learned  Ascham  might  be  justified  in 


writing  his  Toxopliilus.  This  ingenious  trea- 
tise, though,  as  a  book  of  precepts,  perhaps  of 
little  value,  might,  at  tl.e  time  when  it  was- 
written,  materially  conlrihule  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  English  language  ;  for  it  was  well 
adapted  to  answer  the  author's  intention,  ex- 
pressed in  a  letter  to  bishop  Gardiner,  of  intro- 
ducing in  English  prose  a  more  natural,  easy, 
and  truly  English  diction  than  was  then  in  com- 
mon use.  'I'his  work,  besides  the  jiurity  and 
perspicuity  of  its  stvle,  has  also  the  recommen- 
dation of  abounding  with  learned  allusions,  and 
with  curious  fragments  of  English  history.  As- 
cham has  the  honesty  to  confess,  that  another 
more  selfish  motive  had  a  considerable  share  in 
producing  this  treatise.  He  wished  to  make  a 
tour  into  Italy,  at  this  time  the  capital  of  the 
republic  of  letters,  and  particularly  the  chief  seat 
ot  Greek  learning  ;  and  he  hoped,  by  dedicating 
his  book  to  the  king,  to  obtain  a  pension  which 
might  enable  him  to  accomplish  this  favourite 
design.  It  mav  reflect  a  small  ray  of  honour  oa 
the  name  of  Henry  VIII.  that  this  modest  wish 
of  the  learned  Ascham  was  not  altogether  frus- 
trated. The  king,  in  the  year  1544,  settled 
upon  him  an  annual  pension  of  ten  pounds  :  a 
pension  which  Dr.  Johnson,  reckoning  toge- 
ther the  wants  which  this  sum  would  enable  As- 
cham to  supplv,  and  the  wants  from  which,  by 
the  general  habits  of  the  times  and  the  peculiai" 
habits  of  a  student's  life,  he  was  exempt,  esti- 
mates at  more  than  one  hundred  pounds  at  the 
present  day.  This  pension  was  for  some  time 
discontinued  after  the  king's  death  ;  but  was  re- 
stored by  Edward  VI.  and  doubled  by  queen 
Mary.  Ascham,  also,  the  same  year  received 
the  pecuniaiy  benefit  as  well  as  the  honour  of  an 
appointment  to  the  office  of  orator  to  the  univer- 
sity ;  an  office  which,  w-hile  he  remained  in  the 
university,  he  occupied  with  great  credit. 

The  name  of  Ascham  had  now,  by  means  of 
his  pupils  and  writings,  acquired  considerable 
celebrity.  He  had  for  some  years  past  received 
an  annual  gratuity,  to  what  amount  does  not 
appear,  from  Lee,  archbishop  of  York.  Among 
his  patrons  and  his  pupils  either  in  languages  or 
the  art  of  hand-wniting,  for  which  he  was  fa- 
mous, were  several  illustrious  persons.  At  length, 
in  154S,  upon  the  death  of  his  pupil  Grindal, 
preceptor  to  the  lady  Elizabeth,  that  princess,  to 
whom  he  liad  already  given  lessons  in  writing, 
called  him  from  his  college  to  direct  her  studies. 
He  accepted  the  honourable  charge,  and  in- 
structed his  pupil  in  the  learned  languages  witli 
great  diligence  and  success.  After  two  years, 
some  unknown  cause  of  dissatisfaction  arose, 
whicIi  led  Ascham  to  take  an  ubrupt  leave  of 


A  S  C 


(    425     ) 


A  S  C 


the  princess,  anJ  return  to  the  universitv.  Tliis 
circumstance  did  not,  however,  ahenate  her  re- 
gard for  her  jireccptor :  for,  in  tlie  same  year, 
1550,  after  visiting  his  native  place  and  liis  old 
acquaintance  in  Yorkshire,  he  was  recalled  to 
the  court,  and  appointed  secretary  to  Sir  Richard 
Morisine,  who  was  then  going  as  ainbassador 
to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  In  his  return  to 
London  he  jiaid  a  visit  to  lady  Jane  Grey,  to 
whom  he  acknowledges  himself  exceedingly  be- 
holden, and  of  whom  he  relates  that  he  found 
her,  while  the  duke  and  duchess  with  the  rest 
of  the  household  were  hunting  in  tlic  park,  read- 
ing in  her  chamber  Plato's  Pluiedo  in  Greek, 
*'  and  that  (says  he)  with  as  much  delight  as 
some  gentlemen  would  read  a  merry  tale  in 
Boccace."     (Schoolmaster,  p.  34.  ed.  Upton, 

During  his  foreign  expedition,  which  lasted 
three  years,  he  travelled  through  a  great  part  of 
Germany,  and  visited  manv  learned  men.  When 
he  was  with  the  ambassador  he  was  useful  to 
him,  both  in  his  private  studies  and  in  the  ma- 
nagement ot  public  concerns.  For  four  days  in 
the  week  he  read  with  him  in  the  morning  some 
pages  of  Herodotus  or  Demosthenes,  and  in  the 
afternoon  a  portion  of  Sophocles  or  Euripides. 
On  the  other  days  he  wrote  the  letters  of  public 
business,  and  at  night  continued  his  diary  or  re- 
marks, and  wrote  private  letters.  One  of  the 
fruits  of  this  tour  was  a  curious  tract  entitled, 
"  A  Report  and  Discourse  of  the  Affairs  and 
State  of  Germany,"  8ic.  which  contains  va- 
luable infonnation  and  judicious  reflections.  It 
bears  no  date,  but  was  probably  written  in 
J  532.  Ascham  made  a  short  excursion  into 
Italy,  and  was  much  disgusted  with  the  manners 
of  the  inhabitants,  particularly  of  the  Vene- 
tians. 

On  tlie  death  of  Edward  VI.  in  1553,  Mori- 
sine  was  recalled,  and  Ascham  returned  to  his 
college  with  no  otiier  support  than  his  fellowship 
and  saJarv  as  orator  to  the  universitv,  and  the  li- 
berality of  his  friends.  The  tide  of  his  fortune, 
w  hich  was  now  at  its  ebb,  soon  turned.  Through 
the  interest  of  bishop  Gardiner,  who,  though  he 
well  knew  that  Asthain  was  a  protestant,  had 
the  generosity  not  to  dcscit  him,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  office  of  Latin  secretary  to  the 
queen,  with  a  salary  of  ten  pounds  a  year,  and 
permission  to  keep  his  college  preferment.  If  it 
be  thought  surprising  that  he  met  with  such  good 
fortune  under  the  intolerant  reign  of  Mary,  let 
it  not  be  im])utcd  to  any  servile  compliance  on 
his  i)art.  Ascham  was  prudent  but  not  dishonest. 
He  maintained  his  interest  with  Eli'/.abeth  in  the 
jnost  perilous  tinies  ;  and  to  the  fidelity  of  his 

VOL.  I. 


friendship  with  Cecil  he  in  part  ow^cd  his  pro- 
perity  under  the  next  reign.  The  fact  probal)Iy 
was,  that,  besides  the  respect  paid  by  all  parties 
to  Ascham  for  his  learning,  the  facility  and  ele- 
gance of  his  Latin  pen  rendered  him,  in  some 
sort,  necessary  at  court.  It  is  a  striking  instance 
of  uncommon  readiness  and  assiduity,  that,  in  his 
capacity  of  Latin  secretary,  he  wrote  in  three 
days  forty-seven  letters  to  persons  of  such  high 
rank,  that  the  lowest  in  dignity  was  a  car- 
dinal. 

'I'he  transmission  of  tlic  crown  from  a  popish 
to  a  protestant  princess  made  little  change  in  the 
situation  of  Ascham.  He  had  been  protected 
and  favoured  by  Mary  ;  and  upon  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth  he  was  continued  in  his  former 
employments  with  the  same  stijjcnd.  He  was 
indeed  daily  admitted  to  the  presence  of  the 
queen,  and  read  with  her  in  tlie  learned  languages 
some  hours  every  day  ;  and  of  her  proficiciicy 
under  so  excellent  a  master  many  proofs  re- 
main. We  shall  select  one  testiinony  frotn 
Ascham  himself.  "  Point  forth  six  of  the  best 
given  gentlemen  of  this  court,  and  all  they  toge- 
ther show  not  so  much  good  will,  spend  not  so 
much  time,  bestow  not  so  many  hours  daily,  or- 
derly, and  constantly  for  the  increase  of  learn- 
ing and  knowledge  as  doth  the  queen's  majesty 
herself.  Yea,  I  believe  tliat  beside  her  perfect  rea- 
diness in  Latin,  Italian,  Frt;nch,and  Spanish,  she 
readeth  here  more  Greek  every  day  than  some 
prebendary  of  this  church  doth  read  Latin  in  a 
whole  week.  And  that  which  is  most  praise-wor- 
thy of  all,  within  the  walls  of  her  privy  chamber 
she  hath  obtained  that  excellency  of  learning 
to  imderstand,  speak  and  write  both  wittily  with 
head  and  fair  with  hand,  as  scarcely  one  or  two 
wits  in  both  universities  have,  in  many  years 
reached  unto."  (Schoolmaster,  p.  62.)  To  the 
master  who  taught  his  sovereign  with  so  much 
success,  and  who  was  sometimes  permitted  to 
play  with  her  at  draughts  and  chess,  a  recoin- 
pense  might  have  been  expected  more  worihy 
of  royal  munificence  than  a  pension  of  twenty 
pounds  a  year,  and  the  picbend  of  ^V'estwang 
in  the  cluirch  of  York.  (Wood's  Fasti 
Oxon.  vol.  i.  col.  65.)  Yet,  through  the 
queen's  parsimony,  Ascham  ren)aine<!  thus  piti- 
fully pnnidtd  for  till  his  death.  It  has  Wen 
suggested  that  the  queen  kept  him  poor  bccai;sc 
she  knew  him  to  be  extravagant;  and  he  is  ac- 
cused, (Compare  Camden's  Annal.  an.  IJ^'S, 
Clarke's  Mirror,  c.  62,  and  Nicholson's  Engl. 
Library,  p.  247.  as  it  seems  not  unjustly,  of  a 
propensity  disgraceful  to  a  man  of  letters  and  hu- 
manity, a  fondness  for  cock-fighting  :  (In  his 
"  Schoolmaster,"  Ascham  intimates  an  iuttn- 
3^ 


A  S  C 


(     4^6     ) 


A  S  C 


tion  of  writing  a  book  "  Of  tlic  Cockpit," 
which  he  reckons  ainonp;  "  the  kinds  of  pas- 
times tit  for  a  gentleman.")  But  it  these  detects 
in  his  character  did  not  render  him  worthy  of  her 
patronage,  they  ought  to  liave  been  overlooked 
ill  the  remuneration  ot  his  services. 

It  happened  in  the  year  1563,  at  the  castle  of 
Windsor,  tliat  a  conversation  arose  in  the 
apartment  of  the  secretary,  sir  William  Cecil, 
on  the  subject  of  education.  Some  Eton  scho- 
lars having  that  morning  run  away  from  the 
ichool  for  fear  of  chastisement,  the  discourse 
turned  ujion  the  severity  of  the  correction  used 
ill  the  piihiic  schools.  Contrary  opinions  \verc 
inaintained  upon  the  subject.  Sir  Riciiard  Sack- 
V  ille,  one  of  the  company,  was  silent,  but  was  so 
struck  witii  the  arguments  otAscIiam  in  favour 
of  a  mild  treatment  of  boys,  that  he  afterwards 
entreated  his  advice  and  assistance  in  the  educa- 
tion of  his  grandson,  and  at  the  same  time  re- 
quested that  he  would  compose  a  treatise  on  the 
general  subject  of  education.  These  circum- 
stances gave  birth  to  an  excellent  performance, 
entitled,  "  The  Schoolmaster."  7"he  work  is 
strongly  expressive  of  the  author's  humanity  and 
goTjd  sense,  and  abounds  with  proofs  of  extensive 
and  accurate  erudition.  It  contains  excellent 
practical  advice,  particularly  on  the  method  of 
teacliing  classical  learning.  It  is  sur]>rising  that 
Ascliam's  observations  on  the  utility  of  the  me- 
thod of  double  translation  has  not  led  to  the  uni- 
versal adoption  of  this  method  in  schools.  This 
treatise  was  published  after  the  autiior's  death  by 
his  widow  in  1571;  and  was  reprinted  with 
notes,  in  8vo.  at  London,  by  Upton,  in  17  1 1. 
His  last  illness  was  occasioned  by  too  close  ap- 
plication to  the  composition  of  a  poein,  which 
he  meant  to  present  to  the  queen  on  the  New 
Year's  Dav  of  1569.  He  died  in  his  fifty-third 
year,  on  the  23d  of  December,  1568.  His 
death  was  generally  lamented  ;  and  the  queen 
oddly,  but  emphatically,  expressed  herregret  by 
.saying,  "  She  would  rather  have  lost  ten  thou- 
sand pounds  than  her  tutor  Ascham."  His  epis- 
tles, which  are  written  in  the  most  perfect  style 
of  classical  elegance,  and  contain  valuable  his- 
torical matter,  were  published  after  his  death  in 
1577  by  Grant,  and  dedicated  to  Elizabeth  ;  and 
his  miscellaneous  pieces  have  since  been  collect- 
ed by  Bennet  into  one  volume. 

From  the  writings  and  other  memorials  of 
Roger  Ascham,  it  appears  that  he  was  of  an 
amiable  temper;  of  great  kindness  to  his  friends, 
and  exemplary  gratitude  to  his  benefactors  ;  dis- 
posed to  freedom  of  inquiry  in  religion,  but  too 
intent  on  otlier  pursuits  to  exercise  much  zeal 
upon  this   object ;  respectable   as  a  man,  but 


cliieflv  to  be  honoured  as  a  scholar,  wlio  ds- 
scrved  from  his  contemporaries  more  liberal  re- 
wards than  he  received,  and  who  rendered  es- 
sential service  to  posterity,  by  promoting  correct 
taste  and  sound  learning.  Ed.  Grant.  Or  at.  de 
Fit.  R.  Aschami.  Epist.  Aschami.  Biog.  Brit. 
Dr.  'Johnson  s  Life  of  Ascham. — E. 

ASCHARl,  a  celebrated  musulman  doctor, 
the  head  of  the  Ascharians,  a  sect  which  op- 
posed the  Hanbalites.  This  sect  taught,  that 
God  acts  alw;iys  from  jiarticular  volition  for  the 
individual  good  of  every  creature  ;  while  As- 
chari  taught  that  God  governs  the  world  by  ge- 
neral laws.  Aschari  died  at  Bagdat  about  the 
year  of  the  Hegira  329,  or  of  Christ  940,  and 
was  secretly  interred,  lest  the  Hanbalites,  in 
their  real  to  punish  his  impieties,  sIkjuUI  tear  up 
his  femains  from  the  grave.  D' Herbelot,  Bibl. 
Orient.   AJorcri.    Nouv.  Diet.  Hiit. — E. 

ASCLEPIADES,  a  Greek  philosopher,  of 
the  Eliac  school,  native  of  Phlia  in  Peloponne- 
sus, flourished  about  3150  years  before  Christ. 
He  was  a  disciple  of  Stilpo,  in  whose  school  he 
formed  friendship  with  Menedemus,  which, 
Diogenes  Laertius  says,  was  not  at  all  inferior 
to  that  of  Pylades  and  Orestes,  'i'hey  were  ob- 
liged through  poverty  to  submit  to  manual  em- 
ploy menr,  and,  attending  the  school  of  Phasdo 
at  Elis,  they  worked  together  as  masons.  Leav- 
ing their  native  country  to  attend  the  school  of 
Plato  at  Athens,  they  supported  diemsclves  by 
grinding  in  the  night,  in  one  of  the  public  pri- 
sons, till  they  had  earned  enough  to  enable  them 
to  spend  the  next  day  in  the  academy.  Whea 
the  magistrates  of  Athens,  on  making  the  cus- 
tomary inquiry  concerning  the  manner  in  which 
these  strangers  subsisted,  were  informed  of  the 
extraordinary  proof  which  these  young  men 
had  given  of  an  ardent  thirst  after  knowledge, 
they  a])plauded  their  zeal,  and  iiresented  them 
with  two  hundred  drachmas.  (Athen.  lib.  iv. 
c.  19.)  Asclepiades  lived  to  a  great  age,  and  lost 
his  sight,  but  bore  the  loss  with  chearfulness. 
(Cic.  I'usc.  Disp.  lib.  v.  c.  39.)  Diog.  Laert, 
ap.  Fit.  Alcned.  Bayle.  Brncker.  Stan- 
ley.— E. 

ASCLEPIADES,  an  eminent  physician  of 
antiquity,  born  at  Prusa  in  Bithynia,  was  ori- 
ginally a  rhetorician,  and  turning  his  studies  to 
medicine,  became  the  author  of  a  new  sect.  la 
physiology  ho  followed  Epicurus  and  the  cor- 
puscularian  philosophers.  He  paid  little  regard 
to  the  authority  of  the  older  physicians,  and  re- 
jecting all  medicines  of  strong  operation,  he 
cliielly  depended  on  diet,  frictions,  baths,  &:c. 
He  allowed  wine  to  his  patients,  and  in  general 
indulged  their  inclinations  ;  whence  he  arrived  at 


A  S  D 


(     427     ) 


A  S  D 


great  famr  and  practice  in  Roine,  v.licre  lie  lived 
somewhat  before  the  time  of  Pompey.  He  was 
intimate  witli  Licitiius  Crassus  the  orator,  a;id 
other  illustrious  characters.  Mithridates  was 
very  dcsiioiis  of  drawing  him  to  his  court,  hut 
could  not  succeed  ;  hut  he  corresponded  with 
that  jirini.e  on  medical  topics.  He  was  conh- 
<lont  of  iiis  own  powers,  and  treated  the  opi- 
nions of  others  witli  little  respect.  It  is  said  that 
lie  staked  his  reputation  uiion  preserving  hiinsclf 
in  health  ;  and  that  he  lived  to  a  great  age,  and 
%vas  at  last  killed  hy  a  fall. 

Many  writings  of  Asclepiades  are  referred  to 
by  the  ancients,  and  fragments  of  his  opinions 
and  practice  are  preserved  in  the  works  of  Ccl- 
sns,  Galen,  Coelius,  Aetius,  &c.  He  was  also 
an  esteemed  commentator  upon  the  most  difficult 
parts  of  Hippocrates.  He  Jiad  many  disciples, 
and  his  sect  continued  to  flourish  some  time  after 
his  death.  Plinii  Hist.  Nat.  HulUr,  Bibl. 
Med.  Fract.—K. 

ASCONIUS,  Pediakus,  a  Roman  gram- 
marian, a  native  of  Padua,  lived  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  and,  as  we  learn  from  Servius  and 
Philargvrus,  in  their  commentary  on  Virgil's 
fourth  Eclogue,  was  a  friend  of  that  poet.  He 
seems  to  have  been  known  to  Quintilian ;  and 
he  speaks  ot  Livy  under  the  ajipellation  of 
"  Livius  Noster,"  which  may  imjily  personal 
acquaintance.  Eusebius,  in  his  Chronicon, 
j)laces  Asconius  as  low  as  the  time  of  Vcspa  • 
;<ian  ;  but  this  is  probably  a  mistake,  unless  we 
have  recourse,  with  Vossius,  to  the  supposition 
of  two  writers  of  this  name,  one  an  historian,  as 
Eusebius  calls  him,  the  other  the  commentator 
on  Cicero.  As  nothing  remains  of  the  historian, 
tlie  inquiry,  however,  is  nugatory.  The  notes 
of  Asconius  on  several  of  Cicero's  orations,  still 
extant,  though  in  a  mutilated  state,  are  succinct 
and  judicious.  These  notes  were  first  published 
•with  those  of  Luscus,  in  folio,  at  ^  eiiice  in 
1477  ;  and  afterwards,  with  other  valuable  ad- 
ditions, at  Padua  in  1493. 

In  subsequent  editions  of  Cicero's  orations, 
the  notes  of  Asconius  have  been  intermixed  with 
those  of  other  commentators:  they  will  be  found 
in  Gronovius's  edition  of  Cicero,  published  in 
4to.  in  1692.  Fahr'tc.  Bibl.  Lat.  lib.  ii.  c.  6. 
Voss.  dc  Hist.  Lat.   lib.  i.  c.  27.   Moreri. — E. 

ASDRUBAL,  a  Carthaginian  general,  son- 
in-law  of  HamiUarthe  father  of  Hannibal,  ac- 
companied his  father-in-law  into  Spain  after  the 
first  Punic  war.  On  the  breaking  out  of  a  re- 
bellion of  die  Numidians  against  the  Carthagi- 
nians, Asdrubal  was  detached  with  a  jjart  of  the 
army  into  Africa,  where  bv  his  military  talents 
lie  soon  restored  tranquillity.     He  returned  to 


S|)ain,  where,  on  t'le  death  of  Hamilcar,  he 
was  elected  by  the  army  his  successor.  Asdru- 
bal commanded  there  with  great  prudence  and 
success.  He  defeated  the  natives  in  a  great  bat- 
tle, after  which  all  the  cities  in  tliat  part  of  Spain 
submitted  to  hiiii.  To  secure  his  conquests,  he 
built  a  city  in  an  admirable  situation  for  mari- 
time consequence,  to  which  he  gave  tiie  name  of 
New  Carthage,  now  Carthagena.  The  Ko- 
nians,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  iiis  arms,  ne- 
gotiated a  treaty  w  ith  him,  B.  C.  222,  by  which 
he  engaged  that  the  Carthaginians  should  not 
pass  the  Iberus  or  Ebro,  and  sliould  leave  Sa- 
guntuin  and  the  other  Gieek  colonies  in  Spain  in 
])Ossession  of  their  independence.  He  observed 
the  conditions  faitlifully  ;  and  turning  his  efforts 
towards  the  other  parts  of  Spain,  he  brought  the 
petty  kings  of  the  country,  from  the  western 
ocean  to  the  Iberus,  paitlv  by  force,  jiartly  by- 
persuasion,  under  the  Carthaginian  dominion. 
His  manners  were  kind  and  aftiible,  and  he  fur- 
ther ingratiated  himself  with  the  Spaniards  by 
marrying  the  daughter  of  one  of  their  princes. 
Asdrubal  sent  to  Carthage  for  his  brother-in-law 
young  Hannibal,  who  made  three  campaigns 
under  him.  After  a  prosperous  administration 
in  Spain  for  eight  years,  he  was  openly  assassi- 
nated by  a  Gaul,  whose  master  he  had  put  to 
death.  The  assassin  was  so  pleased  with  his  re- 
venge, that  he  siniled  in  the  midst  of  the  tor- 
tures with  which  he  was  executed.  Palybius, 
Livy.     Plutarch.      Univers.  Hist. — A. 

ASDRUBAL  BARCA,  son  of  Hamilcar, 
and  brother  of  Hannibal,  possessed  a  large  share 
ot  those  military  talents  which  distinguislied  the 
latter,  though  with  less  good  fortune.  He  was 
commander  in  Spain  while  his  brother  was.  in 
Italy  ;  and  had  been  successful  in  extinguishing 
a  rebellion  of  the  natives,  when  he  received  or- 
ders to  march  to  the  assistance  of  Hannibal.  On 
his  progress  he  was  completely  defeated  by  the 
Romans  with  the  loss  of  great  part  of  his  army, 
and  the  design  was  for  that  time  rendered  abor- 
tive. Afterthis  he  and  theotherCarihaginian,  ge- 
nerals found  great  ditTicully  in  niaintaining  them- 
selves in  Spain,  and  sustained  various  defeats 
from  the  two  Scijiios  ;  but  these  leaders  were  in 
their  turn  defeated  by  the  united  armies  of  the 
Carthaginians,  and  killed.  Asdrubal's  influence 
over  the  Cckiberians,  whom  he  prevailed  upon 
to  desert  the  Romans  in  a  great  body,  was  the 
principal  cause  of  this  disaster.  Soinc  time  af- 
terwards, Asdrubal  having  suffered  himself  to  be 
shut  up  in  an  isthmus  by  the  Roman  anny  un- 
der Claudius  Nero,  escaped  by  a  Mtatagem  ot" 
the  Punic  kind,  deluding  the  enemy  by  a  pre- 
tended convention.     The  youjiger  Scipio  thca 


A  S  E 


(     42S     ) 


A  S  G 


taking  the  command  in  Spain,  gave  Asdrubal, 
who  was  again  advancing  towards  Italy,  a  signal 
defeat;  notwithstanding  which,  forming  a  jnnc- 
tion  with  the  other  generals,  and  composing  a 
new  army  from  their  troops,  he  proceeded  to  the 
Pyrenees,  and  crossing  them,  entered  Italy  with 
little  opposition.  He  is  charged  with  want  of 
policy  in  losing  time  with  the  siege  of  Placentia, 
which  at  last  he  was  obliged  to  raise.  He  ad- 
vanced to  join  liis  brother  along  the  coast  of  the 
Adriatic  with  a  numerous  army,  chiefly  of  Spa- 
niards and  Gauls  ;  and  never  did  the  Roman 
state  appear  in  greater  danger.  When  arrived 
at  the  river  Metaurns,  now  Metaro,  he  was  op- 
posed by  the  consul  Livius  with  his  whole  ar- 
my, reinforced  by  the  other  consul,  Claudius 
Nero,  who  liad  advanced  by  forced  marches 
from  Umbria  with  a  detachment  of  his  own  ar- 
my. A  most  bloody  and  decisive  engagement 
ensued,  in  which  Asdrubal,  exerting  all  the  ef- 
forts of  a  general  and  a  soldier,  was  slain,  and 
nearly  his  whole  army  destroyed.  Claudius  Ne- 
ro returned  to  his  station  before  Hannibal,  car- 
rying with  him  the  liead  of  Asdnilxil.  It  was 
thrown  into  the  Carthaginian  trenches  ;  and 
whenbrought  to  Hannibal,  he  recognised  his  bro- 
ther's features,  and  crying,  "  I  perceive  the  for- 
tune of  Carthage,"  he  retired  into  the  extremi- 
ty of  Italy.  Tiiis  event  took  place  B.  C.  203. 
Polyblu.':.   Livy.   Plutarch.    Univers.  Hist. 

Several  other  Carthaginian  generals  bore  the 
name  of  j^sdrubal.  One  of  the  most  distin- 
guished was  Asdrubal  the  son  of  Gisco,  who 
served  in  Spain  with  the  last  mentioned  Asdru- 
bal, and  afterwards  in  Africa  against  Scipio. 
He  was  father  of  the  celebrated  Sophonisba. 
Another  Asdrubal  defended  Carthage  in  its  last 
siege  by  Scipio,  and,  foreseeing  its  tate,  surren- 
dered himself  to  tlie  Romans,  leaving  his  wife 
and  children  behind  him  in  the  temple  of  y£scu- 
lapius.  The  temple  being  set  on  fire,  the  wife 
of  Asdrubal  appearing  magnificently  adorned 
on  the  walls  with  her  two  children,  first  bitterly 
reproached  and  execrated  Iter  husband  for  his 
base  desertion,  and  then,  stabbing  her  two  child- 
ren, threw  herself  into  the  flames.  Univers. 
Hist.— A. 

ASELLI,  Gaspard,  a  native  of  Cremo- 
na, was  professor  of  anatomy  at  Pavia  about 
1620,  w-here  he  distinguised  himself  by  many 
curious  observations.  A  fortunate  discovery  in 
1622  has  placed  him  among  the  great  inventors 
in  anatomical  knowledge.  Dissecting  a  live 
and  weH-fcd  dog,  he  remarked  the  lacteal  vessels 
in  the  mc.'.entery,  which  had  remained  unno- 
ticed from  tl:e  times  of  Herophilus  and  Erasi- 
sttatus.     He  deicctcd  their  use  in  absorbing  the 


cliyle,  observed  their  valves,  and  traced  thenr,  as 
he  thought,  to  the  liver.  He  first  gave  them  the 
name  ot  lacteals,  and  prepared  a  description  of 
them,  illustrated  with  elegant  coloured  engrav- 
ings, which  was  printed  after  his -death  at  Mi- 
lan in  1627,  under  the  title,  "  Dc  Lactibus,  seu 
I^acteis  Venis,  quaito  Vasorum  Mesaraicoruni 
Genere,  novo  Invento,  Dissertatio,"  4to.  He 
erroneously  represented  the  congeries  of  mesen- 
teric glands,  as  the  pancreas  ;  and  took  the  real 
pancreas  tor  an  unknown  gland;  which  threw 
much  obscurity  on  his  discovery.  Douglas,  Bi~ 
hl'iogr.  Anat.      Haller,  Biblioth.  Anat. — A. 

ASGILL,  John,  an  English  barrister,  and 
a  writer  of  singular  character,  was  born  about 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  edu- 
cated in  Lincoln's  Inn  under  Mr.  Eyre,  a  very 
eminent  lawyer.  He  possessed  a  whimsical 
vein  of  humour,  which  di'-played  itself  in  seve- 
ral publications,  in  which  there  was  a  strange 
mixture  of  gravity  and  mirth.  In  1698  he  pub- 
lished, "  Several  Assertions  proved,  in  order  to 
create  another  Species  of  Money  than  Gold  and 
Silver,"  and,  "  An  Essay  on  a  Registry  for 
Titles  of  Lands."  These  were  in  the  year 
1700  followed  by  a  most  fanciful  and  enthusias- 
tic work,  entitled,  "  An  Argument,  proving, 
that  according  to  the  Covenant  of  eternal  Life, 
revealed  in  the  Scriptures,  Man  may  be  translated 
from  hence  without  passing  through  Death, 
although  the  human  Nature  of  Christ  liimself 
could  not  be  thus  translated  till  he  had  passed 
through  Death."  This  performance  raised  a 
general  outcry  against  the  author  as  an  infidel 
and  a  blasphemer;  and,  after  Asgill  had  passed 
two  years  in  Ireland,  practising  tlie  law  widi  so 
much  success,  that  he  was  enabled  to  purchase 
an  estate,  and  obtain  a  seat  in  the  Irisli  parlia- 
ment, he  had  the  mortification  to  be  expelled 
from  the  house,  after  having  taken  his  seat  only 
four  days,  as  a  person  whose  blasphemous  writ- 
ings rendered  him  unworthy  to  be  one  of  the 
representatives  of  a  Christian  people.  On  liis 
return  to  England,  however,  he  found  means  to 
obtain  a  return  to  the  British  parliament  in 
1705,  from  the  borough  of  Bramber  in  Sussex, 
and  he  enjoyed  his  seat  two  years.  A  neglect 
and  contempt  of  osconomy,  which  was  through 
life  one  of  the  prominent  features  of  his  charac- 
ter, now  involved  him  in  extreme  embarrass- 
ment ;  and,  during  an  interval  ot  privilege,  his 
person  was  seised  for  debt,  and  committed  to  the 
Fleet  prison.  On  the  opening  of  the  next  ses- 
sion of  parliament  in  1707,  he  was  demanded 
out  of  custody  by  the  serjeant  at  arms,  and  re- 
sumed his  seat.  But  many  persons,  particularly 
the  new  members  from  Scotland,  in  this  fiist 


ASH 


(    429    ) 


ASH 


session  of  the  first  Bntish  parliament,  thouglit 
it  a  disgrace  that  a  d.  btor,  who  enjoyed  his  h- 
berty  only  under  privilege,  should  sit  in  the 
house  ;  and  it  was  resolved  to  make  ihe  publica- 
tion, which  had  given  such  general  offence,  the 
ground  of  hisexpubion.  A  committee  was  ap- 
pointed, which  reported  diat  the  book  contained 
several  blasphemous  expressions,  and  seemed 
intended  to  expose  the  scri])tiires  ;  and,  notwith- 
standing a  very  spirited  defence,  in  which  Asgill 
solemnly  protested,  that  he  did  not  publish  tlie 
treatise  with  anv  intention  to  expose  the  serij)- 
tures,  but  under  a  firm  belief  of  their  truth  as  well 
as  of  the  truth  of  his  argument,  he  was  expelled. 
From  this  time  Asgill  grew  daily  more  involv- 
ed in  debt;  and  he  was  soon  laid  in  the  King's- 
bench  prison  by  his  creditors.  Here  lie  remained 
through  the  long  period  ot  thirty  years,  furnish- 
ing himsclt  with  amusement,  and  occasional 
supplies,  by  writing  pamphlets,  chieflv  political, 
against  the  pretender,  and  by  practising  in  the 
way  of  his  profession.  Notv-ithstanding  mis- 
fortunes, which  must  have  been  at  least  accom- 
panied with  a  consciousness  ot  indiscretion,  he 
retained  great  vivacity  of  spirits,  and  ])Owers  of 
entertaining  conversation,  till  his  death,  which 
happened  in  the  rules  of  the  King's-bench  in 
1738,  at  the  age  of  fourscore,  or,  according  to 
some  accounts,  of  near  a  hundred. 

After  all  the  stir  which  was  made  about  the 
treatise  "  On  the  possibility  of  avoiding  Death," 
the  production  appears  to  have  been  rather  ab- 
surd than  impious  ;  and  the  author  deserved  ra- 
ther to  be  pitied  or  ridiculed  as  an  enthusiast, 
tlian  to  be  condemned  as  a  blasphemer.  No- 
thing indeed  can  be  more  impolitic  or  oppres- 
sive, than  to  stigmatise  with  opprobrious  appel- 
lations the  eccentricities  of  genius,  or  the  vaga- 
ries of  fancy,  and  to  employ  the  public  wisdom 
or  force  in  restraining  or  chastising  them. 
Biog.  Brit. — E. 

ASHMOLE,  Elias,  a  very  industrious  En- 
glish antivjuarian  and  philoso])her  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  was  born  at  Lichfield  in  1617, 
of  parents  in  the  middle  condition  of  life.  After 
a  common  education,  he  came  up  to  London  at 
the  age  of  sixteen,  and  was  received  into  the 
family  of  James  Paget,  Esq.  a  baron  of  the 
exchequer,  his  kinsman,  where  he  studied  the 
law,  together  witl\  other  branches  of  know- 
ledge. He  married  in  1638,  and  settled  in  Lon- 
don as  an  attorney.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  he  retired  from  town,  his  wife  being 
dead,  and  entered  into  the  king's  service  in  the 
ordnance  dejiartment,  in  which  he  was  era- 
ploved  first  at  Oxford,  then  at  \\'orccster.  While 
in  the  former  tity,  he  entered  himself  of  Uraztn 


Nose  College,  where  he  engaged  in  the  studies 
of  natural  pliilosophy,  mathematics,  and  astro- 
nomy.   iMum  tliC  latter  science  he  deviated  into 
the  spurious  branch  of  it,  astrology,  then  sanc- 
tioned by  the  belief  of  some  men  of  eminence, 
though  beginning  to  fall  into  discredit.   His  turn 
of  mind,  however,  vvhicii  seems  to  have  been 
not  a  little  prone  to  grave  and  learned  fooleries, 
was  favourable  to  the  impressions  made  by  the 
mysterious  pretences  of  astrological  imposture  ; 
and  a  similar  propensity  caused  him  to  consider 
as  a  great  sera  of  his  hfe,  his  election  into  the  so- 
ciety ot  free  and  accepted  masons,  of  whose  his- 
tory in  this  kingdom  he  afterwards  made  large   ' 
collections.     On  the  surrender  of  Worcester  in 
1646,  to  tlie  parliament  whose  cause  was  now 
become  triumphajit,  Ashmole  withdrew  first  into 
Cheshire,  and  then  came  to  London,  where  he 
formed  a  close  intimacy  with  the  celebrated  as- 
trologers, Moore,  Lilly,  and  Booker,  though  ho 
seems  only  to  have  shared  in  tiieir  absurdities, 
not  in  their  frauds.     A  retirement  in  Berkshire 
the  next  year  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  add- 
ing a    knowledge  of  botany  to  his  other  ac- 
quirements.    A  more  profitable  pursuit  to  him 
was  that  of  a  "  well-jointured  widow,"  lady 
Mainwaring,   then  the  relict  of  her  third  hus- 
band.    He  so  ingratiated  himsslf  with  this  lady, 
that  she  conveyed  to  him  her  estate  at  Bradfield  ; 
and  though   it  underwent  sequestration  on  ac- 
count of  his  known  loyalty,   his  interest  with 
Lilly  and  others  of  that  party  enabled  him  to  re- 
cover it.     In  1649  he  married  the  lady,  and  set- 
tled with  her  in  London,  where  his  house  be- 
came a  resort  of  all  the  proficients  in  the  cu- 
jious  and  occult  sciences.     A  taste  for  chemis. 
try,  or  rather  that  pretended  art  which  bears  the 
same  relation  to  it  that  astrology  does  to  astro- 
nomy,   viz.    alchemy.,    was  infused    into    him 
bv  a  Berkshire  adept,  William  Backhouse,  called 
j'iither  by  his  disciple  ;  and  Ashmole  published, 
under  a  feigned  name,  a  treatise  by  t!ie  famous 
Dr.  Dee,  with  another  by  an  anonymous  au- 
thor, on  this  subject.    He  likewise  undertook  to 
prepare  for  the  press  a  complete  collection  of 
the  manuscript   works   of  English  chemists ; 
a  business  of  great  labour  and  expense.     This 
appeared  in  1652  under  the  title  of  "  Theatrum 
Ciiymicum  Britannicum,"  in    4to.   and   it  ac- 
quired  him    a    mightv   reputation    among    the 
Uarmd,  who  at  least  saw  in  it  a  proof  of  won- 
derful application  and  miiuitc  accuracy,  with  a 
warm  zeal  for  the  promotion  of  what  he  con  • 
ceivcd  to  be  useful  knowledge.     It  is  to  he  un- 
dersto<xl,  that  dm  chemiitry  was  all  alchemy,  and 
that  Ashn\()le  appears  to  have  been  entirely  un- 
acquainted w  ith  real  cheinital  science.     Araou^ 


ASH 


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A  S  II 


his  acquaintance  he  now  began  to  number  the 
■better  names  ot  Sckien,  Oughtred,  and  Dr. 
Wharton. 

His  wealthy  marriage  iiivohed  him  in  abun- 
tlance  of  le^al  liisputes  ;  and  at  length  the  lady 
herself  made  an  attack  iijion  liim  in  ciiancerv  ; 
but  to  his  honour  Serjeant  IMaynard  observed, 
that  in  eight  hundred  slicets  of  depositions  on 
her  part,  not  so  much  as  an  ill  word  was  proved 
against  Mr.  Ashmole  ;  and  the  result  was,  that 
her  bill  was  dismissed,  and  herself  re-delivercd 
to  her  happy  spouse. 

He  had  for  some  time  attached  himself  to  the 
study  of  antiquity  and  the  perusal  of  records, 
w-hich  were  very  happily  suited  to  his  talents. 
He  accoinpanicd  Sir  VV.  Dugdalc  in  his  survey 
of  the  Fens,  and  traced  a  Roman  road  to  Lich- 
field. He  took  a  civil  leave  of  hcimetic  j)hilo- 
sophy  in  the  preface  to  a  treatise  on  the  pliilo- 
sophcr's  stone,  which  he  edited  ;  and  began  to 
make  collections  for  the  work  on  which  his 
fairest  re])utation  is  built,  his  "  History  of  the 
Order  of  tlie  (iarter."  For  this  purpose  he  was 
«iost  assiduous  in  examining  the  records  in  the 
Tower  and  elsewhere,  hi  a  visit  to  O.xford  he 
tlrew  up  a  full  description  of  the  coins  given  to 
that  university  by  archbisliop  Laud.  His  love 
for  botany  liad  induced  him  to  take  up  his  resi- 
dence at  the  house  of  the  celebrated  gardener  of 
Lambeth,  John  Tradescant.  This  person  and 
his  father  had  made  a  great  collection  of  curio- 
sities, which  he,  with  the  concurrence  of  his 
\vife,  made  over  to  Ashmole  by  a  deed  of  gift 
-signed  in  December  1659.  On  the  restoration, 
Ashmole  was  very  giaciously  received,  both  as 
a  loyalist  and  a  inan  of  learning,  by  the  king, 
■who  appointed  him  to  the  suitable  post  of'V\'ind- 
5or  herald,  and  committed  to  his  care  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  royal  medals.  He  was  also  made  a 
commissioner  and  afterwards  comptroller  of  the 
excise ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  the  Middle 
Temple,  and  admitted  a  fellow  of  the  newly 
constituted  royal  society.  Various  other  em- 
ployments were  successively  bestowed  upon 
him,  as  well  honourable  as  lucrative,  and  Ox- 
ford presented  him  with  the  diploma  of  doctor 
of  physic.  His  second  wife  dying,  he  soon 
after  married  the  daughter  of  his  friend.  Sir.  W. 
Dugdale.  He  vvas  now  considered  as  a  first- 
rate  literary  character,  and  was  visited  with  re- 
spect by  the  greatest  persons  in  the  kingdom. 
In  IVIay  1672  he  presented  to  the  king  his  capi- 
tal work  on  the  "Order  of  the  Garter,"  which 
obtained  great  applause  not  only  froin  his  ma- 
jesty, but  from  all  the  knights  companions  and 
others  attached  to  studies  of  that  kind.  It  is  en- 
titled, "  Tl>e  Institution,  Laws,  and  Ceremo- 


nies of  the  most  noble  Order  of  the  Garter. 
Collected  and  digested  into  one  body  by  Flias 
Aslimole  of  the  Sliddle  Temple,  Esq.  XV'indc- 
sore  Herald  at  Arms,"  fol.  Lond.  1672.  fn 
1675  he  resigned  his  office  of  Windsor  herald 
in  favour  of  !»■;  brother-in-law,  Mr.  Dugdale. 
On  a  vacancy  in  the  office  of  garter  king-at-arms 
some  time  afterwards,  he  was  thought  of  for  the 
place,  but  declined  it,  audit  was  given  to  Sir  W. 
Dugdale.  An  accidental  fire  which  broke  out 
in  the  chambers  next  to  his  in  the  Temple,  de- 
stroyed a  library  he  had  been  thirty-three  years  in 
collecting,  with'fl  cabinet  of  nine  tliousand 
coins,  and  a  number  of  valuable  antiquities  ;  but 
his  MSS.  and  gold  medals  escaped.  In  1683, 
the  university  of  Oxf)rd  having  finished  an  edi- 
fice for  a  museum,  Mr.  Ashmole  sent  thither  hi'? 
Tradcscaniian  collection  of  rarities,  with  tlie 
addition  he  had  made  to  it ;  and  afterwards  add- 
ed to  this  donation  that  of  his  books  and  MSS. 
They  are  the  foundation  of  the  Museum  Aih- 
molcanum,  now  subsisting  at  Oxford.  On  the 
death  of  Sir  W.  Dugdale  he  was  offered,  but 
again  declined,-the  place  of  garter  king-at-arms. 
It  appears  that  his  own  wish  had  long  been  ti»  be 
appointed  historiographer  to  the  order,  but  for 
some  reason  this  desire  was  never  gratified.  He 
died  in  May  1692,  in  the  seventy-sixth  year  of 
his  age,  and  was  interred  in  the  church  of  Great 
Lainheth.  Besides  the  works  ahovementioned 
as  printed  in  his  life -time,  he  left  a  number  of 
pieces  in  manuscript,  chiefly  on  subjects  of 
English  antiquities,  of  which  a  few  have  been 
published  ;  as  has  likewise  a  "  Diary  of  "his 
Life,"  written  by  liimself,  which  has  afforded 
copious  inaterials  for  his  biograpiicrs.  The  rank 
he  bears  in  literature  may  be  estimated  from  the 
account  of  his  pursuits  already  given.  To  class 
him  with  our  first  philosophers  and  men  of  let- 
ters, and  call  him,  in  the  words  of  the  Blogr. 
Britan.  •'  one  of  the  greatest  men  in  the  last 
century,"  is  manifestly  ridiculous.  Neither  the 
strength  of  his  understanding,  nor  the  nature  of 
his  studies,  at  all  justify  such  a  panegyric.  But 
industry,  perseverance,  curiosity,  and  exactness, 
may  be  allowed  him  in  a  high  degree;  and 
Antony  Wood,  in  his  quaint  language,  has  per- 
haps, not  ill  characterised  him  as  "  the  greatest 
virtuoso  or  curioso  that  was  ever  known  or 
read  of  in  England  before  his  tinie."  Biog. 
Britan. — A. 

ASHWELL,  George,  an  English  episco- 
palian divine,  born  at  Harrow  on  the  Hill,  in 
Middlesex,  in  the  year  16 12,  and  educated  at 
Wadham  College,  Oxford,  was  rector  of  Han- 
wel  in  Oxfordshire.  He  was  a  zealous  advo- 
cate for  the  doctrine  and  worship  of  the  church 


ASP 


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ASS 


of  England,  and  wrote  in  their  defence  several 
treatises  :  "  Fides  Apostolica,"  [A  Discourse 
on  the  Authors  and  Authority  of  the  Apostle's 
Creed]  with  "  An  Appendix  on  the  Kiccne 
and  Athanasian  Creeds,"  printed  in  8vo.  at  Ox- 
ford, 1653  ;  "  Gestiis  Eucharisticus,"  [Con- 
cerning the  Gesture  to  he  used  at  the  receiving 
of  the  Sacrament]  in  8vo.  at  Oxford,  1663; 
"  De  Socino  et  Socinismo  ;"  "  De  Ecciesia 
Roniana,"  4to.  Oxford,  1658.  He  also  trans- 
lated into  English  Pococke's  J^atin  translation  of 
an  Arabic  work,  "  'I'he  Self-taught  Philoso- 
j)hcr,  Hai  Ebn  Yokdan,"  by  Tophail.  IVoocl, 
Athcn.  Oxon.      Biog.  Bv'tt. — E. 

ASPASIA,  a  Grecian  lady  more  celebrated 
for  her  talents  than  her  virtue,  was  a  native  of 
Miletus,  and  daughter  of  one  Axiochus.  Set- 
tling at  Athens,  in  the  profession  of  a  courtesan, 
and  even  of  a  procuress,  she  excited  as  much 
admiration  by  the  accomplisiiments  of  her  mind 
as  the  beauty  of  her  person.  She  was  a  profi- 
cient in  rhetoric,  and  was  well  versed  in  philoso- 
phy and  political  science  ;  and  even  the  wise  So- 
crates (such  were  the  manners  of  the  time)  did 
not  think  it  misbecame  him  to  cultivate  an  ac- 
quaintance with  her,  and  receive  lessons  from 
lier.  Her  house  was  frequented  by  persons  of 
character,  who  even  brought  their  wives  to  be 
her  auditors.  The  great  statesinan  Pericles  was 
so  much  attached  to  her,  that  after  maintaining 
for  some  time  an  illegitimate  commerce  with 
lier,  he  divorced  his  wite  and  married  Aspasia. 
She  was  supposed  to  have  a  great  influence  over 
his  political  conduct ;  and  the  war  against  Sa- 
nios,  in  order  to  assist  the  Milesians,  is  imputed 
to  her.  The  satirists  ot  Athens  also  accused 
her  of  being  the  author  of  the  war  with  Mcga- 
ra,  (which  was  the  commencement  of  the  Pclo- 
ponnesian  war)  in  revenge  tor  the  seisure  of  two 
<'f  her  damsels  by  ilie  Megariaijs,  who  onlv  re- 
taliated a  similar  outrage  of  the  Athenians.  A- 
.spasia  was  criminally  prosecuted  by  Hermip[)iis, 
a  comedian,  on  the  two  charges  of  impiety  and 
procurement ;  and  it  required  all  the  tears  and 
entreaties  of  Pericles  to  save  her.  After  the  death 
of  Pericles  she  attached  herself  to  a  man  of  mean 
cojidition,  whom,  by  her  interest,  she  raised  to 
the  hist  offices  of  the  state.  Plutarch,  in  Fit. 
Pcricl.    /Ithciusus.      Amtophanes.      Bayle. — A. 

ASPASIA,  daughter  of  Hermotimus  of  Pho- 
caea,  a  person  of  mean  circumstances,  was  ori- 
ginally named  ATilto,  and  \\  as  brought  up  with 
no  other  advantages  than  nature  gave  her.  She 
neither  possesssed  nor  wished  for  foreign  orna- 
ments to  set  oft"  a  person  exquisitely  beautifid, 
and  decorated  with  modesty  and  feminine  soft- 
ness.    The  commander  for  Cyrus,  brother  ot 


Artaxerxcs  Mncmon,  in  those  parts,  took  her 
away  by  force  along  with  other  maids  of  the 
country,  and  sent  her  to  his  master.  Here  she 
so  mucli  distinguished  herself  from  her  compa- 
nions by  the  reserve  and  repugnance  with  which 
she  received  the  advances  of  Cyrus,  that  he  be- 
came deeply,  enamoured  with  her,  and  treated 
her  more  like  a  wife  than  a  concubine.  He 
gave  her  tlie  name  of  Aspasia,  in  honour  of  the 
subject  of  the  preceding  article,  whose  renown 
had  pervaded  all  Lesser  Asia.  She  participated 
in  his  counsels,  and  accompanied  him  ni  his 
expeditions.  She  used  her  power  with  great 
moderation;  and,  contented  \\ith  makJnt;  the 
tortune  of  her  father,  she  showed  herself  indif- 
ferent to  wealth  and  splendor  on  her  own  ac- 
count. She  dexterously  obtained  the  favour  of 
the  iinperious  Parysatis  by  respectful  attention  ; 
and  her  chief  magnificeuce  was  displayed  in  her 
otTeringstoVenus,  whom  she  esteemed  the  patro- 
nessofherfortunes.  After  tliefatal  battlein  which 
Cyrus  lost  his  life  lighting  against  his  brother, 
she  fell  into  the  conqutroi's  hands,  over  whom 
she  soon  gained  an  influence  almost  equal  to 
that  she  had  possessed  with  her  former  master. 
The  remainder  of  her  story,  as  related  by  Plu- 
tarch and  Justin,  almost  surpasses  the  bounds  of 
credibility.  They  assert  that  Darius,  son  of 
Artaxerxes,  on  being  publiclv  declared  his  suc- 
cessor, and,  according  to  custom,  allowed  to 
demand  a  favour,  asked  of  his  father  his  Aspa- 
sia ;  and  that  the  fair  one,  being  allowed  to  make 
her  choice  between  tlie  father  and  son,  preferred 
the  latter.  It  is  further  added  that  Artaxerxcs, 
jealous  of  his  gift,  took  her  out  of  his  hands,  by 
making  her  priestess  of  Diana,  which  bound  her 
to  perpetual  continence ;  an  artifice  so  mortify- 
ing to  Darius,  that  it  occasioned  him  to  rebel. 
As  Darius  was  fifty  when  declared  successor  to 
the  throne,  this  precious  object  of  contention 
must  then,  by  calculation,  have  been  about  her 
seventy-fifth  year  !  [In  the  passage  of  Plutarch's 
Life  ot  Artaxerxes,  where  Darius's  age  is  thus 
stated,  some  read  twenty-five  ;  and  the  length 
of  Artaxerxes,  reign  is  abridged  near  twen- 
ty years  by  Diodorus]  If  there  is  any  truth 
in  the  story,  the  event  must  probably  have 
happened  in  an  earlier  period  of  J^ariiis's  life, 
perhaps  when  he  came  of  age.  Ba\le's  Diet. 
—A. 

ASSELYN,  John,  a  painter,  was  bom  in 
Holland  about  1 6 10.  He  was  brought  up  un- 
der Isaiah  Vandcn-Velde,  a  battle  painter,  at  the 
}laguc,  and  afterwards  travelled  into  Prance  and 
Italy.  He  studied  at  Rome,  anil  was  |)arucularly 
an  imitator  of  the  manner  of  IJambochio.  The 
Flemish  community  of  students  gave  him  the 


ASS 


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ASS 


name  of  Krabhcte,  on  account  of  tlic  crooked- 
ness of  liis  hand  and  lingers  ;  but  no  traces  of 
this  defect  appear  in  his  paintings,  which  are 
remarkable  for  the  freedom  and  lightness  of 
their  touch.  I3uring  his  residence  in  Rome  he 
was  perjietiially  copying  nature  in  tlic  environs 
of  that  city  —  villages,  remains  of  antiquity,  ani- 
mals, human  figures,  ail  were  with  great  rapi- 
dity committed  to  ])aper,  so  that  he  acquired  a 
prodigious  stock  of  studies  of  this  kind.  On 
his  return  he  staid  some  time  at  Lyons,  where  he 
gratified  the  curious  with  his  designs.  In  this 
city  he  married  the  daughter  of  a  merchant  of 
Antwerp,  and  brought  her  with  him  to  Am- 
sterdam in  1645.  ^*^  ^^'^^  received  with  great 
applause  bv  his  countrymen,  and  liis  example 
first  gave  the  Dutch  painters  the  idea  of  imi- 
tating the  clear  and  natural  manner  of  colouring 
landscape  so  much  admired  in  Claude  Lorrain, 
and  quitting  their  dark  and  sombre  style,  with 
the  prevalent  blue  and  green  tints  of  Paul  Bril 
and  Breugel.  Asselvn  was  in  great  vogue  at 
Amsterdam,  and  obrained  a  high  price  for  his 
paintings,  which  were  history  pieces,  battles, 
but  chiefly  landscapes  with  antiquities,  and  men 
and  animals,  represented  with  great  truth  and 
admirable  brilliance  of  colouiing.  They  are 
highly  esteemed  ;  and  a  set  of  twenty-four  of 
his  landscapes  and  ruins  has  been  engraved  by 
Perelle.  Asselyn  died  at  Amsterdam  in  1650. 
ly Argenv'tlle,   Vies  da  Peintres. — A. 

ASSER,  or  Asserius  Menevensis,  an 
English  divine,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  lived  in  the 
ninth  century.  He  was  born  in  Wales,  and 
took  the  monastic  habit  among  the  Benedictines 
at  St.  David's.  He  was  appointed  secretary  to 
the  bishop  of  Sherbourn,  and  afterwards  precep- 
tor to  the  son  of  Alfred,  which  prepared  the  way 
for  his  advancement  to  the  see  of  Sherbourn.  It 
is  said,  that  it  was  by  the  advice  of  this  bishop 
that  Alfred  founded  tiie  university  of  Oxfon!  ; 
but  the  time  when  this  university  was  founded 
has  been  a  subject  of  much  dispute.  Asscr  wrote 
the  "  Life  of  Alfred,"  which  was  first  published 
by  arclibishop  Parker  in  the  old  Saxon  charac- 
ter at  the  end  of  his  edition  of  Thomas  Wal- 
singham's  History,  [«-inted  in  folio,  at  London, 
in  1574;  and  reprinted  the  next  year  at  Zurich. 
The  life  was  brought  down  by  Asser  only  to 
his  forty-fiftii  year,  or,  according  to  his  com- 
putation, the  year  of  Christ  893  ;  the  rest  has 
been  added  from  autliors  of  later  date.  Another 
work,  under  the  title  of  "  Asserius's  Annals," 
■was  published  by  Dr.  Gale,  in  folio,  at  Oxford, 
in  1691.  It  has  been  doubted,  whether  his 
name  has  not  been  prefixed  without  sufficient 
authority  to  a  collection,  which,  at  its  first  ap- 


pearance, was  anonymous  :  but  the  learned  edi- 
tor makes  no  question  of  its  authenticity  ;  and 
the  copious  manner  in  which  it  treats  of  the 
fortunes  of  Alfred  favours  tliis  opinion.  Asse- 
rius has  the  reputation  of  a  very  faidifui  histo- 
rian. The  time  of  his  death  is  fixed  by  God- 
win in  883,  but  bv  Cave  in  909.  Godwin  de 
Piteiul.  Foss.  dc  flist.  Lat.  lib.  ii.  c.  39.  Ni- 
cholsons  English  Historical  Library,  p.  47.  ed. 
1736.     Cav.  Hist.  Lit. — E. 

ASSER,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  the  fifth  century, 
wrote,  with  the  assisiance  of  Hamai,  "  The' 
Talmud  of  Babylon,"  so  called  from  tlie  city 
where  it  was  compiled.  This  collection,  com- 
mented upon  in  547  bv  the  rabbi  jMair,  and  af- 
terwards by  another  Asser,  was  printed  at  Ley- 
den,  in  4to.  in  1630  ;  and  with  various  notes, 
in  twelve  volumes  folio,  at  Amsterdam  in  1744. 
Noiiv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

ASSHETON,  William,  an  Enghsh  epi- 
scopalian divine,  rector  of  Beckcnham  in  Kent, 
was  born  at  Middleton  in  Lancashire  in  the  year 
1641,  and  was  educated  at  Bra/en  Nose  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  He  was  frequently  chosen  proc- 
tor for  Rochester  in  convocation  ;  a  proof  that 
he  was  thought  a  worthy  representative  of  his 
order.  In  liis  professional  character  he  appears 
to  have  b:en  faithful  and  assiduous.  With  a 
considerable  share  ot  ability  and  learning,  and, 
doubtless,  with  genuine  integrity  and  purity,  he 
defended  the  established  system  of  religion ; 
and  he  wrote  several  useful  pieces  on  subjects  of 
morality  and  practical  religion.  It  will  not 
however,  at  present,  be  considered  as  any  proof 
of  the  liberality  of  his  spirit,  or  the  soundness  of 
his  judgment,  that  he  wrote  expressly  against  to- 
leration, and  in  defence  of  belief  in  apparitions. 
He  published  his  "  Toleration  disapproved," 
at  Oxford  in  1670  ;  and  his  "  Cases  of  Scan- 
dal and  Persecution,"  in  1674.  His  "  Pos- 
sibility of  Apparitions,"  was  occasioned  by  the 
story  of  Mrs.  Veal,  since  prefixed  to  "  Drelin- 
court  on  Death."  Assheton  was  a  strenuous 
advocate  for  monarchy,  and  in  1685  wrote 
"  The  Royal  Apology,"  in  defence  of  James 
II.  yet,  in  1688,  he  happily  transferred  his  loy- 
alty to  William  and  Mary,  and  wrote,  "  A  sea- 
sonable Vindication  of  their  present  Majesties  ;" 
declaring  to  the  world  the  reasons  which  induced 
him  to  swear  allegiance  to  tliem.  He  wrote 
against  popery,  and  in  defence  of  the  Trmit\-. 
This  divine  is,  perhaps,  chiefly  entitled  to  me- 
morial as  the  first  projector  of  the  scheme  for 
providing  for  clergymen's  widows  and  others, 
by  a  jointure  payable  out  of  the  mercers'  com- 
pany. The  worthy  doctor  took  great  pains  to 
bring  this  scheme  to  perfection,  and  had  the  sa- 


AST 


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AST 


risfiiction  to  see  it  accomplislicd,  as  appears  from 
l»is  "  Account  of  the  Rise,  Progress,  and  Al- 
vantafrcs  of  Dr.  Assheton's  Proi)Osal,  &c." 
printcii  iii  17  13.  For  want,  however,  of  an  ac- 
curate acquaintance  with  ili?  doctrine  of  annui- 
ties, the  plan  was  erroneously  constructed,  and 
the  society  was  not  able  comjiletelv  to  make 
good  its  proposals.  AssI.eton  died  at  his  rectory 
in  17 1 1,  in  the  seventieth  year  of  his  age. 
fVooJ,  Athcti.  0:<on.  IVatts's  Life  of  Dr. 
Asshitm.      B'log.  Brit. — E. 

AS'JELL,  I\Iarv,  an  EnglisJi  lady,  who 
distingiiislicd  herself  as  a  writer,  vas  born  at 
Newcastle  upon  ']"yne  in  1668.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  a  merchant ;  and  from  her  uncle,  a 
clergyman,  received  an  education  more  literary 
and  scientific,  than  was  at  that  time  usually  given 
to  young  women.  Slie  was  instructed  in  ])hiloso- 
phv,  mathcinatics,  and  logic,  and  in  the  Latin 
and  I'lench  languages.  At  about  twenty  years  of 
age  she  left  Newcastle,  and  spent  the  remainder 
of  her  life  in  or  near  London,  still  devoting  a 
great  part  of  her  time  to  study.  Lamenting  the 
ignorance  then  prevalent  among  the  generality 
of  her  sex,  she  endeavoured  to  excite  in  them  a 
desire  of  knowledge,  by  publishing  "  A  serious 
Proposal  to  the  Ladies,  wherein  a  Method  is 
otFtred  for  the  Improvement  of  their  Minds," 
printed  in  i2mo.  at  London  in  1697.  Her  pro- 
posal was  the  establishment  of  a  seminary  for 
female  education.  It  excited  so  much  attention, 
that  a  certain  great  ladv,  not  mentioned  by  name, 
but  probably  the  queen,  formed  a  design  of 
giving  ten  thousand  pounds  towards  erecting  a 
sort  of  college  for  the  education  and  improve- 
ment of  the  female  sex,  and  as  an  asylum  to 
such  ladies  as  might  wish  to  retire  from  the 
\vorld  :  but  this  laudable  design  was  frustrated 
by  the  unnecessan,*  caution  of  bishop  Burnet, 
who  suggested  to  the  lady,  that  such  an  institu- 
tion would  too  much  resem.ble  a  nunnerv.  Mrs. 
AstcU  wrote  "  Reflections  on  Marriage,"  pub- 
lished in  1700  and  1705,  in  consequence,  as  it 
is  said,  of  her  disappointment  in  a  marriage  con- 
tract with  an  eniinent  clergyman.  This  lady 
was  a  zealous  defender  of  the  system  commonly 
deemed  orthodox  in  religion ;  and  in  politics 
was  a  staunch  advocate  for  the  doctrine  of  non- 
resistance.  She  iniblishcd  some  controversial 
pieces,  particularly,  "  Moderation  truly  stated ;" 
*'  A  fair  Way  with  the  Dissenters  ;"  "  h\\  im- 
partial Enquiry  into  the  Causes  of  the  Rcbel- 
iion  ;"  and  "  A  Vindication  of  the  Royal  Mar- 
tyr;" all  printed  in  410.  in  1704.  Her  most 
elaborate  performance  was  a  large  octavo  vo- 
Jumc,  published  in  1705,  entitled,  '*  I'he  Chris- 
tian Religion  as  professed  by  a  Daughter  ot  the 

VOL.    I. 


Church  of  England."  Dr.  Watcrland  called  it 
a  very  good  book.  In  tlic  controversial  parr, 
she  has  had  the  courage  to  attack  Locke  and 
'I'illotson.  Towards  the  close  of  her  life,  Mrs. 
Astell  suffered  the  severe  affliction  of  a  cancer  in 
her  breast,  and  bore  the  pain  of  amputation  with 
uncommon    fortitude.      She   died   in    tlie    year 

1731- 

Mrs.  Astell  appears  to  have  been  a  woman  of 
very  austere  manners  and  rigid  principles,  and  to 
have  posscs';cd  no  cxtraordiuai v  talents  as  a 
writer.  At  a  later  period,  wlicn  female  educa- 
tion has  been  so  much  improved,  that  a  new 
sera  of  female  character  has  commenced,  such 
an  authoress  would  scarcely  be  noticed  :  but,  at 
a  time  when  few  women  read,  and  hardly  any 
wrote,  it  was  meritoiious  to  suggest  hints,  how- 
ever rude  and  imj-ei  lect,  for  the  improvement  of 
female  education  ;  and  it  may  be  wortli  record- 
ing, that  a  century  ago,  a  woman  ventured  to 
think,  and  to  say  in  print,  that  "  women,  who 
ought  to  be  retired,  are,  for  this  reason,  designed 
for  speculation,"  and  that  "  great  improve- 
ments might  be  made  in  the  sciences,  were  not 
women  enviously  excluded  from  this  their  pro- 
per business."  It  may  deserve  mention  concern- 
ing this  ladv,  that  she  valued  lier  time  too  much 
to  suffer  it  to  be  often  interrupted  by  trifling  vi- 
sitors ;  and  that,  though  she  had  not  learned  the 
modern  refinement  of  dictating  lies  to  servants, 
she  would  often  prevent  such  intruders,  as  she 
saw  them  approach,  by  jestingly  saying  to  them, 
"  Mrs..  Astell  is  not  at  home."  Ballard's  Me- 
moirs of  British  Ladies,  ed.  8vo.  1775.  Biog. 
Brit. — E. 

A.STERIUS,  a  Christian  writer  of  the  Arian 
sect,  flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century.  He  was  a  native  of  Cappadocia,  and 
by  profession  a  sophist.  Forsaking  gcntilism, 
he  professed  Christianity.  In  tl'.e  lime  of  Alaxi- 
niian's  persecution,  probably  about  the  year 
304,  his  courage  failed  him,  and  he  consented  to 
sacrifice  to  the  pagan  divinities;  but  he  was 
afterwards  recalled  to  the  faith  by  his  master, 
Lucian  of  Antioch.  He  associated  much  with 
Arian  bishops,  frequented  their  synods,  and  was 
desirous  of  being  himself  bishop  of  some  city  ; 
but,  on  account  of  his  temporary  lapse  into  pa- 
ganism, this  honour  was  refused  liim.  He 
wrote  books  in  defence  of  Aiianism,  which 
gave  great  offence  to  Athanasius,  who  calls  him 
a  cunning  sophist  and  p.itrun  ot  heresy  :  ho  was 
also  the  author  of  "  Commentaries  on  the 
Psalms,  the  Ciospels,  and  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,"  and  several  otiicr  books,  wiiichjcrom 
savs,  (Hieron.  de  Vir.  111.  c.  94.)  were  much 
read  by  men  of  his  party.  A  few  fragments  only 


AST 


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AST 


remain  of  this  writer,  in  citations  made  by 
Athanasius,  (Orat  2.  Cont.  Ar.  n.  37.  Orat. 
3.  n.  2.  Dc  Synod,  n.  18,  &cc.)  Eusebius, 
(Euseb.  Cont.  Marc.  lib.  i.  c.  4,  &c.)  and 
Epiphaniiis,  (Hzr.  72.)  Lardncr's  Cred.  Pt. 
ii.  c.  69.   §  9-  Dtipin.  Cav.  Hist.  Lit. — E. 

ASTERIUS,  bishop  of  Amasea  in  Pontus, 
a  native  of  Aiitioch,  tlourisheJ  in  the  fourth 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  titth  century.  An- 
cient writers  take  little  notice  of  liini;  but  we 
learn  from  his  own  remains,  that  he  received 
his  early  instruction  from  a  Scytiiian  slave ; 
that  he  lived  near  the  time  of  Julian,  and  tliat 
he  continued  to  a  great  age.  Extracts  from  his 
sermons  arc  preserved  by  Photius,  (Cod.  271.) 
live  entire  Homilies  were  printed  in  Greek 
and  Latin  by  Rubenius,  in  4to.  at  Antwerp,  in 
1615  ;  and  six  others  were  added,  together  with 
the  extracts  of  Photius,  by  Combefis,  in  his 
supplement  to  the  "  Bibliotheca  Patrum," 
printed  in  1648.  Dupin,  who  has  given  a  di- 
stinct account  of  these  homilies,  allows  them 
much  commendation.  The  characters  and  de- 
scriptions, he  says,  are  excellent ;  the  explana- 
tions of  scripture  ingenious,  and  the  thoughts 
and  reflections  solid  and  useful :  yet  we  do  not 
apprehend  they  would  be  much  admired  by  a  mo- 
dern auditory.  Dupin.  Cav.  Hist.  Lit.  Fabr. 
Bib.  Grac.  lib.  V.  c.  1%.   %  7.— E. 

ASTERIUS  URBANUS,  a  Christian  di- 
vine, whether  bishop  or  presbyter  is  uncertain, 
lived  about  the  beginning  of  the  third  century. 
He  wzs  probably  the  author  of  a  treatise  against 
the  Montanists,  of  which  large  extracts  are 
preserved  in  Eusebius.  The  work  was  the  sub- 
stance of  the  author's  arguments  in  a  disputa- 
tion which  he  held  at  Ancyra  in  Galatia. 
Euseb.  Hist.  Ecc.  lib.  v.  c.  16,  17.  Cav.  Hist. 
Lit.      Lardners  Cred.  part  2.   c.  33.— E. 

ASTRONOME,  L',  an  historian  and  as- 
tromer  of  the  ninth  century,  was  the  author  of 
a  "  Life  of  the  Emperor  Louis  le  Debonnaire." 
He  passed  a  great  part  of  his  life  in  the  court  of 
that  prince,  under  whom  he  had  some  honoura- 
ble post.  It  appears  from  this  work,  that  he 
.•iometimes  conversed  with  that  prince  on  astro- 
nomical subjects,  and  that  he  made  the  science 
of  astronomy  his  particular  study.  The  work, 
which  was  written  in  Latin,  has  been  translated 
into  French  by  Cousin.  The  original  mav  be 
seen  in  the  second  volume  of  "  DuChesne's  Col- 
lection of  Historians."     Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

AS TRUC,  John,  M.  D.  an  eminent  French 
physician  and  medical  writer,  was  boru  in  1684 
at  Sauve  in  the  diocese  of  Alais,  and  studied  phy- 
sic in  the  unis-ersity  of  Montpclicr,  of  which 
he  became  a  doctor  and  professor.  He  appeared 


as  a  writer  so  soon  as  1702,  and  several  of  his 
early  treatises  relate  to  the  theory  of  digestion. 
After  the  plague  had  visited  Marseilles  in  1720, 
he  distinguished  himself  by  taking  a  principal 
part  in  the  dispute  which  arose  among  the  phy- 
sicians, whether  it  was  an  imported  or  a  home- 
bred disease  ;  and  he  strongly  supported  the  doc- 
trine (which  nothing  hut  an  inveterate  spirit  of 
dogmatism  could  have  called  in  question)  of  its 
contagious  nature.  His  capital  work,  "  De 
Morbis  Venereis,"  appeared  first  in  1736,  but 
was  several  times  reprinted  with  additions.  It 
abounds  in  learned  disquisiticm,  and  was  long 
(if  it  is  not  at  this  day)  the  standard  of  sound 
practice.  The  author  warmly  contends  for  the 
novelty  of  the  disease  in  Europe, and  its  importa- 
tion by  the  discoverers  of  America.  In  1737  he 
published  a  quarto  volume  of  "  Memoirs  rela- 
tive to  the  Natural  History  of  Languedoc," 
which  contained  a  particular  account  of  the  mi- 
neral waters  of  Balaruc.  His  reputation  had 
now  become  so  considerable,  that  the  faculty  of 
Paris  adopted  him  as  a  member  in  1743,  and 
the  king  created  him  one  of  his  consulting  phy- 
sicians, and  gave  him  the  place  of  professor  in 
tiie  Royal  College  at  Paris.  A  great  concourse 
of  students  from  all  parts  attended  his  lectures, 
so  that  his  school  was  often  too  small  for  the 
auditors.  He  continued  to  publish  various  works, 
as  "  A  Treatise  on  Pathology,"  and  another 
"  On  Therapeutics  ;"  and  he  entered  deeply  in- 
to the  dispute  between  the  physicians  and  sur- 
geons of  Paris,  in  which  his  learning  furnished 
him  with  many  curious  facts  concerning  the  an- 
cient state  of  the  two  branches  of  medicine  in 
the  kingdom.  In  1756  he  published  some 
"  Doubts  on  the  Inoculation  of  the  Small-pox, 
addressed  to  the  Faculty  of  Paris."  In  1759, 
"  A  Treatise  on  Tumours  and  Ulcers,"  in  two 
vols.  i2mo.  written  in  French,  appeared  with- 
out his  name.  It  contains  many  valuable  ob- 
servations ;  and  was  among  the  first  works 
which  denied  that  marks  were  produced  by  the 
mother's  imagination.  His  popular  performance, 
"  On  the  Diseases  of  Women,"  in  French,  four 
vols.  i2mo.  was  published  in  1761.  Two  more 
volumes  were  added  in  1765  ;  and  a  separate  vo- 
lume "  On  Midwifery,"  in  1766.  Several 
snialler  pieces  on  medical  topics  came  from  his 
pen  at  different  times ;  and  a  posthumous  work 
of  his  in  4to.  entitled,  "  Memoirs  relative  to  the 
History  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  of  Montpel- 
lier,"  was  edited  by  Mr.  Lorry  in  1767.  Be- 
sides these  numerous  productions  in  his  own 
profession,  he  wrote  "  Conjectures  on  the  ori- 
ginal Memoirs  used  by  Aloses  in  writing  Gene- 
sis,"  i2nio.    1753;  and  "A  Dissertation  on 


AT<iABALIPA  ,    %pT  DV  PERF. 

Qhapitre,    i^f. 


AST 


(    435     ) 


ATA 


the  Immateriality  and  Immortality  of  tlie  Soul," 
j2mo.  1755. 

Dr.  Astruc  was  made  first  physician  to  Au- 
gustus, king  of  Poland,  and  spent  some  time  at 
his  court  ;  but  finding  tliat  this  situation  was  a 
restraint  on  liis  Htcrary  pursuits,  he  quitted  it. 
He  died  at  Paris,  May  5,  1766,  in  the  eighty- 
third  year  of  his  age.  He  was  a  modest,  polite, 
and  benevolent  man,  wholly  attached  to  the 
pleasures  of  liis  family  and  liis  closet.  He  spent 
all  the  time  he  could  spare  from  his  studies  in  the 
education  of  his  son,  and  in  conversation  with 
young  persons  of  the  profession,  whom  he  loved 
to  guide  and  instruct.  His  works,  though  not 
free  from  inaccuracies,  abound  in  various  and 
agreeable  information,  and  are  written  in  a  good 
taste,  with  a  candid  and  judicious  spirit  of  criti- 
cism, and  every  where  display  a  zeal  for  the 
welfare  of  mankind.  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  Hal- 
ler,  Bihl.  Med.  torn.  iv. — A. 

ASTYAGES,  king  of  the  Medes,  son  of 
Cyaxares,  is  reckoned  to  have  commenced  his 
reign  B.  C.  594.  The  historv  of  this  remote 
period  is  so  mingled  with  fable,  that  little  de- 
pendance  can  be  placed  upon  it  beyond  the  ac- 
count of  a  few  leading  events.  The  story  of 
Astyages  is  chiefly  memorable  from  its  con- 
nexion with  that  of  the  great  eastern  conqueror, 
Cyrus  ;  and  Herodotus  relates  it  in  the  follow- 
ing manner.  Astyages  married  his  daughter 
Mandane  to  a  Persian  nobleman  named  Cam- 
byses.  During  her  pregnancy,  he  had  a  dream, 
•which  was  interpreted  to  signify,  that  the  child 
to  be  born  should  rule  over  all  Asia.  This  pre- 
diction so  much  alarmed  y\styages,  that  he  re- 
solved to  destroy  the  child;  audat  its  birth  de- 
livered it  for  this  purpose  to  one  Harpagus,  who, 
moved  by  compassion,  disobeyed  the  command, 
and  entrusted  the  infant  Cyrus  to  one  of  the 
king's  herdsmen,  by  whom  he  was  brought  up. 
On  the  discovery  of  this  fraud,  when  Cyrus  was 
ten  years  old,  Astyages  caused  the  only  son  of 
Harpagus  to  be  killed,  and  his  flesh  to  be  served 
up  to  him  in  a  banquet.  Harpagus,  who  at  first 
dissembled  his  resentment  of  this  monstrous  bar- 
barity, nourished  the  secret  intentions  of  revenge, 
which  lie  afterwards  put  in  practice,  bv  calling 
Cyrus,  now  grown  up  to  manhood,  out  of  Per- 
sia, whither  he  had  been  sent  to  his  real  parents, 
and  enabling  him  to  raise  a  revolt  against  his 
grandfather.  Astyages  was  defeated ;  and  in 
revenge  for  the  want  of  foresight  of  the  magi, 
who  had  assured  him  that  all  danger  from  his 
grandson  was  at  an  end,  caused  them  all  to  be  im- 
paled. In  a  second  engagement  he  was  again  de- 
feated and  made  prisoner.  Cyrus  deposed  him, 
and  rendered  the  Mcdcs  subject  to  the  Persians. 


Astyages  lud  at  tins  time  reigned  thirty-five 
years.  He  was  suffered  to  live,  confined  to  his 
palace,  till  the  natural  period  of  his  days. 

Xenophon,  in  his  "  Cyropsdia,"  (which, 
however,  the  best  critics  have  always  consi- 
dered rather  as  a  work  of  fiction  than  true  his- 
tory) represents  the  matter  very  diiTcrently ; 
and  describes  Cyrus  as  openly  educated  at  the 
court  of  his  grandfather  Astyages,  who  retained 
tJie  crown  till  his  death,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Cyaxares  II.  Astyages  is  by  some 
reckoned  to  be  the  Ahaiucrus  of  the  Jewish 
scriptures.      Univers.  Hist. — A. 

ATAHUALPA,  or  At.^ualipa,  last  inca 
of  Peru,  was  the  son  of  Huana  Capac  by  the 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Q^iito  ;  and,  at  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1529,  was  appointed  his 
successor  in  the  conquered  province  of  Quito, 
while  his  elder  brother  Huascar,  descended  from 
a  virgin  of  the  sun,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
Peru.  A  civil  war  soon  arose  between  the  bro- 
thers, which  ended  in  the  del'eat  and  captivity 
of  Huascar;  and  Atahualpa  secured  his  own 
usurped  authority  over  the  Peruvian  empire  by 
putting  to  death  all  of  the  royal  race,  called  child- 
ren of  the  sun,  whom  he  could  get  within  his 
power.  During  the  course  of  tiiis  war,  the 
Spanish  adventurer  Pizarro  arrived  in  Peru, 
and  was  suffered,  without  opposition,  to  pene- 
trate to  the  town  of  Caxamalca,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  camp  of  Atahualpa.  This 
prince,  confiiling  in  Pizarro's  professions  of 
friendship,  made  a  visit,  with  a  splendid  and 
numerous  train,  to  the  Spanish  quarters.  When 
he  arrived,  the  friar  Valvcrde  addressed  him 
in  an  harangue,  explaining  the  nature  ot  the 
Christian  rehgion,  and  the  authority  of  the 
pope,  and  terminating  with  a  requisition  to  the 
inca,  that  he  should  embrace  the  catholic  faith, 
and  acknowledge  himself  a  vassal  ot  the  king 
of  Castile.  The  astonished  prince  demand- 
ed by  wliat  authority  he  was  enjoined  sucli 
strange  comjiliances,  and  where  the  priest  had 
learned  these  extraordinary  things  :  "  In  this 
book,"  replied  Valverde,  reacliing  him  his  bre- 
viary. The  inca  turned  over  the  Icavi-s,  put  the 
book  to  his  ear,  and  saying,  *'  This  is  silent,  it 
tells  me  nothing  ;"  threw  it  disdainfully  on  the 
ground.  "  To  arms  !  (cried  the  furious  Val- 
vcrde) revenge  the  profanation  offered  to  our 
holy  religion '"  Immediately  the  Spaniards,  who 
had  been  prepared  for  the  scene,  tell  upon  the 
innocent  Peruvians,  massacred  numbers  of 
them  without  mercy,  and  seised  the  person  of 
the  inca  himself,  the  i^reat  object  of  Pizarro's 
treacherous  designs.  I'hey  retained  him  in  a 
respectful  kind  of  captivity,  issuing  iu  his  name 


A  T  H 


(    436     ) 


A  T  H 


such  orJi-is  as  thcv  thouglit  comUicive  to  their 
own  security,  whicli  wcie  implicitly  obeyed. 
Atahualpa  otVertd,  as  a  ransom,  to  till  the  room 
in  which  he  was  kept  with  vessels  of  gold  as 
high  as  he  could  reach.  By  the  faitliful  exer- 
tions of  his  subjects,  this  immcr.sc  mass  of  trea- 
sure was  nearly  coUectal;  and  in  (lie  mean  time 
the  inca  was  allowed  to  sacrifice  to  his  own 
safety  tlie  life  of  his  captive  brother  Huascar. 
The  greedy  Spaniards  divided  the  ricli  spoil  of 
Peru  among  them,  but  the  inca  was  still  kept 
in  confinement.  He  now  became  an  object  of 
contention  between  the  soldiers  of  Pizarro,  and 
those  newlv  arrived  under  Almagro  ;  and  the 
latter  demanded  his  life,  that  there  nngbt  be  no 
pretext  of  inequality  in  sharing  the  future  plun- 
der of  Peru,  under  the  idea  of  its  being  the  inca's 
ransom.  Pizarro  at  length  consented  to  the 
sacrifice  ;  and  this  abominable  scene  of  perfidy 
and  injustice  was  concluded  by  a  mock  trial,  in 
whicli,  on  die  most  absurd  charges,  Ataliualpa 
was  found  guilty,  and  condemned  to  be  burnt 
alive.  He  was  instantly  led  to  the  place  of  exe- 
cution, where  the  promise  of  mitigating  his 
punisliment  induced  him  to  submit  to  the  cere- 
mony of  baptism.  As  soon  as  it  was  perform- 
ed, he  was  strangled  at  the  stake,  A.  D.  1533. 
Robertson  s  Hist,  of  America. — A. 

ATHALIAH,  daughter  of  Ahab  (2  Kings 
viii.  18.)  or  of  Omri  (ib.  ver.  28,  and  2  Chron. 
xxii.  2.),  wife  of  Jehoram  king  of  Judah,  and 
mother  of  Ahaziah,  soon  after  the  accession  of 
her  son  to  the  crown  of  Judah,  was  an  evil 
counsellor  to  her  son  ;  and  after  his  death,  that 
she  might  ascend  the  throne,  massacred  all  the 
princes  of  the  royal  house,  except  the  infant 
foash,  who  was  concealed  by  Jehoshaba  the 
daughter  of  Jehoram.  She  possessed  the  king- 
dom seven  years ;  at  the  expiration  of  -whicli, 
the  infant  king  was  presented  to  the  |)eople,  and 
crowned  in  the  temple ;  and  Atlialiah,  brought 
to  the  temple  by  the  shouts  of  the  people,  was, 
by  the  order  of  Jehoiada  the  high  priest,  put  to 
death.  This  story  is  matle  the  subject  of  one  of 
Racine's  finest  tragedies.     2  Kings  xi. — E. 

ATHANASIUS,  honoured  with  the  appel- 
lation of  saint,  a  celebrated  Christian  bishop  of 
the  fourth  century,  was  u  native  of  Flgvpt,  and 
probably  (Orat.  i.  cont.  Arian.)  of  Alexandria. 
The  exact  time  of  his  birth  is  not  known  ;  nor 
do  any  authentic  accounts  remain  of  his  parent- 
age, infancv,  or  education.  Ruffinus's  story 
of  his  imitating  the  ceremonies  of  the  church  in 
play,  while  a  ciiild,  and  baptising  his  comrades, 
is  given  up  by  Dupin,  and  by  Cave  himself  in 
his  last  work.  In  his  early  studies,  his  atten- 
tion was  chiefly  turned  to  theology,  and,  de- 


voting himself  to  the  church,  he  was  ordained 
a  deacon  under  Alexander,  bishop  of  Alexan- 
dria. He  appears  to  have  been  a  favourite  with 
that  prelate,  for  he  was  employed  as  his  secre- 
tary, and  accompanied  him  to  the  council  of 
Nice,  (Ath.  Apol.  ii.  Soc.  lib.  i.  c.  8.)  and 
was  nominated  by  him  as  his  successor.  Alex- 
ander dying  in  the  year  326,  five  montlis  after  the 
council  of  Nice,  Athanasius  was,  by  the  ge- 
neral voice  of  the  people,  chosen  bishoj)  of  the 
church  of  Alexandria,  and  was  ordained  by  the 
bishops  of  Egypt,  Libya,  and  Pentapolis,  assem- 
bled in  that  city.  This  is  attested  by  a  synodi- 
cal  letter,  preserved  by  Athanasius,  (Ajiol.  ii.) 
in  which  is  contradicted  the  account  of  the 
Arians,  who  asserted,  that  he  was  ordained  by 
seven  bishops  alone,  against  the  will  of  the  rest. 
When  accounts  directly  contradict  each  other 
concerning  a  recent  and  public  fact,  it  is  in 
vain,  at  the  distance  of  1400  years,  to  attempt 
to  ascertain  the  truth.  Athanasius  was  proba- 
bly at  this  time  not  more  than  thirty  years  of 
age,  for  he  speaks  of  the  persecution  of  Maxi- 
min,  (Ep.  ad  Solit.)  as  an  event  of  which  he 
had  heard  from  his  fathers,  and  he  lived  forty- 
six  years  after  his  ejuscopal  ordination. 

During  the  life  of  Alexander,  his  predecessor, 
Athanasius  had  entered  with  great  vehemence 
into  the  dispute  which  at  that  time  agitated  the 
whole  Christian  world,  concerning  the  person 
of  Christ ;  and  at  the  council  of  Nice,  though 
then  only  a  deacon,  had  distinguished  himself 
by  a  violent  speech  against  Alius.  Upon  the 
death  of  his  master,  and  his  advancement  to  the 
prelacy,  he  became  the  head  of  the  catholic 
party  in  the  contest  with  the  Arians,  and 
through  his  whole  life  maintained  the  struggle 
with  inflexible  firmness,  and  irrcconcileable 
hostility.  To  the  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  he  consecrated  all  his  time  and  talents  ; 
and  his  zeal  for  this  cause  was  such,  that  he 
thought  no  sacrifice  too  great  in  its  support. 

The  Arians,  who,  notwithstanding  the  con- 
demnation of  their  leader  in  the  council  of  Nice, 
were  still  numerous  and  powerful,  had  in  Alex- 
andria united  with  the  Meletian  j'arty,  in  op- 
posing the  bishop  of  Alexandria,  and,  with  the 
support  of  their  interest,  were  endeavouring  to 
obtain  the  restoration  of  Arius  to  the  catholic 
communion.  They  so  far  succeeded,  as  to 
obtain  a  request  to  this  effect  from  the  emperor 
Constantinc  to  Athanasius ;  and  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia,  the  zealous  friend  and  patron  of 
Arius,  at  the  same  time,  in  an  importunate  • 
and  menacing  letter,  urged  the  bishop  to  com- 
pliance. Athanasius  resolutely  withstood  these 
sohcif.uions,  and  the  resentment  of  the  Ariaa 


nATHANAse    eVESQJ^e 

d'AUxandrie.      Chap,  7. 


A  T  H 


(     437     ) 


A  T  H 


party  was  inflamed.  Determined,  if  possible, 
to  remove  so  formidable  an  adversary,  in  the 
year  33 1  they  brought  several  accusations 
against  him  before  the  einperor.  They  charged 
him  with  having  tyrannically  oppressed  the  in- 
habitants of  Alexandria  by  a  tax  on  tlicir  vest- 
ments ;  sacrilegiously  caused  a  chalice  in  one  of 
their  churches  to  be  broken  ;  and  traitorously 
assisted  the  eni])cror's  rival,  Philumcnus,  by 
supplying  him  with  money.  The  emperor  sum- 
moned Atlianasius  before  hiin ;  and,  having 
upon  examination  found  him  innocent,  sent 
him  back  to  Alexander  with  a  letter  of  acquittal 
and  approbation,  'i'hc  enemies  of  Athanasius 
repeated  their  attack.  They  revived  one  of  the 
former  charges,  deposing,  that  one  Macarius, 
sent  by  him  to  expell  Ischyrus  a  presbvter 
in  church  of  Marcotis,  had  rushed  upon  him 
in  the  church,  overturned  the  sacred  table 
and  broken  the  chalice :  they  asserted,  that  he 
had  whipped,  or  imprisoned,  six  of  their  bi- 
shops ;  and  they  even  accused  him  of  having 
inurdered,  or  mutilated,  Arsenius,  a  Melctian 
bishop.  (Sozora.  lib.  iii  c.  25.  Socrat.  lib.  ii. 
c.  27.  Athan.  Ap.  ii.)  The  accusations  were 
referred  by  the  emperor  to  a  synod  at  Cssarea  ; 
but  Athanasius  refused  to  appear  before  a  tri- 
bunal of  eneinies.  Another  council  was,  soon 
afterwards,  in  the  year  335,  by  Constantine's 
order,  summoned  at  Tyre,  (Socrat.  lib.  ii.  c.  28. 
Sozom.  lib.  ii.  c.  25.  &c.)  and  the  bishop, 
after  a  long  refusal,  at  last  obeyed  tlie  emperor's 
peremptory  commands,  and  appeared  in  the 
presence  of  sixty  bishops,  to  make  his  defence. 
His  reply  to  the  charge  concerning  the  six 
bishops  does  not  appear.  From  that  which  re- 
spected Arsenius  he  effectually  exculpated  him- 
self, by  producing  Arsenius  alive  and  unhurt, 
in  the  midst  of  the  assembly.  With  regard  to 
the  affair  of  the  chalice,  a  deputation  of  six 
bishops  was  appointed  to  make  inquiry  on  the 
spot :  they  inquired,  and  returned  with  a  con- 
firmation of  the  charge.  In  the  mean  tiir.e, 
some  of  the  members  of  the  synod  went  to  con- 
secrate a  chuich  at  Jerusalem,  and  there  re- 
ceived Avius  into  communion  ;  while  Athana- 
sius, who  foresaw  the  probable  issue  of  the 
trial,  seised  the  ojjportunity,  which  a  bark,  just 
then  hoisting  sail  for  Constantinople,  offered 
him,  of  jiresenting  himself  hi-h»rc  the  emperor. 
With  that  intrepidity  which  so  strongly  marked 
the  character  of  this  prelate,  he  encountered 
liis  sovereign,  as  he  was  passing  on  horseback 
through  the  principal  street  of  Constantinople, 
(Ath.  Apol.  ii.  Socrat.  lib.  i.  c.  34,  35.)  and 
entreated  an  audience.  The  emperor  listened 
to  his  complaints,  and  summoned  the  members 


of  the  council  to  appear  before  him,  that  the 
cause  might  be  fairly  examined.  When  they 
came,  h(>wever,  instead  of  renewing  th^ir  for- 
mer accusations,  they  brought  against  Athana- 
sius an  entirely  new  chargi- ;  that  he  h:ul  at- 
tempted to  detain  the  ships  -t  Alexandria  which 
supplied  Constantinople  with  corn,  of  which 
they  were  then  in  want.  Upon  this,  Constan- 
tine,  whether  from  resentment,  coi.vi(.tiun,  or 
policy,  it  may  be  difficult  to  determine,  con- 
sented to  his  degradation,  and  the  council  pro- 
nounced upon  him  a  sentence  of  deposition  and 
banishment.  In  a  remote  province  of  Gaul, 
but  in  the  hospitable  court  of  Treves,  the  prelate 
passed  about  eighteen  months  in  exile  ;  his  sec, 
in  the  mean  time,  remaining  unoccupied.  We 
assign  this  period,  as  the  synod  of  Jerusalem  was 
held  at  the  latter  end  of  the  year  335,  and  Atha- 
nasius was  restored  soon  after  the  death  of  Con- 
stantine,  by  a  letter  of  Constantius  bearing  date 
15.  Cal.  Jul.  Ann.  337.  Theodoret  makes  the 
duration  of  this  exile  t\so  years  and  fourmonths, 
which  account  is  adopted  bv  Gibbon  ;  and  Epi- 
phanius  strangely  says,  that  he  remained  in  the 
parts  of  Italy  twelve  or  fourteen  years.  Hser.  68. 
Upon  the  death  of  Constantine,  Athanasius, 
being  by  an  honourable  edict  of  Constantius  re- 
stored to  his  country,  resumed  his  episcopal 
functions.  (Theodor.  lib.  ii.  c.  2.  isocr.  lib.  ii. 
c.  2.  Soz.  lib.  iii.  c.  I.)  The  Arians,  how- 
ever, treated  this  proceeding  as  an  offence 
against  synodical  authority  ;  and  a  council  of 
ninety  bisho[)S,  of  whoin  the  leaders  were 
Theognis,  bishop  of  Nice,  'i'heodore  of  Hera- 
clea,  and  Eusebius,  lately  of  Nicomedia,  now 
of  Constantinople,  was  held  at  Antioch  in  341, 
which  confirmed  the  former  deposition  of 
Athanasius,  and  placed  in  the  see  of  Alexandria 
one  of  their  own  party,  Gregory  of  Cappado- 
cia  :  and  the  young  emperor,  who  was  easily 
brought  over  to  their  interest,  confirmed  the 
nomination  by  giving  instructions  to  the  prefect 
of  Egypt  to  support  the  new  jirimatc  witli  the 
civil  and  military  powers  of  the  country  :  a 
most  injurious  act  of  tyranny,  which  no  pre- 
tence of  purity  of  faith  could  justify.  Although 
the  conduct  of  Athanasius  had  nceived  the  sanc- 
tion of  a  synod  which  he  had  called  at  Alcxan- 
diia,  he  found  himself  compelled  to  yield  to  su- 
perior force  ;  and  fled  for  protection  and  support 
to  Julius,  bishop  of  Ronje.  This  official  guar- 
dian of  the  catholic  faith  disapproved  of  the  doc- 
trines and  conduct  of  the  Eastern  churches,  and 
gave  the  orthodox  exile  a  welcome  reception. 
For  three  years  he  was  resident  at  Rome ;  but  how 
he  employed  his  time  there,  we  are  not  inlormcd. 
At  the  expiration  of  this  term,  he  was  suiuiBou- 


A  T  H 


(    438    ) 


A  T  II 


cd  to  Milan,  by  tlic  emperor  Constans,  who 
was  disposed  to  tavoiir  tlic  catholic  party.    Here 
it  was  agncd,  tliat  a   new  council  sliould  be 
held  to   settle  the  disputes  which  the  council  of 
Nice  had  not  been  able  to  terminate.     Sardica 
in  Illyricuni   was  the  place  fixed  upon  for  this 
general  council  ;  and,  in  the  year  347,  assem- 
bled about    170,  or,  according  to  some,    300, 
bibhops,  of  which  73  were  from  the   eastern, 
and  the  rest  from  the  western  churches.      (Socr. 
lib.  ii.   c.  20.     Sozom.  lib.  iii.   c.  12.     Athan. 
Apol.  ii.)     But,  the  eastern  bishops  requiring, 
as  a  preliminary  condition  of  the  meeting,  that 
Athanasius  should  be  excluded  from  the  assem- 
bl\^  and  from  communion,  the  western  bishops 
refused  this  condition,  and  the  two  parties  sepa- 
rated ;  the  partisans  of  Athanasius    remaining 
at  Sardica,  and  the  rest  assembling  at  Philippo- 
polis.     Among  the  former,  this  prelate  was  re- 
vered as  a  saint  ;  among  tlie  latter,  he  was  held 
up,  together  with  Mareellus,    Paul,    ami   As- 
clepas,  wiio  had  likewise  been  condemned   in 
the  eastern  councils,  as  a  wicked  disturber  of 
the  peace  of  the  church.     Tlie  latter  also  de- 
posed  Pope  Julius,    and    Hosiiis   of  Corduba, 
who  had  supported  tliem  :  whilst  the  former,  in 
their  turn  deposed  Basil   ofAucyra,  Theodore 
of  Heraclea,  and  many  others.     Constans  was 
so  intent  upon    the  restoration   of  Athamisius, 
whose  see  lay  within  the  dominions  of  his  bro- 
ther Constantius,  that  he  peremptorily  demanded 
it  by   letter,   (Socrat.  lib.  ii.   c.  22.  Athan.   ad 
Jiolit.)   and  threatened  him  with  war  in  case  of 
non-compliance.     The  timid  Constantius  com- 
plied, and  wrote  three  letters  to  Athanasius,  to 
invite  his  return  to   his   see,  now  vacant  by  the 
•death  of  Gregory,  and  to  give  him  full  assur- 
ance   of  safety.      (Ath.    Apol.  ii.   Socr.  Hb.  ii. 
c.  23.)     The  prelate  before  his  return  to  Alex- 
andria, waited  upon  Constantius,  who  received 
him    kindly,    but   expressed    a    wisii    that   he 
would  allow  the  Arians   the  use  of  a  church 
within  his  diocese,     Athanasius  did   not  object 
to  the  proposal,  but  requested,  in  his  turn,  that 
his  brethren  might  be  indulged  in  the  same  man- 
ner in  those  places   where  Arianism  was   esta- 
blished.    It  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  intolerant 
spirit  of  these  times,  that  so  reasonable  a  plan 
could  not  be  carried  into  effect.     The  Arians, 
being  now  in  this  part  of  the  empire  the  ruling 
party,  were  less  disposed  to  toleration  than  the 
depressed  Athanasians,  and,    when  they  were 
■consulted  upon  the  proposal,  coldly  replied,  that 
it  would  be  inconvenient.     Athanasius,  though 
in  this  instance  not  deficient  in  candour,  was 
not  cooled  in  his  zeal  for  the  catholic  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity.     In  all  the  cities  through  which 
he  passed,  he  admonished  the  people  to  avoid 


the  Arians,  and  to  receive  into  their  commu- 
nion none  but  those  who  would  admit  into  theii 
creed  the  term  conuibstantial.  When  he  arrived 
in  Alexandria,  in  350,  the  people,  whose  attach- 
ment to  their  old  pastor  was  not  likely  to  be  di- 
minished by  the  t)'ranny  which  had  been  exer- 
cised over  themselves  during  his  absence,  wel- 
comed his  return  with  every  demonstration  of 
joy  ;  and  the  church  with  its  bishop  enjoyed 
from  this  time  a  short  period  of  repose.  (Theod. 
lib.  ii.  c    12.  Athan.  ad  Solit.) 

After    the    death    of    Athanasius's    faithful 
friends,  the  emperor  Constans,  and  pope  Julius, 
new   dangers   threatened    him.     The    emperor 
Constantius,   strongly  attached  to  the  party  of 
Arius,  had  long  regarded  this  prelate  as  a  dis- 
turber of  the  public  tranquility,   and  entertained 
hostile  sentiments  towards  him.     His  animosity 
was  now  so  deeply  rooted,    that  de   declared, 
that  he  was  more  desirous  to  subdue  Athanasius, 
than  to  vanquish  Magncntius.  (Theod.  lib.  ii.  c. 
16.)     To  execute  a  scheme  of  revenge  against 
a  popular  prelate,  was,  in  these  religious  times, 
an  undertaking  of  no  small  difficulty.    1  he  em- 
peror proceeded  with  slow   and  cautious  steps. 
His  purpose    was,     to   revive  and  enforce  the 
sent'  nre  pronounced  against  Athanasius  by  the 
synod  of  Tyre,  which  had  never  been  reversed. 
For  this   purpose,  his  first  endeavour  was  to 
bring  over  the  pope  and  tlie  rest  of  the  Latin 
bishops  to  his  interest.     Liberius,  the  successor 
of  Julius,  was  more  inclined  than  that  pontiff 
to  listen  to  the  complaints  of  the  Arians.     Ac- 
cording to  a  letter  of  Liberius  preserved  by  Hi- 
lary,   which    some    writers,    who  support  the 
immutable  orthodoxy  of  the  papal  chair,  have 
thought  to  have  been  forged  by  the  Arians,  that 
pope,  soon  after  his  accession,    in  compliance 
with  the  solicitation  of  the  Arians  in  the  East, 
had  resumed  the  consideration  of  the  charges 
against  Athanasius,  and  had,  upon  that  prelate's 
refusal  to  obey  a  summons  to  Rome,  excom- 
municated him.     If  this  was  true,  the  sentence 
was  soon  repealed  ;  for,  after  some  preliminary 
negotiations,  it  was  agreed  between   the    pope 
and  the  emperor,  that  a  general  council  should 
be  called  by  the  latter.     'I'his  council  was  held 
at   Aries  in  the  year  353.     (Athan.  Apol.  ad 
Constan.)    Here  the  Arian  party  prevailed,  and, 
either   from  conviction  or  tiirough  corrupt  in- 
fluence, all  the  bishops  present  signed  the  con- 
demnation   of  Athanasius,  except  Paulinus  of 
Treves,  who,  for  his  refusal,  was  banished  to 
Phrygia.     Liberius,  dissatisfied  with  the   pro- 
ceedings of  this  council,  entreated  the  emperor 
to  give  the  business  of  Atiianasius  a  second  hear- 
ing in  another  council.     Upon  this,  Constan- 
tius, who  was  then  at  Milan,  surmnoncd  a  ge- 


A  T  H 


(    439    ) 


ATI! 


neral  council  in  that  city,  in  the  year  3^5,  (So- 
crat  lib.  ii.  c.  36.  Soz.  lib.  iv.  c.  9.)  In  tJiis 
assembly,  vvhicli  consisted  of  u:)wards  of  thice 
humlrcd  bishops  chiefly  of  tlie  western  churches, 
the  emperor,  who  was  present,  exercised  all 
his  influence  and  authority  (Hilar,  cont.  Const. 
c  5.)  to  obtain  the  concurrence  of  the  west- 
ern bishops  in  ttie  condemnation  of  Atlianasius. 
After  a  violent  contest,  the  sentence  against  him 
was  passed  ;  and  tlie  bisho|)S,  who  had  opposed 
the  measure,  and  still  refused  to  sign  the  sen- 
tence, were  sent  into  exile  by  the  authority  of 
Constantius,  who  affected  to  execute  the  decrees 
of  the  church.  (Thcodor.  lib.  ii.  c.  16.  Soz. 
lib.  iv.  c.  II.  Amniian.  Marc.  lib.  xv.  c.  7.) 
Whatever  was  the  truth  respecting  the  doctrines 
in  dispute,  or  respecting  the  charges  brought 
against  Athanasius,  those  jirelalcs  certainly  acted 
a  meritorious  part,  who  tlius  boldly  withstood 
the  arbitary  interference  ot  the  emperor;  and  it 
is  only  to  be  regretted,  that,  among  these,  Li- 
berius,  bishop  of  Rome,  and  Hosius  of  Cor- 
dova, afterwards  suffered  their  firmness  to  be 
subdued  by  the  hardships  of  exile,  and  pur- 
chased their  return  by  an  unworthy  compliance. 
Notwithstanding  the  decisions  of  the  eastern 
and  western  councils  against  Athanasius,  the 
emperor,  apprehensive  of  danger  from  this  pre- 
late's popularity,  proceeded  with  extreme  cau- 
tion in  executing  the  sentence.  Messengers 
were  sent  to  inform  him  of  the  decrees,  and  to 
persuade  him  voluntarily  to  abdicate  his  see  : 
the  civil  officers  of  Egypt  were  employed  to 
effect  his  removal,  if  possible,  by  peaceable 
means  ;  but  Athanasius  still  remained  inflexible, 
and  his  friends  and  supporters  were  numerous. 
Syrianus,  the  commander  of  the  forces  in 
Egypt,  appeared  in  Alexandria,  and  urged  an 
inimcdiate  compliance.  The  bishop's  party  en- 
treated a  delay  of  further  proceedings,  till  the 
emperor's  pleasure  could  be  more  fully  known. 
Syrianus  consented  ;  but  while  the  messengers 
were  passing,  the  legions  of  upper  Egvpt  and 
of  Libya  advanced  by  secret  orders  towards 
Alexandria  ;  and  suddenly,  before  any  efflctual 
steps  could  be  taken  to  oppo.se  them,  the  com- 
mander appeared  at  the  head  of  five  thousand 
men  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  At  midnight, 
while  the  bishop  and  many  of  his  clergy  and 
people  were  performing  their  nocturnal  devo- 
tions in  the  church  of  ^t.  'i'hconas  in  prepara- 
tion for  the  communion,  the  church  was  in- 
vested by  a  numerous  body  of  soldiers,  and 
was  instantly  filled  with  fiunult,  violence,  and 
."ilaughter.  The  intrepid  bishop  remained  in  his 
place  during  the  scene  ot  confusion  and  terror, 
calmly  expecting  death,  and  animating  the  piety 


of  his  fJock  by  ordering  a  psalm  of  praise  to  be 
sung ;  when  at  length,  the  congregation  being 
dispersed,  he  was,  wit!i  extreir.e  hazard,  con- 
veyed through  the  tumuliut  us  crowd  to  a  place 
ot  .iaiety.  Similai  outrages  were  committed  in 
other  churches;  and  the  city  continued,  for 
four  months,  at  the  mercy  of  a  savage  and  ra- 
pacious military  force.  (Socr.  lib.  ii.  c.  26. 
So7.  lib.  iv.  c.  9.   Ath.  Apol.  ad  Const.) 

While  the  see  of  Alexandria  was  bestowed 
bv  the  emperor  upon  George  of  Cappadocia,  a 
violent  supporter  of  die  Arian  cause  ;  and  while 
the  adherents  of  Athanasius  weie  every  where 
pursued  witli  the  utmost  severity,  and  he  him- 
self was  proscribed,  with  the  piomise  of  a  large 
reward  to  any  one  who  should  produce  liim,  alive 
or  dead  ;  this  persecuted  prelate  suddenly  disap- 
peared, and  remained  Icji  six  '.  ".irs  in  impenetra- 
ble obscurity.  (Apol.  ad  Con^t.  Kpist.  ad  Solit.) 
In  the  deserts  of  'Ihcbais,  among  tiic  disciples 
of  Antony,  a  numerous  fiatcrnity  of  monks, 
or  hermits,  whose  lives  were  devoted  to  solitude 
and  piety,  iie^  found  a  secure  asylum.  (N'a- 
zianz.  Orat.  21.)  These  faithful  guardians  of 
his  safety  sometimes  hazarded  their  lives,  to 
enable  him  to  elude  the  pursuit  of  his  enemies. 
Wlien  the  diligence  of  this  pursuit  was  abated, 
Athanasius  ventured  ')cyond  the  limits  of  his 
retreat,  and  is  said  sometimes  to  have  visiteil  in 
disguise  his  confidential  fi lends  in  Alexandria. 
Romantic  stories  are  related  of  the  adventures 
which  lie  met  with  in  his  excursions.  One  of 
these,  though  rejected  by  some  historians  as  un- 
worthy of  credit,  is  so  well  attested,  (Pallad. 
Hist.  Lausiac.  c.  136.  in  Bibl.  Pat.  tom.  ii.  p. 
1039.  Sozom.  lib.  v.  c.  6.)  that  it  may  deserve 
mention.  At  Alexandria,  being  one  night  in 
extreme  danger  of  discovery,  he  sought  protec- 
tion in  the  house  of  a  young  female,  celebrated 
for  her  beauty.  At  the  hour  of  midnight,  the 
bishop,  as  she  many  years  afterwards  related 
the  story,  hastily  conjured  her  to  afford  him  the 
protection  whicii  he  had  been  directed  by  a  ce- 
lestial vision  to  seek  under  her  hospitable  roof. 
The  pious  maid  conveyed  him  to  a  private 
apartment,  where  he  remained  in  perfect  con- 
cealment, and,  as  long  as  his  danger  continued, 
gave  him  the  attendance  of  a  faithful  servant, 
and  supplied  him  with  books  and  provision. 
Palladius,  (Hist.  Lausiac.  in  Vit.  Patrum,  p. 
776.)  bishop  of  Helenopolis,  relates  this  anec- 
dote, and  asserts,  that  he  received  it  from  the 
woman  herself,  then  seventy  years  of  age, 
wiien  he  was  in  Alexandria,  and  that  it  was 
universally  believed  among  the  clergy  of  that 
citv-  Krom  tlic  destvts  of  Thebais,  Athanasius 
frequently  assailed  Uh  enemies,  and  consoled  his 


A  T  H 


(     440     ) 


A  1   H 


friends,  bv  Iiis  writings.  He  sent  out  an 
"  Apologv  for  his  I'light,"  and  general  apolo- 
gies lor  liis  conduct  addre-scd  to  the  emperor ; 
and,  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Monks,  he  loaded 
Constantius  with  vehement  invectives. 

Constantiiis,  the  inveterate  enemy  of  Atha- 
nasius,  being,  in  the  year  361,  succeeded  by 
Julian,  and  George,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  be- 
ing, the  same  vcar,  kilk-d  in  a  tumult,  the  way 
was  opened  for  the  tiiird  return  of  Athanasius 
to  his  sec.  It  was,  doulitkss,  w  ith  much  exul- 
tation that,  after  a  tedious  exile,  he  again  found 
hiinself,  in  the  midst  of  a  crowd  of  devoted  fol- 
lowers, seated  on  his  eiiiscopal  throne.  (Soc.  lib. 
iii.  c.  I,  5.  So7,.  lib.  V.  c.  5,  12.  Theod.  lib. 
iii.  c.  4.  Nazian.  Orat.  21.)  The  prelate,  who 
might  now,  with  some  reason,  consider  himself 
as  tlie  head  of  the  orthodox  church,  aftct  settling 
the  atlairs  of  his  diocese,  extended  his  pastoral 
care  to  the  general  state  of  religion.  With 
unabated  zeal  for  the  catholic  faith,  and  parti- 
cularly for  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  he  sum- 
moned a  council  at  Alexandria,  in  which  it  was 
determined,  that  those  bisliops,  who  had  at- 
tached themselves  to  the  Arian  party  in  the  late 
reign,  inight,  upon  a  recantation  of  their  errors, 
expressed  by  signing  the  Nicenc  creed,  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  communion  ol  the  church,  and 
be  restored  to  their  sees. 

These  zealous  exertions  for  the  unity  of  the 
church  were  soon  interrupted.  Julian,  an  ene- 
my to  all  the  Christian  sects,  appears  to  have 
regarded  Atlianasins  with  peculiar  aversion.  In 
an  edict  (Juliani  Epist.  26,  10.)  sent  to  Alex- 
andria, he  expressed  his  astonishment  at  the 
presumption  of  this  daring  man,  in  not  only 
returning  without  an  imperial  edict  to  recall  him, 
but  rc-possessing  hiniself  of  the  epiecopal  see  of 
Alexandria,  and  commanded  him  to  depait  the 
city  immediately.  The  prefect,  through  cau- 
tion or  negligence,  having  delayed  tlie  execution 
of  the  sentence,  Julian  sent  him  a  severe  repri- 
mand, (Jul.  Epist.  6,  51.)  in  which  he  swears 
by  the  great  God  Serapis,  that  unless,  on  the 
calends  of  December,  Athanasius  has  departed 
from  Egypt,  his  officers  shall  be  fined  an  hun- 
dred pounds  of  gold  ;  and  adds,  that  he  should 
hear  nothing  with  more  pleasure,  than  that  this 
wretch  was  expelled  from  all  Egypt :  in  other 
epistles  Julian  speaks  with  mingled  indignation 
and  contempt  of  this  prelate,  as  a  busy  factious 
man,  or  rather  a  pitiful,  despicable  fellow,  for 
whose  sake  it  was  not  worth  while  to  hazard  a 
public  disturbance  :  and  declares  a  wish,  "  in 
words,"  as  Gibbon  says,  "  of  formidable  im- 
port," that  the  whole  venom  of  the  Galilaean 
scliool  were  contained  in  the  single  person  of 


Athanasius  (Conf.  Gicg.  Naz.  Orat.  21.  So- 
zom.  lib.  V.  c.  15.  Socrat.  lib.  iii.  c.  14.  Theod. 
lib.  iii.  c.  9).  I'he  grounds  of  Julian's  peculiar 
hatred  of  Athanasius  the  einperor  does  not  di- 
stinctly specify :  whatever  they  were,  it  was  ne- 
cessary tor  the  Christian  bishop  to  retire  from 
the  lifted  arm  of  the  pagan  emperor.  He  pru- 
dently resolved,  once  inore,  to  visit  the  monas- 
teries of  the  desert.  But,  as  he  was  going  up 
the  Nile  with  this  intention,  perceiving  that  the 
vessel  was  followed  by  some  persons  who  were 
sent  to  a]ij)rehcnd  him,  and  finding  that  he  must 
be  overtaken,  he,  with  admirable  presence  of 
mind,  ordered  the  boat  to  turn  about  and  meet 
his  pursuers.  'J'hey,  not  suspecting  that  the 
vessel  contained  tlie  person  they  were  pursuing, 
asked  the  crew  if  they  had  seen  Athanasius: 
they  told  them  that  he  was  not  far  ofF,  and 
might  soon  be  overtaken:  upon  which  his  pur- 
suers went  on,  and  he  returned  to  Alexandria, 
where  he  found  means  to  lie  concealed  till  the 
death  of  Julian,  in  the  \ear  363.  (Socr.  lib.  iii. 
c.  14.   Soz.  lib.  iv.  c.  10.  Theod.  lib.  iii.  c.  9.) 

Under  Jovian,  the  fortune  of  Athanasius  once 
more  began  to  smile.  This  emperor,  who  on 
his  accession  had  declarrd  himself  a  Christian, 
rec;dled  all  the  exiled  bishops  to  ti.eir  sees  ;  and 
Athanasius  issued  from  his  retreat,  and  again 
resumed  his  episcopal  functions.  At  the  re- 
quest of  Jovian,  who  was  inclined  to  favour  the 
catholic  faith,  and  who  resj)ected  the  talents 
and  age  of  the  bishop  oi  Alexandria,  he  pre- 
sented to  hiiu  a  statement  of  the  orthodox  faith 
in  a  synodical  letter,  and  the  Nicenc  creed 
again  became  the  general  formulary  of  the 
churches.  (Athan.  et  Theod.  lib.  iv.  c.  3.  Greg. 
Naz.  Orat.  21.) 

From  this  time  to  his  death,  this  prelate,  re- 
verend in  age  and  authority,  continued  for  ten 
years,  with  only  a  small  interruption,  to  enjoy 
the  honours,  and  discharge  the  offices,  of  his 
prelacy.  It  was  unfortunate  for  Athanasius, 
that,  in  the  distribution  of  the  empire  wlu'ch  suc- 
ceeded the  short  reign  of  Jovian,  Valentian, 
who  was  disposed  to  favour  the  catholic  party, 
chose  the  Western,  and  Valcns,  who  was  a  de- 
cided Arian,  took  the  eastern  division.  Valens, 
who  had  been  instructed  in  Arian  principles  by 
Eiidoxus  bishop  of  Constantinople,  imdcr  the 
influence  of  that  prelate,  endeavoured  to  bring 
over,  by  that  coercion  which  each  party  exer- 
cised vvlien  it  was  able,  the  Athanasians  to  the 
Arian  faith.  Edicts  were  issued  (Sozom. 
lib.  vi.  c.  12.)  for  again  banishing  those  bi- 
shops, who  had  regained  their  sees  on  the  ac- 
cession of  Jovian  ;  and  Athanasius  was  again  in 
the  list  of  the  proscribed.     His  zealous  friends 


A  T  H 


(     441      ) 


A  T  H 


in  Alexandria,  more  attached  to  him  on  every 
jiew  persecution,  warmly  rcsenied  this  fresh 
instance  ot  imjicrial  oppression,  and  were  pre- 
pared to  defend  their  own  rights,  and  the  person 
of  their  revered  patriaicii,  by  force.  Athana- 
sius,  however,  to  avoid  the  storm,  retired  into 
temporary  concealment  in  the  country,  in  tlie 
monument  belonging  to  his  family,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  lain  hid  four  months.  This  re- 
treat has  l>een  called  v\thanasius's  fifth  exile. 
The  emperor,  either  through  fear  or  respect, 
soon  gave  up  the  contest ;  and,  in  the  midst  of 
commotions  and  persecutions,  this  venerable 
prelate  passed  iiis  last  days  in  tranquillity.  (So- 
crat.  lib.  iv.  c.  15 — 20.  Sozom.  lib.  vi.  c.  14.) 
His  life,  which,  in  a  degree  not  easilv  paralltkd, 
had  been  harassed  with  troubles,  at  last  termi- 
nated happily,  in  the  46111,  or  according  to  some 
the  48th,  year  of  his  prelacy,  and  in  the  year 
of  Christ  373. 

In  the  present  age,  in  which  the  phrensy  of 
theological  controversy  is,  in  some  ineasure, 
subsided,  it  may  be  thought  surprising,  that  tlie 
whole  character  and  the  whole  fortune  of 
Athanasms  should  have  hinged  upon  a  single 
question  concerning  the  divine  nature  ;  whether 
Christ  had  existed  from  eternity,  as  a  second 
person  consubstantial,  or  of  the  same  substance, 
with  the  father  and  the  holy  spirit,  forming  to- 
gether one  undivided  trinity  in  unity ;  or  whe- 
ther he  had  been,  before  all  worlds,  produced  by 
the  will  of  the  father,  and  was  only  of  like 
substance  with  him.  A  dispute,  in  whicli  so 
jiianv  previous  questions  are  taken  tor  granted  ; 
which  lies  so  far  above  human  comprehension, 
and  so  remote  from  human  concerns ;  and  the 
solution  of  which  must  depend  upon  the  criti- 
cal intc.'])retatioii  of  passages  of  ancient  writ- 
ings, whose  precise  meaning  it  is  exceedingly 
difficult,  perhaps  impossible,  to  ascertain ;  might 
have  been  altogether  dropped,  or  have  been  ex- 
amined with  coolness  as  a  matter  of  inferior 
importance.  But  with  Athanasius  and  Arius, 
and  the  whole  body  of  Christian  divines  at  this 
period,  the  question  concerning  the  consubstan- 
tiality  of  the  lather  and  the  son  in  the  tiinity 
was  the  most  important,  which  could  come  be- 
fore the  human  mind.  This  question  filled 
books,  agitated  synods,  disturbed  nations,  and 
set  the  world  in  flames.  It  was  not  wonderful, 
that  Athanasius,  a  man  of  strong  talents  and  an 
active  resolute  spirit,  should  be  infected  \sith 
the  general  enthusiasm,  and  become  the  head 
of  a  theological  party.  Yet  we  must  condemn 
the  bigotry  which  would  not  permit  him  to 
prevent  the  confusion  which  he  brouglit  into 
the  church,  and  the  troubles  with  which  he  dis- 

VOL..  I, 


turhcd  his  own  repose,  by  receiving  as  a 
Christian  brotiicr  a  man  whose  only  crime  was, 
that  he  believed  Christ  to  be  a  created  being. 
More  liberal  conduct  might  have  been  expected 
from  one,  who  acknowledged,  that  it  is  the 
property  of  religion,  not  to  compel,  but  to  per- 
suade, and  that  truth  i;  not  to  be  proi)agated  by 
iorce,  but  by  reason  and  argument ;  and  who 
complained  of  the  Arians,  that  those  whom 
they  could  not  subdue  by  reasoning,  they  en- 
deavoured to  convince  by  scourging  and  impri- 
sonment (Hist.  Arian.  ad  Monach.  n.  33,  67.). 
But  Arianism  was  to  Athanasius  a  dsemon  of 
terror,  a  child  of  tiie  devil  (Orat.  contra  Arian. 
n.  I.),  which  must  at  all  events  be  exorcised 
from  the  church.  Of  the  conduct  and  spirit 
of  Athanasius  we  might  be  better  able  to  judge, 
could  we  compare  his  own  accounts,  and  those 
ot  his  partisans,  widi  equally  minute  evidence 
on  the  other  side  froin  Arius  himself,  his  friend 
Euscbius  of  Nicomedia,  or  other  leading  actors 
in  the  Arian  party.  We  might,  then,  under- 
stand the  meaning  and  grounds  of  the  nume- 
rous accusations  brought,  at  various  times, 
against  him,  and  might  perhaps  find  that  their 
proceedings  were  not  altogether  so  full  of  ab- 
surdity and  malice,  as  they  at  present  appear. 
From  the  portrait  of  this  illustrious  Christian 
bishop,  as  it  is  now  presented  to  us,  if  we  are 
to  consider  the  strokes  of  Julian's  pencil  as 
mere  dashes  of  malignitv,  without  adc-pting  die 
extravagant  praises  of  ancient  or  modern  eulo- 
gists, who  have  called  him  "  the  most  holy  eye 
and  light  of  iIk;  world,"  and  said,  that  "  to  com- 
mend him  was  the  same  thing  as  to  commend 
virtue  itself;"  we  may  conclude,  that,  tliough 
not  intimately  conversant  with  other  branches 
of  learninjr  or  science,  he  was  a  ereat  tlicolo- 
gian  ;  that,  with  a  strong  tincture  ot  fanancism, 
he  possessed  a  pious  zeal  for  religion  ;  that  he 
was,  in  his  personal  conduct,  regular,  discreet, 
and  generous;  that  he  was  patient  ot  labour, 
jealous  of  fame,  and  fearless  of  danger ;  tiiat 
his  perseverance  was  not  to  be  broken  by  any 
discouragements  ;  that  his  intrepidity  was  im- 
pregnable by  any  violence;  in  short,  that,  though 
he  migiit  not  be  better  entitled  than  many  of  his 
adversaries  to  be  canonised  as  a  saint,  he  had 
talents  and  virtues  vshich  jusdy  commanded 
respect,  and  which,  guided  by  more  enlarged 
views  to  more  usetul  ends,  might  have  rendered 
him,  what  he  certainly  was  not,  a  benefactor  to 
the  world. 

Atiianasius  wrote  many  books,  wliich  arc 
chiefly  apologies  for  himself,  or  invectives 
against  his  enemies,  or  controversial  treatises 
against  Arianiim.      His  style   is  clear,  easy, 


A  T  H 


(    442     ) 


A  T  H 


and  not  dtstitute  of  dignity  and  ornmnent.  In 
his  reasonings  he  is  siifficientlv  co])ioiis;  in  his 
attacks  upon  the  Arians,  more  than  suffii'iently 
acrimonious.  His  first  hook,  "  Ag.jnst  the 
Gentiles;"  "Apologies;"  "Letter  to  those 
that  lead  a  monastic  Life ;"  "  Letters  to  Sera- 
pion ;"  "Two  Books  on  the  Incarnation;" 
"  Conferences  witli  the  Arians  ;"  "  The  Life 
of  St.  Antony;"  and  "The  Ahridgenicnt  of 
the  holv  Scriptures,"  are  among  the  more  valu- 
able of  this  bishop's  genuine  writings.  The 
latter  of  these  pieces  contains  an  enumeration 
ot  all  the  canonical  books  of  the  old  and  new 
testament,  with  a  summary  of  their  contents, 
and  an  account  of  their  respective  autliors :  it 
treats  particularly  of  the  four  gospels.  A  great 
number  of  other  pieces  have  been  admitted 
am<  ug  the  works  of  Athanasius,  whicli  are 
commonly  allowed  to  be  supposititious.  Both 
the  genuine  and  the  spurious  works  are  distinct- 
ly enumerated  by  Dupin,  who  gives  a  brief  ac- 
count of  the  contents  of  the  former.  The 
creed  which  bears  his  name,  is  generally  ad- 
mitted not  to  be  his  :  it  is  not  mentioned  by 
Athanasius  in  all  his  writings,  nor  by  any 
wriier  of  that  period,  nor  was  heard  of  till  above 
six  hundred  years  after  his  death.  The  works 
of  Athanasius  were  first  printed  only  in  a  Latin 
translation,  and  in  a  very  imperfect  state,  by 
Celsanus  at  Vicenza  in  1482.  Other  enlarged 
editions,  still  in  Latin  only,  appeared  at  Paris, 
in  1520 ;  at  Rome,  in  1523;  at  Cologne,  in 
1532;  and  by  Nannius,  at  Basil,  in  155H,  and 
at  Paris,  in  1608.  The  publication  of  the  Greek 
text  was  first  undertaken,  in  two  volumes  folio, 
by  the  printer  Cominelinus  at  Heidelberg,  in 
1 601.  This  is  a  large  but  confused  edition. 
Tn  1627,  a  neat  but  incorrect  edition  was  pub- 
lished at  Paris.  A  fuller,  better  arranged,  and 
less  faulty  edition  was  printed,  in  three  vo- 
lumes tolio,  at  Paris  in  1698,  by  a  learned  Be- 
nedictine, Bernard  de  Montfaucon.  Athan. 
Jpol.  et  Epist.  Gic^.  Naz.  Oral.  21.  Socratfs. 
Sozomen.  P/iotius,  Cod.  32,  139,  140,  258. 
Fit.  Athan.  ap.  Op.  ed.  Bened.  Dupin.  Cave, 
Hist.  Lit.  and  Life  of  Athan.  Fabric.  Bib.  Gr. 
lib.  V.  c.  2.  Gibbon,  ch.  21,  23.  Laidner''s 
Cred.  pt.  ii>  ch.  75. — E. 

ATHELSTAN,  king  of  England,  succeed- 
ed his  father  Edward  the  elder,  in  925.  Though 
of  illegitimate  birth,  his  mature  age  and  capa- 
city caused  him  to  be  preferred,  with  little  op- 
position, to  the  lawful  children  of  Edward. 
Soon  after  his  accession,  he  marched  intoNorch- 
umberland  in  order  to  quiet  some  commotions 
among  the  Danes  settled  there,  and  he  thought 
it  expedient  to  give  the  title  of  king  of  that 


district  to  Sithric,  a  powerful  Danish  noble- 
man. On  the  death  of  Sithric  the  next  year, 
two  of  his  sons,  Aniaf  and  Godfrid,  assumed 
the  regal  authority  witliout  the  consent  of 
Athelstan,  who  soon  expelled  them,  and  obliged 
one  to  take  shelter  in  Ireland,  and  the  other  in 
Scotland.  The  latter  being  protected^  by  Con- 
stantine  king  of  Scotland,  involved  the  two 
countries  in  a  war,  which  was  so  unfortunate  to 
Constantine,  that,  according  to  the  English 
historians,  he  was  obliged  to  do  homage  for  his 
crown  to  Athelstan,  in  order  to  preserve  it. 
His  forced  submission,  however,  was  soon  ex- 
changed for  a  renewal  of  hostilities  ;  and  join- 
ing AnIaf,  who  had  collected  a  body  of  Danish 
pirates,  together  with  some  discontented  Welch 
princes,  the  confederates  entered  England  with 
a  great  army.  Athelstan  met  them  at  Bruns- 
bury  in  Northumberland,  and  obtained  a  com- 
plete victory,  chiefly  ascribed  to  tlie  valour  of 
his  chancellor  Turketul.  Constantine  and  An- 
iaf escaped  with  difficulty,  leaving  the  greatest 
part  of  their  troops  on  the  field  of  battle.  After 
this  event  Athelstan  enjoyed  his  crown  ir» 
peace,  and  governed  with  great  ability.  A  re^- 
markable  law  was  passed  in  his  reign  for  the  en- 
couragement of  commerce,  whicii  conferred 
the  rank  of  thane  upon  every  merchant  who 
had  made  three  sea  voyages  on  his  own  ac- 
count. Athelstan  died  at  Gloucester  in  941, 
after  a  reign  of  16  years,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Edmund.  Hume's  Hist,  of  Eng. — A. 
ATHENAGORAS,  a  Christian  philoso- 
pher, a  native  of  Athens,  lived  in  the  second 
century,  in  the  reigns  of  Adrian  and  the  Anto- 
nines.  In  his  youth  he  conversed  with  ihc  phi- 
losophers of  Athens,  and  appears  to  have  been 
well  instructed  in  their  doctrines.  Leaving 
Athens,  he  went  to  Alexandria,  the  common  re- 
sort of  philosophers,  where  he  became  a  convert 
to  the  Christian  religion.  If  we  may  credit  the 
account  of  Philip  Sidetes,  who  flourished  in  the 
fifth  century,  whose  ecclesiastical  history,  how- 
ever, is  mentioned  with  little  respect  by  Socrates 
and  Photius  (Cod.  35.),  Athenagoras,  while  he 
was  preparing  to  write  against  the  Christians,  on 
reading  the  scriptures  in  order  to  make  his  work 
tile  more  complete,  was  converted,  and  after  his 
conversion,  still  retaining  the  habit  of  a  phi- 
losopher, was  master  of  the  Christian  cate- 
cheiical  school  in  Alexandria,  and  had  among 
his  scholars  Clement,  the  author  of  the  Stro- 
mata,  and  Clemens  Pant»nus.  Except  a 
short  citation  from  his  works,  made  by  Me- 
thodius in  a  passage  preserved  by  Eplphanius 
(Hitr.  64.)  and  Photius  (Cod.  234.),  no  notice  is 
taken  of  Athenagoras  by  the  more  ancient  cc« 


A  T  H 


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A  T  II 


cleslastical  writers.     For  iiiformaiii^n  concern- 
ing him,    we   therefore  chiefly   rely  upon   his 
writings;  and  these  rather  serve  to  acquaint  us 
with  his  oj-Kinions,  than  his  history.   -  His  prin- 
cipal woik.  is  "  An  Apology  for  Christians," 
which  ua-s  addressed  to  Marcus  Antoninus  and 
his  son  Lucius  Commodus,    whose  names,  as 
Fahricius  attests,  are  prefixed  to  it   in  all   tlic 
manuscripts.      It  was  therefore,  pi'obablv,  writ- 
ten about  the  year  177  or   178,  and  not  in  the 
year  169,  as  several  learned  men  suppose,  who 
are  of  opinion  that  the  piece  was  inscribed  to 
Marcus    Antoninus,    and   Lucius    Vcrus,  "his 
adopted    brother    and   collegue,    wlio   died    in 
169.     In   this    work,   Athenagoras  repels   the 
calumnies  ot  the  pagans  against  the  doctrines 
and  manners  of  the  Christians.      He  explains 
and  refutes  the  notions  of  the  Stoics  and  Peri- 
patetics concerning  God  and  divine  things.     In 
stating  his  own  opinions,   he   frequently  sup- 
ports his  arguments  by  the   authoiiiy  of  Plato, 
whose  doctrines  he  blends  with  those  of  Chris- 
tianity, particularly  on  the  subject  of  the   di- 
vine nature.     According  to  this  Christian  phi- 
losopher,   God   is    underived,    indivisible,    and 
distinct  from   matter  :     tlic  Logos,   or   Son  of 
God,  is  the  Reason  of  tlie  Father,  in  whom  the 
ideas  of  all  things  subsist ;    and  by  this  Reason, 
proceeding  fiom   God,   all  things  were  made. 
On    die  imperfect  nature    ot   matter,    and  on 
angels,  dajmons,  and  other  beings  compoumlcd 
of  matter  and  s])irit,   he  argues  with   Platonic 
subtlety.     In  morals,  he  embraces  the  austeri- 
ties practised  among  the  earlv  Christians,  mak- 
ing celibacy  meritorious,  and  condemning  se- 
cond marriages  as  legalised  adultery.    His  other 
work  is  "  A  Discourse  on  the  Resurrection  of 
the  Dead,"  written  to  prove,  that  a  resurrection 
is  possible,  and  credible.     His  Cireek  is   Attic, 
and  his  style,  though  sometimes  obscured  by 
parentheses  and  transpositions,  is  on  the  whole 
elegant.     These  two  pieces  liavc   been  com- 
monly printed  together,   in  Greek  and   Latin. 
They  w  ere  published,  in  4to.  by  Vokel  at  Paris 
in  1541,  and  in  8vo.  by  Stephens,  in  1557;  by 
Rechenbetg,  in  8vo.   at  Leipsic  in   16S4;  by 
Fell,  bisho])  of  Oxford,   in    i2mo.  with  notes, 
at  Oxford  in   1682;  and  from  the  same  press, 
with  various  notes,  by  Dechair,  in  Bvo.   1706. 
A  romance,   under  the  name  of  Athenagoras, 
said  to  lie  a  translation  from  a  Greek   manu- 
script brought  from  the  east,  was  published  in 
French,  in  1599  and  1612,  by  M.  Fumee,  en- 
titled   "  True  and    perfect    Love,    written    in 
Greek,  by  Athenagoras,  an  Athenian  Philoso- 
pher, containing  the  chaste  Loves  ot  'Iheogonus 
and  Charida,  of  Phcrecides  and  Mclangenia." 


'J  he  work  is  an  imitation  of  the  Theagcnes 
and  Chariclea  of  Heliodorus  ;  and  the  manu- 
script having  never  been  produced,  the  whole 
may  confidi  ntly  be  pronounced  to  be  a  fiction. 
Athena^.  Jpol.  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  Dupin.  LaiJ- 
tiei's  Cied.  pt.  ii.  c.  18.  Fabric-  Bibl.  Grac. 
lib.  V.  c.  I       Bayle.      Bruckcr. — E. 

A'J'HKN^USi    a    Greek    grammarian,    a 
native  of  Naucratis  in  Egypt,  flourished  in  the 
third  century.    Suidas  places  him  in  tlic  second  ; 
but  it   appears   from   jiis  own  work,  that   he 
wrote  after  the  deadi   of  the  emperor   Com- 
modus (Deipnosoph.   lib.  xii.    p.  537.  ed.  Ca- 
saub.    1612.),  and  after  the  time  of  the  poet 
Ojjpian  (II).  lib.  ii.  p.  13.).  He  was  one  of  the 
most  learned  men  of  his  age,   and  for  his  ex- 
tensive  reading,    and  capacious  and   retentive 
memory,   might  not  improperly  be  called  the 
Vairo,  or  Plmy,  of  die  Greeks.     A  large  and 
curious  work  of  this   writer  remains,    which 
bears  the  title  of"  Deipnosophistae,  or  the  Ta- 
ble Conversations   of  the   Sojihists."     In  this 
work  are   introduced   several  learned  men,  of 
diiJerent  professions,  conversing  upon  various 
subjects  at  the  table  of  Larensius,  a  Roman  ci- 
tizen.    It  is   a  vast  collection  of  facts,  anec- 
dotes, and  observations,  in  which  the  compiler 
has  taken  more  pains  to  amuse  his    readers, 
than  to  afford  them  correct  information.     He 
has  been  particularly  industrious  in  collecting 
scandalous  stories  to   die  discredit  of  philoso- 
phers, and  has,  perhaps  not  less  unjustly  than 
unmercifully,    aspersed   their   characters.      By 
those  who  are  in  search  of  truth,    his  worlc 
must  be  read  with  caution.     It  is,  however,  a 
co])ious  fund  of  entertainment ;  and  the  more 
valuable,  as  most  of  the  writings,  from  wliich 
the  compilation  was  made,  are  no  longer  e.xtant ; 
it  mav  be  considered  as  a  cabinet  of  rare  curio- 
sities, perhaps  singly  of  no  great  intrinsic  value, 
but  forming  together  a  precious  treasure  of  an- 
tiquities.     J'he  work  consists  of  fifteen  books, 
of  which  the  two  first  and  part  of  the  third  are 
come  down  to  the  present  times  only  in  an  epi- 
tome.    It  has  suftl-red  much  from  the   care- 
lessness or  ignorance  of  iransi  ribcrs,  and  has 
never  vet  been  edited  with  sufficient  diligence. 
The   first  edition   is   that  of  Aldus  Manuiiut, 
printed  in   Greek,    under  the  care  of  Marcus 
Musurus,  in  folio,  at  Venice,  in  1514.    In  1535, 
it  was  published  at  Basil  with  a  wretched  trans- 
lation of  Natalis  Comes.     Dalechamp,  a  phy- 
sician of  Caen,  amused  the  small  portion  of 
leisure  lie  could  steal  from  his  patients,  for  near 
thirty  vcars,  in  translating  this  autlior  (Prxfat. 
Casaui).  in  Athen.),  and  after  all  left  liis  trans- 
lation incorrect.     This  translation,  with  large 


A  T  H 


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A  T  H 


annotations  by  the  learned  Casaubon,  accom- 
panied a  new  edition  of  Athciueus,  publislicd  in 
folio  at  Leyden  in  1583,  1597,  1612,  and  1657. 
This  work  was  translated  into  French  by  Ma- 
rolles  in  1680.  Siiidas.  Prafat.  Casaub.  in 
Athen.  Baylc.  Futi:  Bibi.  Gi.  lib.  iv.  c.  20. 
^  5-8.-E. 

■  ATHEN^US,  a  mathematician,  whose 
country  is  uncertain,  flourished  about  200  years 
before  Christ.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  treatise 
"  On  Machines  for  War,"  which  he  dedicated 
to  Marcellus,  who  took  Syracuse  in  the  I42d 
Olvmpiad.  In  this  work  he  not  only  describes 
the  inventions  of  others,  but  mentions  several 
of  his  own,  which  he  illustrates  by  figures.  The 
tract  inav  be  seen  in  the  Collection  of  ancient 
Mathematicians,  published,  in  folio,  at  Pans, 
in  1693.  Fabric.  Bib/.  Grac.  lib.  iii.  c.  4.  §  I. 
— E. 

ATHEN^US,  an  orator  and  peripatetic 
philosopher,  a  native  of  Seleucia,  lived  in  the 
time  of  Augustus.  He  had  a  share  in  the  go- 
vernment of  his  native  country,  and  was  tor 
some  time  a  demagogue  among  his  country- 
men. He  came  to  Rome  under  Augustus,  and 
became  an  intimate  friend  of  the  conspirator 
Muraena.  Upon  the  discovery  of  the  plot,  he 
fled  with  his  associate,  but  was  taken  in  his 
flight.  The  emperor,  not  finding  him  guilty, 
set  him  at  liberty.  On  his  retvirn  to  Rome, 
when  he  first  met  his  friends,  he  exclaimed,  in 
the  words  of  Euripides, 

Anfwy. 
From  dcatli's  dread  seats  and  gloomy  gates  I  come. 

He  was  soon  afterwards  crushed  to  death  in 
the  night  by  the  fall  of  his  house.  Strabo, 
lib.  iv. — E. 

ATHENODORUS,  a  stoic  philosopher, 
the  preceptor  and  friend  of  Augustus,  was  boTn 
at  Cana,  a  village  near  Tarsus,  the  capital  of 
Cilicia.  It  is  conjectured,  that  he  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  Posidonius,  the  most  celebiated  stoic 
of  his  age,  not  only  because  he  held  the  same 
opinion  concerning  the  nature  of  the  ocean,  and 
the  cause  of  the  tides,  but  because  he  is  often 
mentioned  together  vviih  him  by  Strabo.  Julius 
Caesar  made  choice  of  him  as  a  proper  tutor  to 
Octavius,  afterwards  Augustus.  When  his 
pupil  came  to  the  empire,  having  had  long  expe- 
rience of  the  wisdom  and  moderation  oi  Athe- 
uodorus,  he  admitted  him  to  his  confidence,  and 
paid  much  deference  to  his  advice.  The  coun- 
sellor, though  no  longer  a  preceptor,  spoke  to 
his  prince  with  freedom,  and  did  not  tail,  when 
occasion  required,  to  reprove  him.     Augustus, 


addicted  to  gallantry,  indulged  a  passion  for  tlic 
wife  of  a  senator,  a  friend  of  Athcnodorus. 
'J'he  philosopher,  at  this  time,  happening  to 
visit  ills  friend,  found  him  bathed  in  tears. 
Aware  of  the  cause  of  his  distress,  he  dressed 
himself  in  woman's  cloaths,  and,  arming  him- 
self with  a  poignard,  put  himself  into  the  chair 
in  which  the  ladv  was  to  have  been  conveyed. 
Appearing  in  tliis  disguise  before  the  astonished 
einiieror,  he  said,  "  To  what  danger,  sir,  do  you 
expose  yourself !  Cannot  an  enraged  and  de- 
spairing husband  disguise  himself,  and  rcveiigc 
with  vour  blood  tlie  injury  which  you  offer 
him?"  The  lesson,  thus  forcibly  expressed, 
had  its  effect ;  and  the  emperor  was  less  cri- 
minal, or  more  circumspect,  for  the  future. 
Zosimus  (Lib.  i.  c.  6.)  asserts,  that  the  wisdom 
and  moderation  of  Augustus's  reign  were  in  a 
great  measure  to  be  ascribed  to  the  counsels  of 
this  philosopher. 

Athcnodorus  procured  from  Augustus  in  be- 
half of  his  countrymen,  the  inhabitants  of  Tar- 
sus, relief  from  a  part  of  the  burden  of  taxes, 
which  had  been  imposed  upon  them  ;  and,  at  an 
advanced  age,  still  retaining  his  predilection  for 
his  native  soil,  he  obtained  permission  from 
his  sovereign  to  return  home.  He  had,  how- 
ever, the  mortification  to  find  his  country  dis- 
tracted by  factions  excited  by  Boethus,  a  bad 
poet,  and  a  worse  citizen,  whom  Antony  had 
raised  to  a  post  of  distinction.  By  prudent  and 
firm  exertions,  he  recruited  the  wasted  funds  of 
the  city,  corrected  the  abuses  which  had  threat- 
ened its  ruin,  and  introduced  a  new  code  of 
municipal  law,  under  which  Tarsus  long  pro- 
spered. Having  thus,  through  along  life,  serv- 
ed his  sovereign  faithfully,  and  laboured  for  the 
good  of  his  country,  Athcnodorus  died  in  the 
82d  year  of  his  age,  leaving  behind  him  a 
name  so  much  endeared  to  his  fellow  citizens, 
that  they  honoured  him  with  an  altar  and  an 
annual  festival.  Many  of  his  writings  are 
mentioned  by  the  ancients,  but  none  of  them 
remain.  He  must  be  distinguished  from  another 
Athcnodorus,  whom  Augustus,  according  to 
Suetonius,  trusted  with  the  charge  of  the  edu- 
cation of  Claudius  Nero,  afterwards  emperor. 
Fabric.  Bib.  Grac.  lib.  iii.  c.  15.  Afcmoircs  dc 
r  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Bctlcs  Lettres, 
tome  13.      Moreri. — E. 

ATHENODORUS  CORDYLIO,  also  a 
stoic  philosopher  of  Tarsus,  lived  about  fifty 
years  before  Christ,  and  was  the  friend  and 
companion  of  Cato  ofUtica.  Having  acquired 
a  great  reputation  for  wi  dom  and  virtue,  and 
having  refused  repeated  solicitations  from  prin- 
ces and  other  great  men,  who  had  endeavoured 


A  T  K 


(    445    ) 


A  T  K 


by  flattering  offers  to  entice  him  from  his  re- 
treat at  Pergamus,  where  he  was  keeper  of  tlie 
public  library,  to  their  courts,  Cato  went  over 
to  Asia,  on  purpose  to  persuade  him  to  become 
his  associate  in  the  war  whicli  he  liad  under- 
taken for  the  restoration  of  Roman  liberty. 
Athenodorus,  charmed  with  the  conversation 
and  character  of  Cato,  consented  ;  and  Cato  va- 
lued himself  upon  his  success,  more  than  if  he 
had  shared  the  conquests  of  Pompcy.  We  are 
told  by  Strabo  (Lib.  xiv.  p.  674.),  that  Athe- 
nodorus lived  and  died  with  Cato.  Perhaps 
this  Athenodorus  was  the  author  of  a  work 
against  tlie  categories  of  Aiistotle,  mentioned 
by  Porphyry.  Pint.  Fit.  Catonis  Afin.  Dlog. 
Laert.  Fab.  Bib.  Gr.  lib.  iii.  c.  i  5. — E. 

ATHIAS,  Joseph,  a  Jew,  printer,  at  Am- 
sterdam, in  the  17th  century,  published,  in  the 
years  1661  and  1667,  two  editions  of  the  He- 
brew bible,  in  two  volumes  8vo.  which  are 
much  valued.  The  states,  in  reward  of  this 
meritorious  service,  presented  him  with  a  medal 
and  a  golden  chain.  He  also  printed  the  bible 
in  Spanish,  German,  and  English.  Prideaux, 
Hist,  des  Juifs,   tome  ii.     A'/oreri. — E. 

ATKYNS,  Sir  Robert,  an  eminent  and 
patriotic  English  lawyer,  descended  from  an 
ancient  family  in  Gloucestershire,  and  born  in 
1621,  was  the  son  of  sir  Edward  Atkyns,  one 
of  the  barons  of  the  exchequer.  He  received 
his  early  education  in  his  father's  house,  and 
was  thence  sent  to  Baliol  college,  Oxford. 
After  completing  his  academical  course,  he  was 
removed  for  the  study  of  law  to  the  inns  of 
court,  probably  to  Lincoln's  inn.  He  became 
eminent  in  his  profession ;  on  which  account, 
as  well  as  his  loyalty,  he  was  created  a  knight 
of  the  Bath  soon  alter  the  restoration  ;  and  in 
1672  he  was  appointed  one  of  tlie  judges  of 
the  court  of  coinmon  pleas.  This  station  he 
filled  with  great  wisdom  and  integrity  till  1679, 
when  the  prevalence  of  arbitrary  maxims  in 
government,  and  the  appearance  of  a  formed 
plan  to  subvert  die  constitution,  induced  him  to 
resign  his  post  and  retire  into  the  counirv.  He 
did  not,  however,  look  with  indifference  on  the 
scenes  that  were  transacting  ;  and  being  appFied 
to  in  i6i)3  for  his  advice  and  opinion  in  the  case 
of  lord  William  Russel,  he  did  not  scruple  to 
give  it,  and  afterwards  to  write  free  remarks 
■upon  the  trial.  We  finil  him  on  this  occasion 
firmly  adhering  to  the  maxim,  "  There  is,  nor 
ought  to  be,  no  such  thing  as  constructive  trea- 
son ;  it  defeats  the  vcrv  scoi)e  and  design  of  the 
statute  of  the  25th  of  Edward  III.  which  is  to 
make  a  plain  declaration  what  shall  be  ad- 
judged treason  by  the  ordinary  courts  of  justice." 


Some  time  afterwards,  sir  Robert  gave  an  ex- 
cellent argument  in  favour  of  sir  William  Wil- 
liams, speaker  of  the  house  of  commons,  who 
was  prosecuted  by  the  crown  for  signing  an 
order  for  the  printing  of  Dangerfield's  narra- 
tive conctrniiig  the  popish  plot.  This  was 
afterwards  printed  under  the  title  of  "  The 
Power,  Jurisdiction,  and  Privilege  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  the  Antiquity  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons asserted."  hi  the  more  dangerous  reign 
of  James  II.  he  maaifested  his  attachment  to 
the  constitution  by  an  argument  in  the  case  of 
sir  Edward  Hales,  also  printed,  with  the  title  of 
"  An  Enquiry  into  the  Power  of  dispensing 
with  penal  Statutes."  This  involved  him  in  a 
sort  of  controversy  w  ith  lord  chief  justice  Her- 
bert, in  which  he  conducted  himself  with  great 
candour  and  decorum.  The  further  discussion 
of  the  doctrine  of  dispensation  occasioned  his 
writing  "  A  Discourse  conccrninc;  the  ecclesi- 
astical Jurisdiction  in  the  Realm  of  England," 
which  is  accounted  a  very  clear  and  learned 
performance.  Sir  Robert  Atkyns  was  a  friend 
to  the  revolution,  and  was  on  that  account  cor- 
dially received  by  king  William,  who  in  1689 
made  him  lord  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer. 
He  wrote  two  pieces  in  defence  of  the  memory 
of  lord  Russel,  whose  attainder  was  now  re- 
versed in  parliament.  The  house  of  lords 
chose  him  for  their  speaker  in  1689,  which 
oflice  he  held  till  the  year  1693.  ^'^'^  ''*''' 
public  act  of  his  life  was  a  memorable  speech 
he  made  to  sir  William  Ashhurs:,  lord  mayor 
of  London,  on  swearing  him  into  his  office,  in 
October  1693.  I  bis  turned  cbieflv  upon  the 
alarming  power  and  projects  of  Lewis  XIV. 
the  designs  of  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  to 
make  themselves  absolute  and  introduce  popery ; 
and  the  necessity  of  vigorously  supporting  the 
constitution  of  the  country.  It  was  printed, 
and  passed  through  many  editions,  and  was 
thought  to  have  done  important  service  to  the 
government.  In  1695  sir  Robert  resigned  his 
offices,  cither  on  account  of  advanced  age,  or, 
as  some  surmised,  in  consequence  ot  a  disaji- 
pointmcnr  respecting  the  place  ot  master  of  the 
rolls.  He  retired  to  his  seat  in  Gloucestershire, 
where  he  died  in  1709,  at  the  age  of  88.  He 
was  equally  esteemed  for  probity,  as  for  le- 
gal and  constitutional  knowledge  ;  and  his 
"  Tracts,"  which  were  collected  into  a  volume, 
arc  considered  as  a  valuable  treasure  of  argu- 
ment and  inlbrmaiion  relative  to  some  of  the 
most  important  points  of  the  English  consti- 
tution. He  is  said  also  to  have  been  the  author 
of  a  work  against  the  exorbitant  power  of  the 
court  of  chancery. 


A  T  T 


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ATT 


Sir  Robert  left  an  only  son,  Sir  Rahcrt  At- 
iwsyjiin.  who  passed  his  life  us  a  country  gen- 
tleman, and  has  made  his  name  known  by  a 
considerable  topographical  work,  entitled  "  The 
ancient  and  present  State  of  Glcuccstershlrc,  by 
Sir  Robert  Atkyns ;"  large  folio.  It  was  fi- 
nished and  sent  to  the  press,  but  not  published, 
before  his  death,  which  happened  in  17 11,  at 
the  age  of  65. — A. 

ATT  ALUS  I.  king  of  Pergamus,  was  de- 
scended from  a  father  of  the  same  name   (bro- 
ther of  Philet?enis  who  lirst  reigned  over  Per- 
gamus), and  a  daughter  of  Achaus.     He  suc- 
ceeded his  cousin  Eunicncs  I.  B.  C.  241.    His 
reign  began  with  a  war  against  the  Gauls  who 
liad  settled  in  his  country,  and  whom  he  ex- 
pelled with  great  slaughter.      After  this  success 
he  assunitd  the  title  of  king,  ami  was  recognised 
as  such  by  the  neighbouring  princes,     'laking 
advantage  of  the  wars  in  wiiich  Seleucus  Cc- 
raunus  was  occupied,  he  entered  his  dominions 
with  a  powerful  armv,  and  conquered  all  the 
Asiatic^  provinces  as  far  as  mount  Tain'us  ;  but 
he  soon  experienced   a   reverse  of  fortune,  in 
consequence   of  the  union  of  his   grandfather 
Acha;us  with  Seleucus,  who  stript  iiim  of  all 
iiis  acquisitions,   and  even  besieged  him   in  his 
■Own  capital.    In  this  extremity  he  had  recourse 
to  the  Gauls  settled  in  Thrace,  and  by  their  aid 
was  delivered  from  his  danger,  and  repossessed 
of  all  his  own  dominions.    He  afterwards  made 
•great  conquests  in  Ionia,  many  ot  the  cities  of 
■wiiich  province  acknowledged  him  tor  their  so- 
vereign. His  career  was  stopt  bv  tlie  refusal  of 
the  Gauls  to  advance  farther ;  whence  lie  re- 
turned to  the  Hellespont,  and  allowed  his  allies 
to  settle  there  in  a  fertile  and  extensive  region. 
In  order  to  secure  the  territories  he  had  thus 
acquired,  he  made  an  alliance  with  the  Romans, 
\vhom  he  vigorously  assisted  in  their  two  wars 
against  Philip  II.  of  Maccdon.     In  conjunction 
with  the  Athenians,  he  invaded  Macedonia,  and 
thus  recalled  Philip  from  his  enterprise  against 
Athens;  a  service  which  gained  him  a  profu- 
sion of  honours  from  the  Athenians,  who  even 
named  one   of  their  tribes  after  him.     It  was 
during    his    reign    that    the    Romans    sent    to 
request  from  Pcssinus  in  Phrygia  the  stone  said 
to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  and  to  be  an  image 
of  the   mother   of  the   gods.     Attalus   treated 
their  deputies  with  great  friendship  and  respect, 
and  dLlivcred  to  them  the  precious  symbol  with 
his  own  hands.     This  prince  was  seised  with 
an  apoplexy,   at  Thebes  in  Bceotia,   wliile  he 
was  making  an  harangue  to  persuade  the  people 
10  take  arms  against  Philip.     He  was  conveyed 
to  Pergamus,  wliere  he  soon  after  died,  in  the 


72d  year  of  his  age,  and  43d  of  his  reign.  At- 
talus was  a  generous  and  amiable  prince,  a  great 
encourager  of  men  of  letters,  and  himself  a 
writer.  He  lived  in  perfect  union  with  his 
virtuous  queen  Apollonias,  by  whom  he  left  four 
sons.  A  singular  instance  of  his  veneration 
for  Homer  is  related  by  Suidas  and  Valerius 
Maximus  —  that  he  caused  the  grainmarian 
Daphnidas  to  be  thrown  from  a  rock  for  speak- 
ing disrespectfully  ot  that  great  bard  ;  a  truly 
regal  mode  of  settling  literary  controversies ! 
Livy.  Polyhlus.  Univ.  Hht. — A. 

A  TTALUS  II.  second  son  of  Attalus  I. 
was  called  Philadelphus  from  the  fidelity  and 
affeiStion  he  Showed  to  his  eldci-  brother  Eu- 
menes,  who  was  king  of  Pergamus  before  him. 
During  the  reign  of  that  |)rince,  Attalus  was 
his  coadjutor  in  all  iiis  transactions.  He  de- 
fended Pcrgainus  against  Antiochus  tlie  Great, 
was  present  with  his  brother  at  tlie  battle  of 
Magnesia,  and  afterwards  assisted  him  in  plac- 
ing the  son  of  Antiochus  on  the  throne  of  his 
ancestors.  His  fraternal  love,  however,  in- 
curred some  suspicion  when,  upon  tlie  false 
rumour  of  the  death  of  Eumenes,  he  hastily 
assumed  the  royal  ensigns,  and  even  married 
his  brother's  wife.  But  on  his  brother's  return 
in  safety,  Attalus  went  to  meet  him  with  every 
token  of  satisfaction  and  allegiance,  laying  down 
tiie  diadem,  and  bearing  a  halberd  as  one  of  his 
guards.  Eumenes  kindly  embraced  him,  and 
only  cautioned  him,  in  a  whisper,  "  not  again 
to  be  in  such  haste  to  marry  his  wite,  till  he 
was  sure  he  was  dead."  Attalus  was  active  on 
the  side  of  the  Romans  in  tlieir  war  against 
Perses,  while  his  brother  fell  under  the  suspicion 
of  being  less  warm  in  the  interest  of  the  re- 
public on  that  occasion.  On  this  account,  At- 
talus, when  sent  by  his  brother  to  Rome  with 
his  congratulations  on  the  success  of  the  Roman 
arms,  was  received  with  great  distinction,  and 
urged  by  several  of  the  senators  to  request  the 
kingdom  of  Pergamus  for  himself,  which  they 
did  not  doubt  would  be  granted  him.  It  is  said 
that  this  proposal  inade  some  impression  on 
him;  but  that  he  was  recalled  to  better  senti- 
ments by  the  admonitions  of  Stratus  the  physi- 
cian, who  accompanied  him.  Certain  it  is,  diat 
he  left  Rome  without  making  any  such  suit  to 
the  senate,  and  that  they  were  offended  with  his 
abrupt  departure.  He  afterwards  again  visited 
Rome,  with  his  brother  Athens^us,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exculpating  Eumenes  from  the  charges 
made  against  iiim ;  and  he  even  made  a  third 
visit  on  the  same  account,  but  without  success. 
Soon  after  this,  Eumenes  died,  and  bequeathed 
both  his  kingdom  aud  his  wife  to  Attalus.    He 


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left  an  infant  son  in  the  guardianship  of  his 
uncle. 

The  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Attalus 
(B.C.  159-)  was  distinguished  by  his  success  in 
restoring  to  his  throne  Ariarathes  VI.  king  of 
Cappadocia.   But  he  soon  after  experienced  a  sad 
reverse  of  fortune  ;  tor  Prusias  king  of  Bithynia, 
invading  his  dominions,  defeated  him  in  battle, 
and  even  took  and  almost  ruined  his  capital,  Pcr- 
gamus.  Attalus  applied  to  the  Roman  senate  for 
aid.     Prusias  sent  his  son  Nicomcdes  to  answer 
and  retort  the  complaints  of  Attalus;  and,  partly 
by  artiticc,  partly  by  open  force,  juirsued  tiie  war 
for  three  years,  and  reduced  the  unhappy  king- 
dom to  the  most  deplorable  condition.     Attalus 
at  length  collected  a  strong  army,  and  the  Ro- 
mans   employed  their   powerful    mediation    in 
earnest ;  so  that  Prusias  was  comjielled  to  re- 
store   all    his    conquests,    return    to    his    own 
country,  and  pay  large  damages.   New  differen- 
ces, however,  arose   between   the   kings ;    and 
Attalus    incited    Nicomedes    to    take   u])   arms 
against  his  father,  wliich  terminated  in  the  de- 
thronement of  Prusias,  presently  followed  by 
liis  assassination.     The  odium  of  this  action   is 
divided  by  historians  between  Nicomedes   and 
Attalus.     The  last  war  in  which  Attalus  was 
concerned,  was  in  favour  of  the  Romans  against 
Andriscus,   the  pretended   Macedonian    prince. 
After  its  conclusion,  he  gave  himself  up  to  a 
life  of  ease,  committing  all  public  affairs  to  the 
management  of  his  prime  minister — which,  in- 
deed,  his    great    age    rendered  excusable.     He 
faithfully  discharged  his  trust  to  his  nephew,  by 
a  careful  education,  and  a  preference  to  his  own 
children  in  the  succession.      Attalus  died  in  his 
82d  year,   after  a  reign  of  twenty -one  years. 
He,  like  his  predecessors,  was  an  encourager 
and  lover  of  learning,  and  in   many  instances 
displayed   a  truly  royal   magnificence.      'l"wo 
cities    in  Asia,   Attalia   and    Philadelphia,    ac- 
knowledged him  for  their  founder.     The  Ro- 
mans  always   held  him   in   great  esteem,    and 
reckoned  him  one  of  the  most  faithful  of  their 
allies.       Lh'y.     Polybius.     yfppian.     Plutarch. 
Univrrs.  Hist. — A. 

ATTALUS  III.  son  of  Eutiiencs  II.  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle  Attalus  II.  B.C.  138.  He  soon 
began  to  exiiibit  one  of  those  characters  which 
a  line  of  despotic  princes  never  fails  to  produce; 
.•sacrificing  to  his  cruel  and  suspicious  tcm])er 
most  of  his  own  family,  and  a  number  of  the 
jirincipal  perions  about  his  court,  with  their 
wives  and  children.  The  pretence  for  some  of 
those -deeds  was  a  charge  against  the  victims  for 
being  concerned  in  the  death  of  his  mother 
Siratonice,  who  lived  to  an  advanced  age,  and 


of  his  wife  Berenice,  who  died  of  an  incurable 
disease.  His  real  or  affected  love  for  his  mo- 
ther cau.^ed  him  to  bear  the  surname  of  Philo- 
tnetor.  After  tilling  his  capital  and  kingdom 
with  mourning,  either  compunction,  or  a  na- 
tural melancholy,  drove  lim  to  'olitude.  He 
put  on  mean  apparel,  suffered  his  hair  and 
beard  to  grow,  and  sequestering  himself  from 
mankind,  shut  himself  up  in  a  garden,  which 
he  cultivated  with  his  own  hands,  and  sowed 
with  all  kinds  of  poisonous  herbs.  (X  these  he 
occasionally  sent  a  packet,  mixed  \sith  pulse, 
to  persons  who  were  the  object  of  his  gloomy 
suspicions.  This  conduct,  which  appears  ab- 
solute madness,  has  by  Varro  and  Columella 
been  roj)resentcd  (perhaps  with  some  mixture 
of  truth)  as  a  fondness  for  horticulture  and  the 
study  of  medicinal  simples ;  and  Attalus  has 
been  numbered  among  those  who  wrote  on 
these  subjects.  'I'he  inanner  in  which,  after  a 
reign  of  live  years,  he  terminated  his  life,  gives 
the  idea  of  a  curious  experimenter,  as  well  as 
of  one  deranged  in  his  intellects.  Deserted  by 
all  his  courtiers  and  friends,  and  almost  without 
attendants,  he  took  a  fancy  to  exerci  c  the  la- 
borious occupation  of  a  founder,  and  employed 
himself  m  casting  a  statue  of  his  mother.  The 
heat  and  toil  to  which  he  exposed  himself  in 
this  work  threw  him  into  a  fever,  of  which  he 
died  on  the  7th  day,  B.  C.  133.  By  his  testa- 
ment he  left  the  Roman  people  the  heirs  of  his 
goods  (bonortmr  mcoruin)  ;  which  they  inter- 
preted as  including  the  donation  of  his  domi- 
nions and  subjects.  Rut  liis,  natural  brother, 
Aristonicus,  did  not  chuse  to  allow  this  claim, 
and  took  possession  of  the  kingdoin  for  him- 
self. The  Romaiis,  however,  after  some  va- 
riety of  fortune,  secured  this  rich  inheritance, 
and  thus  put  an  end  to  the  short-lived  kingdom 
of  Pergamus,  which  had  attained  to  a  degree  of 
opulence  and  consideration  inuch  beyona  what 
could  have  been  expected  from  its  small  be- 
ginnings. The  wi-ii/t/i  of  Attains  is  alluded  to 
by  several  of  the  Roman  poets,  and  ap|x-ars  to 
have  been  a  kind  of  proverbial  expression. 
Justin.   Sallust.  Uiisvcjs.  Hist. — A. 

ATTALUS,  a  Christian  martvr,  in  the  se- 
cond century,  a  native  of  Pergamus  in  Phrygia, 
fell  a  sacrifice  to  persecution  at  Lyons,  under 
the  emperor  Marcus  Aiuoninus.  In  an  epistle 
sent  from  the  churches  of  Lyons  and  N'icmie  to 
those  of  Asia  and  Phrvgia,  preserved  by  ICu.sc- 
bius,  containing  a  relation  of  the  martyrs  at 
Lyons,  Attalus  is  said  to  have  been  always  a 
pillar  and  support  of  the  churches.  He  is  de- 
scrilx'd  as  an  eminent  person,  well  exercised  in 
the  Christian  discipline,  who,  hy  reason  of  the 


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clearness  of  Iiis  conscience,  came  forth  as  a 
wliampion  preparcJ  for  the  combat.  He  was 
Jed  round  the  amphitheatre,  with  a  board 
carried  before  him,  u]-on  wliich  was  inscribed, 
'•  This  is  Attalus  tlie  Cliristian,"  tliC  people  all 
the  while  expressing  great  indignation  against 
him.  Being  placed  in  an  iron  chair,  he  was 
burned  to  deatli  in  the  year  177.  He  endured 
martyrdom  with  great  fortitude.  Euuh.  Hist. 
Ecc.  lib.  V.  c.  I.     Lardnt-r'i  Testimonies,  ch.  15. 

\  o, E. 

"  ATTERBURY,  Francis,  hishop  of  Ro- 
chester, a  prelate  of  eminence  as  well  in  the 
political  as  the  literary  world,  was  born  in  1662 
at  Milton-Keynes,  near  New]iort-Pagnc!,  where 
liis  father,  the  rev.  Dr.  Lewis  Atterbury,  was 
rector.  He  had  his  early  education  at  West- 
minster school,  whence  he  was  elected  a  student 
of  Christ-church  college,  Oxon.  Here  he  di- 
stinguished himself  as  a  classical  scholar,  and 
|!;ave  some  proofs  of  an  elegant  tasic  in  poetry. 
He  took  the  degree  of  M.  A.  in  1687;  and  in 
that  y^ar  appeared  in  public  as  a  controver- 
sialist, in  favour  of  the  reformation,  by  answer- 
ing a  work  entitled  "  Considerations  on  the 
Spirit  of  Martin  Luther,  &c."  He  was  like- 
wise thought  to  have  assisted  his  pupil,  the 
hon.  Charles  Boyle,  in  liis  famous  conti-oversy 
with  Bentley,  on  the  epistles  of  Phalaris.  He 
continued  some  years  longer  in  college,  much 
against  his  will,  since,  as  he  expressed  himself 
to  a  friend,  he  found  himself  "  made  for  another 
scene  and  another  sort  of  conversation  ;"  and 
being  disappointed  in  his  humble  desire  of  suc- 
ceeding to  liis  father's  rectory,  he  came  in  1693 
to  the  metropolis,  the  proper  mart  tor  his  al)i- 
lities.  Here  his  talents  for  the  pul]Mt  soon 
displayed  themselves ;  and  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  royal  chaplains  in  ordinary,  preacher  at 
Bridewell,  and  lecturer  of  St.  Bride's.  His  ser- 
mons were  not  the  trite  cautious  compositions 
usually  delivered  from  the  pulpit ;  they  possess- 
ed boldness  of  sentiment  and  warmth  of  lan- 
guage. One  of  them,  "  On  the  Power  of 
Charity  to  cover  Sin,"  drew  down  the  am'- 
mad versions  of  Hoadlev;  and  another,  on  the 
character  of  "  The  Scorner,"  met  with  a  more 
acrimonious  censurer.  Controversy,  how- 
ever, was  no  subject  of  dread  to  our  divine; 
who,  in  1700,  commenced  one  with  Dr.  Wake 
and  others  conci  rning  i^ie  rights,  powers,  and 
privileges  of  convocations,  which  continued  four 
years,  with  no  ^mall  degree  of  bitterness.  At- 
terbury took  the  part  of  high  ecclesiastic  autho- 
rity, and  the  independence  of  the  church  on 
the  state ;  and  if  his  management  of  the  dispute 
gained  him  the  praise  of  learning  and  dexterity, 


it  also  exhibited  in  no  favourable  colours  liis 
fierce  and  contentious  spirit.  His  zeal,  how- 
ever, was  rewarded  by  the  solemn  thanks  of  the 
lower  house  of  convocation,  and  by  a  degree 
of  doctor  in  divinity  from  Oxford. 

The  accession  of  queen  Anne  in  1702  was  a 
favourable  event  to  a  man  of  Dr.  Atterbury 's 
principles  ;  accordingly,  he  was  immediately 
appointed  one  of  her  chaplains  in  ordinary,  and 
in  1704  was  advanced  to  the  deanery  ot  Car- 
lisle. In  1707  he  was  made  canon  ni  the  ca- 
tliedral  of  Exeter ;  and  two  years  atterwardr, 
his  pulpit  eloquence  obtained  the  honourable 
suffrage  in  its  favour  of  a  nomination  to  the 
place  of  preacher  at  the  Rolls  chapel.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  engaged  in  a  dispute  with 
Hoadicy  concerning  the  doctrine  ot  passive 
obedience  ;  and  in  the  following,  h.c  was  busied 
in  aiding  the  defence  of  the  famed  Sacheverell, 
and  in  performing  the  office  of  prolocutor  to  the 
lower  house  of  convocation.  "  A  Represen- 
tation of  the  present  State  of  Religion,"  thought 
too  violent  to  be  prc:sented  to  the  queen,  but 
privately  dispersed,  was  attributed  chiefly  to  his 
])en.  In  17  t2  he  was  made  dean  ot  Christ- 
church,  Oxford ;  and  in  17 13,  at  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  carl  of  Oxford,  he  attained 
the  heigl-.t  of  his  promotion,  that  of  the  bishop- 
ric of  Rochester  with  the  deanery  of  W^est- 
minster.  TJie  death  of  the  queen,  in  17 14, 
was  the  fatal  blow  to  all  his  further  hr)pes. 
The  new-  king  soon  manifested  a  personal  dis- 
like to  him,  which  he  retaliated  by  every  token 
of  disaffection  to  his  government.  He,  and  one 
other  bishop  at  his  instigation,  were  the  only 
members  of  the  bench  who  refused  to  sign  the 
loyal  "  Declaration  of  the  Bishops"  in  the  re- 
bellion of  17 15;  and  the  name  of  Atterbury 
occurs  in  all  the  strongest  protests  against  the 
measures  of  that  reign.  Not  content  with  a 
constitutional  opposition,  he  engaged  in  a  cor- 
respondence with  the  pretender's  party  for  the 
purpose  of  effecting  a  revolution  in  favour  of 
the  dispossessed  family,  and  in  August  1722  he 
was  apprehended  on  this  account  and  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower.  In  tlie  ensuing  March  a 
bill  was  brought  into  the  house  of  commons 
for  inflicting  certain  pains  and  penalties  upon 
him.  Tliis  was  strongly  opposed  in  the  house 
of  lords;  and  the  bishop,  on  being  brought  up 
to  his  defence,  made  an  able  and  el(H|uent 
speech,  and  displayed  much  firmness  through 
the  whole  business.  At  length,  however,  the 
bill  passed  into  a  law,  and  he  was  condemned 
to  the  deprivation  of  all  his  offices  and  bene- 
fices, and  to  suffer  perpetual  exile.  This  mat- 
tier  naturally  at  the  time  excited  the  whole  v£- 


.///,/  /JT'A'LV  .  r'  II '/■:. s ■■/:  1//. v;. V 7 ///.' .  | 


ATT 


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hemence  of  partv,  and  was  viewed  in  opposite 
lights  by  the  friends  and  enemies  of  the  govern- 
ment ;  but  it  seems  now  to  be  generally  agreed, 
both  that  the  bishop  was  really  guilty  of  what 
was  laid  to  his  charge,  and  that  the  proceedings 
against  him  were,  at  least,  carried  to  the  utmost 
bounds  of  legality.  He  left  the  country  in 
June  1723,  accompanied  by  his  beloved  daugh- 
ter Mrs.  Morrice,  and  was  landed  at  Calais. 
Thence  he  went  to  Brussels,  and  afterwards  to 
Paris,  at  which  capital  he  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  days,  chiefly  occupied  in  study,  and  in 
correspondence  with  men  of  letters.  There  is 
good  evidence,  however,  that  in  1725  he  was 
actively  engaged  in  fomenting  discontents  in  the 
highlands  of  Scotland,  with  the  Intention  of 
favouring  another  rebellion-  Tiie  letters  which 
passed  on  this  subject  were  published  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1768,  and  their  authenticity  has  never 
been  called  in  question.  In  1729  he  lost  his 
daughter,  an  event  which  deeply  affected  him, 
but  which  he  bore  with  due  resignation.  He 
himself  died  in  February  1731,  a)id  his  body 
was  privately  interred  in  Westminster  abbey. 

The  character  of  Atterbury  was  marked 
widi  that  turbulent  ambition  and  contentious 
violence  which  animated  the  Bcckcts  and  Lauds 
of  former  times,  and  which  was  ill  disguised  by 
the  afl'ected  mildness  and  moderation  of  his 
epistolary  writings.  His  party  zeal  sufficiently 
appears  from  the  events  of  his  life  above  re- 
cited, and  various  anecdotes  might  be  added  in 
confirmation  of  it.  Lord  Harcourt  affirmed, 
that  on  the  queen's  death,  Atterbury  came  to 
him  and  Bolingbroke,  and  urged  the  immediate 
proclamation  of  the  pretender,  offering  to  put 
on  his  lawn  sleeves  and  head  the  procession. 
The  very  rancour  of  party  was  shown  in  his 
suspension  of  a  worthv  clergyman,  Mr.  Gib- 
bin,  curate  of  Gravesend,  for  allowing  the  use 
of  his  church  to  the  chaplain  of  the  Dutch 
troops,  who  were  called  over  to  suppress  the 
rebellion.  Such  a  man,  however,  would  pro- 
bably feel  an  equally  warm  attachment  to  his 
friends  ;  and  nothing  can  be  more  cordially  af- 
fectionate than  his  letters  to  Pope,  with  whom 
he  maintained  a  close  intimacy  only  terminated 
with  life.  From  an  anecdote  which  lord  Ches- 
terfield related  to  Dr.  Maty,  as  told-  him  by 
Pope,  it  would  seem  that  Atterbury  was  long  a 
sceptic  as  to  the  grounds  of  that  religion  for 
the  established  form  of  which  he  was  so  zealous. 
Yet  the  same  anecdote  implies  that  he  ceased  to 
be  so;  and  he  appears  to  have  derived  nnuch  of 
the  consolation  of  his  adversity  from  his  reli- 
gious principles. 

His  literary  chaiactcr  has,  perhaps  (through 

VOL.    I. 


his  connections  with  those  who  were  at  that 
tirnc  the  chief  dispensers  of  literaiy  fame),  been 
raised  beyond  its  true  level.  But,  to  this  day, 
few  English  autliors  rank  above  him  as  a  corn- 
poser  of  sermons ;  in  which,  if  he  is  not  sub- 
lime, he  is  sometimes  pathetic,  and  always  elo- 
quent, clear,  and  striking.  As  a  controversial- 
.ist  he  is  keen,  lively,  and  dexterous,  but  rather 
popular  than  deep'  or  exact.  His  letters  are 
admirable  specimens  of  elegant  familiarity,  and 
are  preferred  to  the  more  laboured  ones  of 
Pope,  with  which  they  are  printed.  His  cri- 
tical efforts  have  done  more  honour  to  his  taste 
than  to  his  erudition  ;  and  in  particular,  his 
attempt  to  prove  that  Virgil  meant  to  allude  to 
Antonius  Musa,  under  the  fictitious  jjcrson  of 
lapis  in  the  ^Encid,  is  reckoned  futile  by  judi- 
cious commentators.  His  translations  of  two 
odes  of  Horace  have  received  more  than  their 
due  share  of  applause.     Biogr.  Biitan. — A. 

ATTERBURY,  Lewis,  an  English  di- 
vine, elder  brother  of  Francis,  bishop  of  Ro- 
chester, was  born  at  Newport  Pagnel  in  Buck- 
inghamshire, and  was  educated  at  Westminster 
school,  and  at  Christ-church  college,  Oxford. 
He  was  iu  1695  elected  lecturer  to  the  chapel 
at  Highgate,  where,  notwithstanding  his  bro- 
ther's high  station  and  great  interest  in  the 
state,  he  remained  through  life  with  no  other 
preferment  than  the  rectory  of  Hornscy,  the 
parish  in  which  the  chapel  of  Highgate  is  situ- 
ated. He  solicited  from  the  bishop  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Rochester,  urging,  that  Lanfranc, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  had  a  brother  for  his 
archdeacon  ;  that  when  Sir  Thomas  More  was 
lord  chancellor,  his  father  was  a  puisne  judge; 
and  that  God  himself  apjjointed,  that  the  family 
of  the  patriarch  Jacob  should  owe  their  safety 
and  advancement  to  a  younger  brother.  To 
all  these  powerful  analogical  arguments,  bishop 
Atteibury  coolly  replied,  that  there  were  ob- 
jef  tions  in  point  of  decency,  and  that  it  would 
have  been  a  very  proper  post  for  his  nephew,  had 
it  pleased  God  to  spare  his  life.  It  is  probable,  that 
this  coolness  in  the  bishop  was  not  so  much  the 
effect  of  delicacy,  as  of  a  mean  ojiinion  of  his 
brother.  Yet  Lewis  Atterbury  appears  to  have 
been  a  very  good  parish  priest ;  for  he  studied 
physic,  that  he  might  give  advice  gratis  among 
his  poor  parishioners,  and  he  discharged  his 
clerical  duties  with  great  regidaritv  for  upwards 
of  forty  years,  and  acquired  the  character  of  a 
jilain,  useful,  and  solid  preacher  ;  a  character 
which  is  confirmed  by  the  sermons  which  he 
published  during  his  lite,  and  which  appeared 
after  his  death  in  173 1.  Besides  single  sermons 
on  special  occasious,  he  published,  "  Ten  Scr- 


A  I'  T 


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ATT 


mons  prenclicd  before  the  Piiiicc?s  Anne  of 
Dcnmaik,  primed  in  8vo.  in  1699;"  "  A  se- 
cond Volume  of  Strmons,"  in  1703  ;  "  Let- 
ters relating  to  the  History  of  tlie  Council  of 
'I'rent ;"  "  An  Answer  to  Colson's  Defence 
of  P()])crv  against  Archbishop  Tillotson  ;"  and 
some  translations  from  the  P'rench.  Two  vo- 
lumes of  his  posllnimous  sermons  were  pub- 
lished by  archdeacon  Yardlcy,  in  1743-  Brief 
jiccount  prefixed  to  Lord  Attcrburys  PSS.  Ser- 
nions.   Biogr.  Brit. — E. 

ATTICUS,  Herodes.     Tiberius  Claudius 
Atticus.Hercdcs  was  born  at  Marathon,  in  the 
territory  of  Athens.    His  father,  Julius  Atticus, 
descended  from  the  family  of  Milliades,  had  been 
reduced  to  a  low  condition  by  the  proscription 
of  his  father,  when  he  was  suddenly  raised  to 
great  wealth  by  the  discovery  of  a  vast  treasure 
in  an    old  house  remaining  to  hiin.     He    ac- 
quainted the  emperor  Nerva  with  the  circum- 
stance, who  told  him  to    make  what  use  he 
pleased   of   the   treasure ;    and   on  his    further 
vejiresentation,  that  the  sum  was  too  conside- 
rable for  a  private  man  to  use ;   Nerva  bid  him 
abuse  it,  then,   for  it  was  his  own.     Julius  At- 
ticus emploved  his  wealtli  in  the  most  liberal 
manner.     He  lived  at  Athens  in  a  style  of  great 
magnihcence,    sjave  frequent  largesses   to    the 
people,    and  offered  splendid  sacrifices  to  the 
gods.     He   also    extended    his   munificence  to 
other  towns ;  and  is  recorded   to  have  defrayed 
more  than  half  the  expence  of  a  project  of  sup- 
plying Troas,  with  fresh  water  which  he  had 
persuaded  the  emperor  Adrian  to  execute,   but 
wliich  cost  above  double  of  the  estimate  given 
in.     Sucli  a  fatlier  was  not  likely  to  be  sparing 
in  the  education  of  liis  son;  accordingly,  find- 
ing in  him  the  happiest  dispositions  for  learning, 
he   engaged  the   ablest  masters  for   him,    and 
among  the  rest,    Scopclian,    one  of  the  most 
eminent  orators  of  the  age,  whose  services  he 
rewarded  with  great  liberality.     It  was,  indeed, 
principally  to  rhetoric   that  the  studies  of  the 
time  were  directed  ;  and  this  seems  rather  to 
have  been  the  vain  and  ostentations  art  of  de- 
-claiming   according  to    rule    upon   any   given 
topic  for  the  purpose  of  being  admired,   than 
the  useful  instrument  of  convincing  the  reason 
and   guiding   the   passions  of   men.     Herodes 
was    extremely  attached  to    this   pursuit,    and 
spared  no  pains  in  obtaining  a  proficiency  in 
it.    Besides  his  projicr  master,  he  attended  upon 
the  lectures  of  Polemon  and   Favorinus,  who 
were  illustrious  at  Smyrna  and  Ephesus.    Such 
was  his  early  reputation  for  eloquence,  that  he 
■was  deputed  when  very  young  to  harangue  the 
emperor  Adrian   then  in  Pannonia  ;    but   his 


courage  failed  liim  in  the  attempt ;  lie  was 
struck  dumb,  and  through  chagrin  was  near 
throwing  himself  into  the  Danube. 

It  is  not  known  when  he  lost  his  father;  but 
his  death  involved  him  in  some  difficulty.  Ju- 
lius had  indulged  his  disposition  to  munificence 
in  becjueathing  to  every  Athenian  one  silver 
mina  annually,  which  would  almost  have  ex- 
hausted the  property  of  his  son.  Herodes  pre- 
vailed upon  the  people  to  accept  a  composition 
of  five  mina:  paid  at  once  ;  and  this  benefaction 
he  found  means  to  reduce  to  a  small  sum,  by 
paying  great  part  of  it  with  the  obligatory 
bonds  which  individuals  had  given  his  father  for 
money  advanced.  The  Athenians  showed  no 
little  dissatisfaction  on  the  occasion  ;  and  it  is 
said  that  in  revenge  thcv  interpreted  the  name 
ot  Parwthenaieum  given  to  the  stadium  he  after- 
wards erected,  as  if  it  were  built  at  the  cost  of 
the  whole  people  of  Athens. 

When  Herodes  had  finished  his  attendance 
on  the  schools  of  orators,  he  returned  to  his 
own  country,  and  gave  public  lectures  on  elo- 
quence, which  were  much  frequented,  partly, 
as  we  may  suppose,  through  curiosity  and  the 
love  of  improvement,  partly  from  adulation. 
He  was  attended  by  sophists,  philosophers  and 
rhetoricians,  some  of  whotn  were  munificently 
rewarded  for  their  praise;  and  his  more  inti- 
mate disciples  were  treated  with  refreshments 
in  the  intervals  of  the  lessons.  Some  were  in- 
vited to  the  delicious  country  seats  which  he 
possessed  in  the  neighbourhood,  ^and  which 
were  converted  into  rural  academies.  A  story 
related  by  A.  Gellius,  who  was  himself  a  dis- 
ciple, will  give  some  idea  of  the  urbanity  of 
Herodes,  as  well  as  of  the  character  of  some  of 
his  visitants.  A  man  clad  in  a  long  mantle, 
with  a  beard  descending  to  his  waist,  one  day 
presented  himself,  and  asked  for  alins.  He- 
rodes inquired  who  he  was.  "  Do  you  not  see 
(said  the  man  angrily)  that  I  am  a  philoso- 
pher?" "  I  behold  (replied  Herodes)  the  beard 
and  mantle,  but  I  do  not  yet  discern  the  philo- 
sopher." One  of  the  company  then  observed, 
that  he  was  a  sturdy  beggar,  who  went  about 
insulting  those  who  refused  to  relieve  him. 
"  Well,  then  (said  Herodes),  let  us  give  as 
men,  though  not  to  a  man  :"  tanquam  homines, 
tion  tanquam  homini. 

The  fame  of  Herodes  extended  not  only 
throughout  Greece,  but  to  Rome  ;  and  the 
emperor  Titus  Antoninus  thought  him  the  fit- 
test person  for  the  post  of  master  of  eloquence 
to  his  adopted  sons  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Lucius 
Verus.  This  promotion  put  him  in  the  way 
of  higher  advancement ;    and  he  was   created 


A  T  T 


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ATT 


consul  in  143.  Either  before  or  after  this 
period  he  was  appointed  to  the  prefecture  of  the 
free  cities  of  Asia,  and  the  presidency  at  the 
Panhellenic  and  Panathenian  games,  at  which  he 
was  crowned.  On  this  occasion  he  testified  liis 
gratitude  to  his  countrymen  by  one  of  the  most 
sumptuous  works  ever  erected  by  a  private  man. 
It  was  a  stadium  six  himdred  feet  in  length,  en- 
tirely built  of  white  marble,  the  relics  of  which 
are  still  visible.  He  also  constructed  a  magnifi  • 
cent  theatre  at  Athens,  whicli  he  named  Regil- 
lum,  in  honour  of  his  wife  Regilla.  These  two 
edifices  are  said  to  have  been  scarcely  equalled  in 
the  Roman  empire.  He  likewise  repaired  and 
beautified  the  famous  odeum  of  Pericles,  which 
was  fallen  to  decay  ;  nor  did  he  confine  his  boun- 
ty to  his  own  city,  but  decorated  many  other 
places  in  Greece  and  Asia  with  useful  and  orna- 
mental works.  His  great  ambition  vi'as  to  cut 
through  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  a  project  inef- 
fectually entertained  bv  various  kings  and  empe- 
rors ;  but  he  was  afraid  of  asking  permission  for 
the  purpose.  Wliile  all  the  productions  of  his 
eloquence  have  sunk  in  oblivion,  his  name  has 
been  perpetuated  by  the  liberal  employment  of 
his  wealth  ;  and  perhaps  no  person  in  a  private 
condition  ever  expended  so  much  upon  the  public. 
It  is  painful  to  relate  that  such  a  benefactor 
to  his  countrymen  ■should  liave  been  made  the 
subject  of  their  accusation  ;  but  the  party  dis- 
sentions  of  Atliens  were  always  too  powerful 
for  her  gratitude.  Two  brothers  named  the 
Quintilii,  who  commanded  in  Greece,  were 
jealous  of  the  influence  of  Herodes ;  and  they 
gladly  seized  the  occasion  of  some  animosities 
which  his  exercise  of  the  office  of  appointing 
masters  in  the  schools  of  philosophy  had  excited, 
as  well  as  some  other  subjects  of  complaint 
imagined  by  a  restless  people,  to  transmit  a 
charge  against  him  to  the  emperor  Aurelius. 
Hcrodcs  thought  proper  to  go  and  meet  it ;  and 
when  arrived  in  ]iresence  of  the  emjieror,  instead 
of  attempting  to  soften  him  by  eloquence,  he 
rudely  reproached  him  witli  a  pre-dctermination 
to  ruin  him.  The  prefect-pra;torio  who  stood 
by,  exclaimed  that  this  insolence  merited  death. 
"  A  man  of  my  age  (said  Herodes)  does  not 
fear  death!"  'J'he  mild  emperor,  however,  on 
hearing  the  cause,  contented  himself  with  i>u- 
nishing  the  freedmcn  of  Herodes,  who  probably 
had  rx?allv  abused  his  indulgence.  Herodes  re- 
tired to  Attica,  and  some  time  afterwards  wrote 
a  letter  to  the  emperor  to  try  whether  he  could 
not  revive  his  kindness  for  him ;  and  Aurelius 
sent  him  a  very  friendly  answer.  A  still  greater 
mortification  to  Herodes  was  a  malicious  charge 
raised  against  him,  as  having  been  accessory  10 


the  death  of  his  wife ;  and  he  was  actually  ac- 
cused of  the  crime  before  the  senate  by  her  bro- 
ther, who  had  been  consul  ;  but  was  acquitted. 
To  prove  his  sorrow  at  her  loss  he  erected  a  sta- 
tue to  her  memory,  with  an  inscription,  still 
subsisting.  Herodes  spent  the  close  of  his  life 
at  Marathon,  where  he  died  at  ihe  age  of  seven- 
ty-six, and  was  honoured  by  his  countrymen 
with  a  public  funeral  at  Athens,  f^u-  de  Hcnde 
Atiicus  par  M.  Buri^ny;  Afem  de  I' Acad,  des 
Inscript.  vol.  xxx. — A. 

A'i  TICUS,  Titus  Pomponius,  a  Roman 
knight,  wlio  lived  in  the  latter  period  of  the  Ro- 
man republic,  has  acquired  great  celebrity  frotn 
tlie  sjtlcndour  of  his  private  character.  De- 
scended from  an  ancient  family,  he  inherited 
great  wealth  from  his  father,  and  his  uncle 
Q^Caecilius,  who  adopted  him.  He  was  very 
liberally  educated,  and  such  was  his  success  in 
his  studies,  that  he  served  for  an  example  to  his 
schoolfellows,  among  whom  were  the  younger 
Marius  and  Cicero.  A  peculiar  elegance  of 
taste  and  suavity  of  manners  seem  from  the 
first  to  have  characterised  hini.  and  to  have 
given  him  that  aversion  to  civil  contentions, 
which  governed  the  whole  tenor  of  his  life.  The 
bloody  factions  of  Cinna  and  SvUa  began  to  rage 
when  he  arrived  at  manhood.  To  avoid  em- 
broiling himself  with  eitiier  of  these  parties, 
both  equally  destructive  to  the  republic,  he  re- 
tired to  Athens,  whither  he  conveyed  the  great- 
est part  of  his  property  ;  and  following  the  bent 
of  his  inclination  in  this  seat  of  philosophy  and 
letters,  he  addicted  liimself  cniiicly  to  study,  and 
drank  more  deeply  of  Grecian  literature  than  al- 
most any  Roman  of  his  time.  He  ingratiated 
himself  with  the  Athenians,  not  only  by  the  af- 
fability of  his  demeanour,  but  by  the  essential 
benefits  he  was  continually  conferring  on  ihcir 
city.  He  frequently  lent  the  state  sums  ot  mo- 
ney without  interest,  and  thereby  freed  it  from 
the  necessity  of  applying  to  usurers  ;  at  the 
same  time  he  properly  insisted  upon  punctual 
repayment  at  tlie  period  at^rccd  upon.  He  also 
in  seasons  of  scarcity  made  gratuitous  distribu- 
tion; of  corn  to  the  whole  people.  Hence  he 
became  so  popular  at  Athens,  that  there  were  no 
public  honours  which  tiie  people  were  not  desi- 
rous of  heaping  upon  him.  They  wished  to 
make  him  a  citizen  ;  but  an  opinion  that  such 
an  act  would  amount  to  a  renunciation  ot  the 
citizenship  of  Rome,  induced  him  to  decline 
that  honour.  Nor  would  he  suffer  them  to 
erect  statues  to  him  while  he  resided  among 
them  ;  though  he  could  not  prevent  this  tcsii-, 
mony  of  respect  after  his  departure,  an  event 
which  caused  a  general  numiuing  at  Atlicns 


A  T  T 


■(    45^     ) 


ATT 


The  surname  of  yfiti-us,  which  lie  acquired 
from  his  attachment  to  tliis  city,  and  his  fami- 
liaritv  wirli  its  language  and  manners,  became 
his  usual  ajipellation  during  his  life,  and  conti- 
nued to  distinguish  him  in  after  ages. 

His  retirement  from  the  scene  ot  political  con- 
tention did  not  make  him  indifferent  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  actors  in  it;  nor  did  his  prudential 
maxims  render  him  timid  in  serving  a  friend  of  a 
distressed  party,  at  the  hazard  of  displeasing  the 
triumphant  one.  When  young  Mai-ius  was  de- 
clared a  public  «nemy,  he  supplied  him  with 
money  to  escape  from  his  foes.  Yet  so  pleasing 
were  his  manners,  and  such  affection  did  his 
amiable  qualities  inspire,  that  when  Sylla,  in  his 
way  from  Asia  to  Rome,  called  at  Athens,  he 
would  never  suffer  young  Pomponius  to  be  out 
ot  his  company,  and  strongly  urged  him  to  re- 
turn with  him  to  Rome.  "  Do  not,  I  beseech 
you  (said  Pomponius)  insist  upon  my  going 
with  you  to  combat  those,  whom  I  left,  that! 
might  not  be  obliged  to  take  up  arms  against 
you."  He  occasionally  made  journies  to  Rome 
in  order  to  assist  his  friends  in  elections,  and 
never  failed  to  do  them  kind  offices  when  tlicy 
most  wanted  them.  Cicero  appears  to  have 
been  the  most  intimate  of  iiis  friends.  Their 
tastes  in  many  respects  were  congenial,  and  the 
different  course  of  life  they  pursued  was  rather 
useful  than  disadvantageous  to  their  connection. 
Atticus  exerted  himself  greatly  during  the  dan- 
gers which  pressed  upon  Cicero,  and  when  that 
eminent  statesman  was  banished,  he  accommo- 
dated him  with  a  large  sum  of  money.  Yet  he 
was  scarcely  less  intimate  with  Cicero's  great 
rival  in  oratory,  Hortensius  ;  and,  by  mutual 
■good  offices,  he  preserved  a  good  understanding 
between  them.  With  the  family  of  Cicero  he 
had,  indeed,  a  close  affinity  ;  tor  his  sister  Pom- 
•ponia  was  married  to  Quintus  Cicero;  a  match 
promoted  by  Marcus. 

Atticus  returned  to  reside  in  Rome  when  af- 
fairs were  in  a  settled  state.  There  he  continued 
■steadily  to  follow  his  original  plan  of  keeping 
himself  disengaged  from  all  public  business  ;  nor 
would  he  accept  of  any  of  the  numerous  oppor- 
.tunities  offered  him  of  aggrandizing  his  fortune 
by  accompanying  his  consular  or  praetorian 
friends  to  their  provinces.  He  took  in  good 
part  the  honour  of  their  nomination  to  offices, 
but  disregarded  the  emolument.  He  never  en- 
gaged in  a  law-suit  ;  nor  was  ever  concerned  in 
.an  accusation  either  as  principal  or  second. 
He  never  bid  for  estates  at  public  auctions,  or  in 
any  way  shared  in  the  spoils  of  the  unfortunate. 
At  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  between  Caesar 
and  Pompey,he  was  about  sixty  years  old,  and 


gladly  made  use  of  the  pretext  of  liis  age  to 
avoid  engaging  on  either  side.  He  remained  in 
Rome,  and  assisted  with  his  fortune  those  of  his 
fi'iends  who  thought  themselves  obliged  to  leave 
it  with  Pompey  ;  but  owing,  himself,  no  grati- 
tude for  favours  to  Pompey,  he  did  not  offend 
iiim  by  staying  quiet  at  home.  Cresar,  whose 
maxim  it  was  to  reckon  all  as  friends  who  were 
not  enemies,  was  highly  pleased  with  his  con- 
duct ;  and  when  victor,  forbore  from  levying 
any  contributions  on  him  as  he  did  on  others, 
and  granted  him  the  pardon  of  his  sister's  son, 
and  of  liis  brother-in-law,  Quintus  Cicero. 
After  the  death  of  Ca;sar,  when  it  was  proposed 
in  the  order  of  knights  to  establish  a  private  trea- 
sury for  the  use  of  the  party  which  had  taken 
him  off,  Atticus,  though  u]'on  the  most  inti- 
mate terms  with  Brutus,  opposed  the  measure, 
and  prevented  it  from  taking  place-  Yet  when 
Brutus  and  Cassius  were  obliged  to  leave  Italy, 
he  sent  a  large  sum  to  Brutus  from  his  own  pro- 
perty, and  ordered  a  still  larger  to  be  ])aid  him 
in  Epirus.  Soon  after,  Antony  was  judged  a 
public  enemy,  and  compelled  to  leave  Italy,  with 
no  prospect  of  a  restoration  of  his  atTairs.  His 
friends  in  Rome,  and  especially  his  wife  Fulvia, 
were  exposed  to  innumerable  vexations  and  dan- 
gers from  the  enemies  of  the  family,  who  at- 
tempted to  strip  them  of  all  their  possessions, 
and  even  threatened  their  lives.  Atticus  exerted 
himself  to  the  utmost  in  their  favour.  He  ad- 
vanced them  money  in  their  necessities,  and 
stood  forvi'ards  as  the  surety  for  Fulvia  in  all 
cases  where  bail  was  required  from  her.  In 
the  desperate  state  of  Antony's  affairs,  no  one 
thought  that  Atticus  had  a  view  to  his  interest 
by  this  conduct ;  but  some  of  his  friends  cen- 
sured him  "  for  not  sufficiently  hating  bad  ci- 
tizens." Antony  afterwards  returned  trium- 
phant. The  bloody  proscription  was  begun, 
and  every  known  friend  of  Cicero,  Brutus,  and 
the  republican  party,  was  brought  into  imminent 
danger.  Atticus  thought  it  prudent  to  retire 
along  with  the  friend  of  his  youth,  Canius,  of 
the  house  of  P.  Volumnius,  an  Antonian,  whom 
he  had  highly  obliged.  When  Antony  disco- 
vered his  place  of  refuge,  though  urged  to  the 
destruction  of  Atticus  by  some  of  the  greedy  vil- 
lains about  him,  he  had  gratitude  enough  to  re- 
member his  benefactor.  He  wrote  with  his  own 
hand  to  Atticus,  assuring  him  of  the  safety  of 
himself  and  his  friend  Canius,  and  sent  a  guard 
to  protect  him.  Even  in  these  bad  times  Atticus 
did  not  fear  to  perform  acts  of  friendship  to  the 
fallen  party.  He  caused  all  the  proscribed,  who 
fled  to  Epirus,  to  be  liberally  relieved  from  his 
large  estates  in  that  country  ;  and  he  paid  no 


ATT 


(    453    ) 


ATT 


kss  respect  to  Servilia,  tlic  motlicr  of  Brutus, 
after  the  death  of  that  patriot,  tliaii  he  had  done 
during  his  prosperity.  He  also,  by  his  interest 
with  the  triumvirs,  recovered  the  forfeited  estates 
ot  some  of  his  friends,  and  procured  tlicir  exemp- 
tion from  the  list  of  tlie  proscribed. 

Such  was  his  credit  with  the  young  Octavius, 
that  his  daugluer  was  preferred  to  all  the  great 
matciies-  in  Rome  as  a  wife  for  AI.  Agrippa,  the 
great  friend  and  favourite  of  Octavius  ;  and  by 
tlie  issue  of  this  marriage,  the  familv  of  Atticus 
became  allied  to  the  imperial  familv.  Octa- 
vius himself  cultivated  the  closest  intiinacy  v.ith 
Atticus,  and  when  absent  from  Rome,  continu- 
ally wrote  to  him  respecting  all  his  motions  and 
designs ;  and  scarcely  did  a  day  pass  in  which, 
when  at  home,  he  did  not  either  converse  with 
Atticus,  or  consult  him  upon  some  point  of  let- 
ters or  antiquity.  While  Antony  lived,  an 
equally  intimate  correspondence  was  carried  on 
between  him  and  Atticus.  Thus  he  maintained, 
from  the  first  to  tiie  last,  the  chaiacter  of  the  ge- 
neral friend  of  all  parties,  in  nil  fortunes.  This 
conduct  has  been  the  subject  of  some  curious 
discussion  by  political  casuists  ;  and  it  has  been 
warmly  censurtdby  those,  who  hold  aneutrality 
in  the  civil  contentions  of  one's  country  to  be 
base  and  criminal.  Certainly  it  appears  more 
noble,  vigorously  to  act  and  bravely  to  sutler 
for  the  cause  which  conscience  approves.  But 
in  that  corrupt  age  of  the  Roman  republic,  was 
there  any  cause  which  a  wise  man  could  with- 
out much  hesitation  approve  ?  Atticus  may  be 
charged  with  selfishness,  yet  his  desire  of  kec])- 
ing  on  good  terms  with  all  parties  never  made 
Iiim  the  tool  or  flatterer  of  any ;  nor  did  he  shun 
actual  hazard  in  performing  services  to  his 
friends  in  adversity.  He  even  chose  the  period 
of  distress  for  the  display  of  peculiar  attachment 
to  individuals.  As  a  inedium  of  friendship,  a 
reconciler  of  differences,  a  softener  of  misfor- 
tune, and  a  protector  against  the  ferocity  ot 
party  hatred,  he  sustained  a  part  of  eminent 
utility  in  tiu  se  calamitous  times  ;  nor,  perhaps, 
was  it  possii>le  that  a  man  in  his  situation,  and 
of  his  cast  of  temper  and  talents,  could  have 
pursued  any  line  of  conduct  so  beneficial  to  his 
country  as  well  as  to  himself.  His  sect  of  phi- 
losophy, wl'iich  was  the  Epicurean,  has  been 
suggested  as  the  spring  of  his  indifference  to 
public  affairs,  and  his  steady  pursuit  of  a  tran- 
<juil  life.  But  tl'.e  yealous  Cassius,  and  many 
other  warm  and  active  partisans  in  civil  conten- 
tion, were  Epicureans.  It  is  more  probable, 
that  native  disposiiion  and  early  habits  formed 
the  character  of  Atticus,  than  any  set  of  specu- 
lative principles.     Inevtiy  thing  besides,  he  dis- 


played the  saiTie  easy  and  accommoduting  dispo- 
sition. He  bore  with  admirable  good  temper  the 
morosencss  of  his  imcle  Cxcilius,  with  whom 
no  other  person  could  live.  He  was  an  excel- 
lent son  and  brother;  and  when,  at  sixty-seven 
years  of  age,  he  buried  his  mother  of  ninety,  he 
could  say  that  he  had  never  in  his  life  had  occa- 
sion to  be  reconciled  to  her,  ar.d  liad  never  had  a 
single  dificience  with  his  sister,  who  was  nearly 
of  the  same  age  with  himself. 

The  mode  of  living  of  Atticus  was  that  of  a 
man  of  fortune,  whose  great  passion  was  litera- 
tme,  and  whose  mind  was  fashioned  by  philoso- 
phy. He  dwelt  in  a  good  but  old  house  left  him 
by  his  uncle.  His  domestics  were  not  numerous, 
but  choice  ;  several  born  and  brought  up  in  his 
own  family.  There  was  a  large  proportion  of 
readers  and  copyists,  and  otheis  devoted  to  the 
purposes  of  letters.  His  table  was  elegant,  not 
costly.  Reading  was  always  an  accompany- 
mcnt  of  the  sup|)er ;  and  he  had  no  guests  to 
whom  such  an  entertainment  was  not  accepta- 
ble. Moderation  jircsided  over  all  his  enjoy- 
ments ;  and  though  his  wealth  exceeded  the  mea- 
sure of  a  large  fortune,  he  contented  himself 
with  the  expenditure  of  a  middling  one.  He 
was  extremely  studious,  and  was  particularly 
attached  to  enquiries  relative  to  the  antiquities  of 
his  country;  its  laws,  treaties,  customs,  and  the 
genealogies  of  its  illustrious  families.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  these  subjects,  which  appear 
to  have  been  much  valued.  He  also  tried  his 
talent  at  verse ;  but  the  topics  he  chose  were 
connected  widi  his  other  studies  ;  for  they  were 
the  characters  and  actions  of  illustrious  men, 
concisely  described  in  a  few  lines  to  be  placed 
imder  their  statues.  He  wrote  in  Greek  a  his- 
tory of  the  consulate  of  his  friend  Cicero. 
Though  nothing  is  extant  of  the  writings  of 
Atticus,  a  large  number  of  the  letters  of  Cicero 
to  him  have  reached  us,  written  from  the  year  of 
his  consulship  almost  to  the  time  of  his  death. 
They  are  confidential,  and  replete  with  curious 
particulars,  both  political  and  literary. 

The  conclusion  of  the  life  of  Atticus  was 
conformable  to  the  principles  which  had  go- 
verned the  course  of  it.  He  had  reached  the 
age  of  seventy-seven,  and  had  passed  the  last 
thirty  years  in  such  a  state  of  health,  as  never  tQ 
have  needed  medical  assistance ;  when  a  disor- 
dcrof  the  intestines  came  on,  which  terminated 
in  an  ulcer,  judged  incurable,  and  attended  with 
fever  and  increasing  pain.  When  he  was  con- 
vinced of  the  nature  of  die  case,  he  ordered  his 
son-in-law  Agrippa  and  other  friends  to  be  sent 
for,  and  to  them  he  declared  his  intention  of 
putting  a  pcijod  to  %  life,  uo\v  no  lunger  valua? 


ATT 


(     454     ) 


ATT 


ble  to  himself  or  others.  He  resisted  with  un- 
shaken tiimiicss  all  tluir  aftVctionate  effoils  to 
alter  his  resolution,  ami  began  to  abstain  from 
food.  Wlien  he  had  persisted  in  this  for  two 
davs  his  fever  left  him,  and  the  pain  abated  ;  he 
did  not,  however,  think  it  worth  while  to  take 
the  chance  of  a  cure,  and  the  filth  day  closed  the 
scene,  B.  C.  33. 

Ctiinelius  l\ef>os,  who  had  dedicated  to  Atti ■ 
cus  his  Lives  of  illustrious  Commanders,  con- 
cludes his  work  with  a  very  particular  account 
of  the  life  of  Atticus  himself,  whence  the  pre- 
ceding narrative  is  extracted. — A. 

ATTICUS,  a  Christian  divine,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  in  tlie  fiftli  century,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Sebastea  in  Armenia.  He  was  educated 
among  the  monks,  hut,  afterwards  entering  into 
the  church,  he  became  a  presbyter  in  thccliurch 
of  Constantinople.  In  the  year  406  he  was 
elected  to  the  patriarchal  see,  while  John  Chiy- 
sostoni  was  yet  living.  For,  liaving  unjustly 
condemned  that  prelate,  and  seized  his  see,  he 
•was  excommunicated  by  pope  Innocent  I.  and 
the  western  bishops.  He  was,  however,  on  the 
death  of  Chrysostom  restored,  upon  the  condi- 
tion that  he  should  replace  his  name  in  the  dyp- 
tics,  or  list  of  archbishops  of  Constantinople, 
whose  names  were  recited  at  the  altar,  as  having 
died  in  the  communion  of  the  church.  Atticus 
is  celebrated  as  a  man  of  great  learning,  pru- 
dence and  piety  ;  zealous  for  the  faith  against 
the  Nestorians,  and  remarkably  charitable  to 
the  poor.  He  died  in  the  year  427.  It  is  related 
of  this  divine,  that  -while  he  was  a  presbyter  he 
took  the  pains  to  get  his  sermons  by  heart ;  but 
that,  when  he  became  a  bisliop,  he  preached 
extempore.  There  are  extant  a  letter  (Nice- 
phor.  Hist.  Ecc.  lib.  xiv.  c.  26.)  to  Cyril 
from  Atticus  on  the  restoration  of  Chrvsostom's 
name  in  the  dvptics;  a  letter  sent  to  Calliopus, 
presbyter  of  the  church  at  Nice,  (Socrat.  lib. 
vii.  c.  25.)  with  three  hundred  crowns  for  the 
poor  of  that  city  ;  and  another  (Niceph.  loc. 
cit.)  to  the  deacons  of  the  church  of  Alexan- 
dria, concerning  the  means  of  restoring  peace 
to  the  church.  He  wrote  a  book  "  On  Faith 
and  Virginity,"  dedicated  to  the  daugliters  of 
Arcadius,  which  is  cited  by  Cyril  in  his  book 
to  the  empresses.  Socrates,  lib.  vi.  c.  18.  So- 
zomcn,  lib.  viii.  c.  17.  Dttpirt.  Cav.  Hist. 
Lit.—E. 

ATTILA,  king  of  the  Huns,  surnamcd  t/ic 
Scourge  of  God,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
personages  in  the  class  of  conquerors,  was  the 
son  of  Mundzuk,  and  deduced  his  lineage  from 
the  antient  Huns,  who  dwelt  on  the  confines  of 
China.     At  the  death  of  their  uncle  Rugilas, 


in  433,  who  reigned  in  modern  Hungary,  the 
brothers  Attila  and  Bleda  succeeded  to  the  throne 
of  the  Huns.  They  immediately  concluded  a 
peace  with  the  emperor  Theodosius  II.  on  terms 
which  left  them  at  liberty  to  pursue  theirschemes 
of  aggrandisement  ;  and  they  carried  their  arms 
towards  the  north  with  so  much  success,  that  all 
the  nations  between  the  Danube  and  the  Euxine 
sea  were  reduced  under  their  dominion.  They 
afterwards,  under  pretence  of  an  offence  given 
them  by  the  Romans,  broke  into  the  eastern  em- 
pire, took  by  storm  several  towns  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Danube,  defeated  several  imperial  ar- 
mies, and  laid  waste  the  wh'ole  adjacent  country 
with  fire  and  sword.  Theodosius,  not  thinking 
himself  safe  in  Constantinople,  retired  into  Asia, 
and  was  glad  to  purchase  an  inglorious  peace. 
Hitherto  the  two  brothers  had  divided  the  domi- 
nion of  the  Huns ;  but  Attila,  whose  love  of 
sway  would  not  admit  of  a  partnership,  caused 
Bleda  to  be  assassinated,  and  united  under  his 
sole  sovereignty  the  whole  nation  and  its  subject 
territories.  He  was  the  only  potentate  who  ever 
ruled  both  the  extensive  kingdoms  of  Germany 
and  Scythia,  taken  in  tlieir  largest  signification. 
Scandinavia  and  its  islands  were  his  tributaries. 
Towards  the  east  his  power  extended  to  the 
Volga  ;  and  among  his  subjects  he  reckoned  the 
numerous  and  warlike  tribes  of  the  Gepid^  and 
Ostrogoths.  In  short,  he  might  be  aititled  su- 
preine  monarch  of  the  barbarians,  of  the  hunter 
and  shepherd  nations,  the  dwellers  in  tents  and 
villages.  He  was  able  to  bring  into  the  field  the 
collective  force  of  five  or  seven  hundred  thou- 
sand men. 

His  person  and  character  suited  his  savage  su- 
premacy. His  portrait,  as  described  by  Jor- 
nandes,  is  that  of  a  tnodcrn  Calmuck  ;  with  a 
large  head,  a, swarthy  coinplexion,  small  sunken 
eyes,  a  flat  nose,  a  thin  beard,  broad  shoulders, 
and  a  short  square  body.  His  looks  were  fierce, 
hisgait  was  proud,  and  his  demeanour  stern.  Yet 
he  was  not  void  of  coinpassion,  was  merciful  to 
a  suppliant  foe,  and  ruled  his  people  with  justice 
and  lenity.  His  great  passion  v.as  war,  which 
he  freely  indulged,  to  the  destruction  of  myriads 
— a  sacrifice  as  lightly  regarded  by  more  civi- 
lized conc|uerors  !  To  the  natural  strength  of 
liis  power  he  added  the  influence  of  superstition 
over  ignorant  and  savage  minds.  He  boasted  of 
a  sword,  said  to  have  been  casually  discovered 
by  a  shepherd,  which  passed  for  the  weapon  of 
the  Scythian  Mars,  and  was  supposed  to  convey 
a  title  to  the  dominion  of  the  earth,  and  to  be 
the  omen  of  unlimited  conquest.  Satisfied  with  , 
the  possession  of  real  authority,  he  did  not  af- 
fect the  exterior  marks  of  distinction.     He  was 


''I'l''   /& 


\m  If  '1  Ti^ 


ATT 


(    455     ) 


ATT 


plain  in  his  apparel,  and  simple  in  liis  mode  of 
living.  His  palace  was  a  wooden  house,  only 
larger  than  tliosc  of  the  other  principal  Huns, 
and  containing  witiiin  its  pallisadcd  enclosure 
separate  buildings  for  each  of  his  numerous 
wives.  When  he  invited  the  embassadors  of 
Theodosius  to  an  entertainment,  while  the 
guests  were  served  in  silver  and  gold,  he  him- 
self ate  and  drank  out  of  wooden  vessels,  and 
both  very  moderately.  He  maintained  an  in- 
flexible gravity  during  the  buffooneries  which 
diverted  the  company  ;  and  relaxed  his  features 
only  while  emhiacing  his  favourite  son.  His 
principal  queen  received  ■  visits  reclined  on  a 
couch,  and  surrounded  v^'ith  damsels  seated  on 
the  ground  and  working  embroidery.  Such 
alone  was  the  state  of  this  potent  monarch,  who 
lived  familiarly  among  his  own  people,  but 
prided  himself  in  trampling  upon  tlie  pomp  and 
parade  of  kings  and  emperors. 

After  the  last  peace  with  Theodosius,  Attila 
sent  various  pressing  and  insulting  embassies  to 
Constantinople,  complaining  of  the  imperfect 
performance  of  engagements,  and  threatening 
coercive  measures.  The  weakness  of  the  impe- 
rial court  induced  the  eunuch,  Chrysaphus,  to 
propose,  and  the  emperor  to   appiove,  a  base 
design  of  inurdering  Attila,  under  the  cover  of 
a  solemn  embassy.     The  conspiracy  was  disco- 
vered ;  and  it  is  honourable  to  the  moderation 
of  the  Hun,  that  he  did  not  violate  the  laws  of 
hospitality  in  the  persons  of  the  emperor's  em- 
bassadors, but  contented  himself  with  exacting 
a  large  ransoin  for  the  immediate  agent  in  the 
business,  and   with  severely  reprimanding  the 
perfidious  Theodosius.     The   treaty    with  the 
eastern  empire  was  renewed,  but  at  the  expence 
of  fresh  payments.     In  450,  Marcian  succeeded 
Theodosius  ;  and,    on  Aitilu's  demand  of  tri- 
bute, he  had  the  spirit  to  refuse  this  mark  of  in- 
feriority-     Attila,  enraged,  sent  to  the  emperois 
both  of  the  east  and  west  a  threatening  message, 
which  his  envoys  are  said  to  have  delivered  in 
these  terms  :  "  Attila,   my  lord,   and  thy  lord, 
commands  thee  to  provide  a  palace  for  his  im- 
mediate reception."     It  was,  however,  against 
Valentinian  111.  a  weak  and  imwarlike  |)rince, 
that  he  resolved  first  to  turn  his  aims.      A  very 
extraordinary  and  even   romantic  circumstance 
gave  a  pretext   to  this  hostility.     The  princess 
Honoria,   sister  of  Valentinian,   having  disho- 
noured herself  by  an  intrigue  with  her  cham- 
berlain, was  exiled  to  the  court  of  Constantino- 
ple.    Here  she  found  means  to  send  an  oftcr  of 
herself  to  Attila,  and  transmitting  to  him  a  ring, 
conjured  him  to  march   and  claim  her  for  his 
spouse.     He  lirst  received  these  overtures  with 


coldness;  but  thinking  the  pretension  might 
strengthen  his  cause,  he  preceded  liis  iirupiioii 
into  Gaul  by  a  formal  demand  of  Honoria,  with 
an  equal  share  of  the  imperial  patrimony.  This, 
of  course,  was  refused  ;  and  Honoria  was  sent 
away  to  Italy,  married  to  an  obscure  husbaiid, 
and  then  immured  in  perpetual  imprisonment. 
Attila  affected  to  be  satisfied  witli  the  excuses 
made  on  Honoria's  account,  and  pretended  that 
his  only  purpose  in  entering  Gaul  was  to  make 
war  upon  'Ilieodoric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  in 
Languedoc.  Assembling  a  prodigious  army, 
composed  of  all  the  northern  barbarians  under 
his  dominion,  in  451,  he  crossed  the  Rhine 
without  ojjposition.  He  marked  his  way 
through  Gaul  with  desolation  ;  took,  pillaged, 
and  reduced  to  ashes  several  principal  cities,  and 
at  length  laid  siege  to  Orleans.  Here  he  was 
overtaken  by  the  armies  of  Theodoric  and  ot 
the  empire,  under  count  Aetius,  who  obliged 
him  to  retire.  [See  the  life  of  Aetil's.]  The 
bloody  battle  of  Chalons  that  ensued  displayed 
his  desperate  courage  ;  and,  though  defeated,  he 
maintained  so  formidable  a  countenance,  that 
the  victors  durst  not  execute  their  intention  of 
attacking  him  in  liis  camp.  He  was  suffered  to 
retire  slowly  and  unmolested  to  the  confines  of 
Thuringia,  where  he  crossed  the  Rhine,  anJ 
continued  his  march  to  Pannonia. 

Having  recruited  his  forces,  at  the  very  be- 
ginning of  the  next  year  he  passed  the  Alps,  en- 
tered Italy,  and  invested  Aquilcia.   After  spend- 
ing three  months  before  this  place,  when  about 
to  give  up  the  enterprise,  he  observed  a  stork  in 
one  of  its  towers  ])rep:uing  to  quit  her  nest ; 
and  animated,  it  is  said,  by  the  omen,  heattackcd 
the  city  with  renewed  vigour,  stormed,  and  ut- 
terly destroyed  it.     He  then  spread  his  ravages 
over  all  Lombardv,  sacked  and  bui  ncd  niany  of 
the  towns,  and  only  spared  Milan  and  Pavia  on 
their  submission.     This  dreadful  visitation  was; 
the    origin   of  the   famous  Venetian  republic, 
founded  by  the  fugiii\es  from  the  terror  of  At- 
tila's  name,     'i'he  feeble  Valentinian,  unable  to 
resist  the  storm,  fled  from  Ravenna  to  Rome, 
and  thence  sent  a  solemn  deputation  to  depre- 
cate tlic  wrath  of  Attila,  and  propose  tenns  of 
accommodation.     At  its  head  was  Leo,  bishop 
of  Rome,  a  person  of  great  eloquence  and  an- 
thoi  ity.     Atiila  listened  to  him  \\  ith  respect,  and 
consented  to  leave  Italy  on  the  payment  ot  a  vast 
sum,  as  the  dowry  of  the  princess  Honoria,  and 
an  annual   pension   by  way  of  tribute.     Tho 
timely  dereliction  of  his  threatened  attack  ui>on 
the  itiipcrial  city,  which  could  have  made  little 
resistance,  has  given  rise  to  a  s|>lendid  t.ible  of 
the  .ippariiion  of  St.  I'ctcr  and  St.  Paul,  mc- 


A  V  A 


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A  U   B 


nacing  him  with  instant  tleath,  should  he  reject 
f  he  supplications  of  their  pontifical  successor,  Leo. 
He  agreed,  however,  to  no  more:  than  a  truce 
witii  Valcntinian,  and  declared  his  intention  of 
returning  still  more  dreadful  the  next  year, 
should  not  Honoriaand  her  dowry  be  punctually 
sent  to  him. 

Attila  had  not  long  returned  to  his  own  coun- 
try, when  his  restless  disposition  prompted  him 
to  renew  his  threats  against  the  eastern  empire  ; 
and  it  is  said  (though  not  from  tiie  best  authori- 
ty) that  he  made  an  expedition  into  Dauphiny, 
where  he  fell  upon  the  Alans  settled  in  that 
province,  but  was  repulsed  with  loss.  It  is  cer- 
tain, however,  that  he  did  not  much  longer  sur- 
vive ;  and  the  circumstances  of  his  death  were 
.singular.  Having  married  a  new  wife,  a  beau- 
tiful young  virgin  named  Ildico,  he  celebrated 
the  bridal  day  with  great  festivity  at  his  palace 
beyond  the  Danube,  and,  oppressed  with  wine, 
retired  late  to  bed.  In  the  night  a  blood  vessel 
broke,  which,  as  he  lay  supine,  overwhelmed 
his  lungs,  and  choaked  him.  The  bride  was 
found  in  the  morning  silting  veiled  by  the  bed- 
side, and  lamenting  his  death  and  her  own  dan- 
ger. The  body  of  Attila  was  exposed  in  the 
midst  of  the  plain,  while  the  Huns,  in  martial 
order,  wheeled  round  it,  singing  funeral  songs  to 
his  praise.  He  was  privately  interred  during 
the  night,  enclosed  in  three  cofEns,  of  gold,  sil- 
ver, and  iron  ;  and  the  violation  of  his  remains 
was  prevented  by  the  massacre  of  all  the  captive 
slaves  employed  in  the  solemnity.  The  date  of 
this  event  is  generally  placed  in  the  year  453. 
With  Attda  ended  the  empire  of  the  Huns  ;  for 
his  sons,  by  their  divisions  and  civil  wars,  mutu- 
ally destroyed  each  other,  or  were  dispossessed  by 
independent  chieftains.  Univeis.  Hist.  Gib- 
ion. — A. 

AVALOS,  Ferdinand-Francis,  d', 
marquis  of  Pescara,  descended  from  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  houses  of  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  originally  from  Spain,  was  brought  up 
to  arms,  and  became  one  of  the  principal  cap- 
tains of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  He  married 
the  celebrated  Victoria  Colonna,  a  lady  equally 
illustrious  for  her  personal  and  mental  accom- 
plishments, with  whoin  he  lived  in  perfect  har- 
mony. He  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Ravenna  in  1512,  and  employed  the  hours  of  his 
captivity  in  composing  a  "  Dialogue  on  Love," 
dedicated  to  his  wife.  After  obtaining  his  li- 
berty, he  was  of  great  service  to  his  master  in 
the  recovery  of  Milan,  and  in  the  battles  of  Bi- 
cocque  and  Pavia.  Pope  Clement  VIL  and  the 
Italian  princes,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the 
^mperor's  arms,  wished  to  engage  the  marquis  in 


a  league  against  him,  and  tempted  him  with  the 
bait  of  the  crown  of  Naples.  He  is  thought  to 
have  lent  an  ear  to  the  proposition,  hut  the  em- 
peror discovering  the  negociation,  he  preiendcd 
to  have  listened  to  it  only  through  policy.  He 
did  not  long  survive,  dying  at  Milan  in  1525, 
aged  thirty-six,  without  issue.  His  tomb  is  to 
be  seen  at  Naples.  The  marquis  was  a  friend 
and  patron  of  letters,  and  acquired  a  taste  for 
science  under  his  tutor  Musephilus.  AIo~ 
rcri. — A. 

AVALOS,  Alphonso  d',  marquis  del  Vas- 
to,  cousin  and  heir  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1  502,  was  also  a  captain  of  note  under  Charles 
V.  and  was  employed  on  many  important  occa- 
sions, as  well  civil  as  military.  He  served  in 
the  Milanese,  was  at  the  jiillage  of  Genoa,  ac- 
companied Charles  to  Tunis  in  1535,  and  went 
as  embassador  to  Venice  in  1540.  So  little  scru- 
pulous was  he  in  the  service  of  his  master,  that 
he  caused  the  assassination  ot  two  envoy*  of 
Francis  L  in  their  way  to  Venice,  after  which 
he  justly  dreaded  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
French.  Accordingly,  at  the  great  battle  of  Cc- 
vizolcs,  in  which  he  commanded  against  the 
duke  d'Enguien,  he  was  among  the  first  who 
fled,  though  he  had  brought  with  him  two  car- 
riages loaded  with  fetters  for  the  prisoners  he 
was  to  take.  He  was  extremely  mortified  with 
the  event,  and  died  two  years  aftcrwaids  in  1 546. 
Brantome  represents  him  as  very  much  a  lady's 
man,  boastful,  fond  of  dress,  and  perfuming  even 
his  saddles.     Aforcri. — A. 

AUBERT,  Peter,  a  French  lawyer,  was 
born  at  Lyons  in  1642.  From  his  childhood 
he  was  fond  of  books,  and  discovered  marks  of 
genius.  At  seventeen  he  wrote  a  small  ro- 
mance, entitled,  "  Retour  de  I'lsle  d'Amour," 
\vhich  was  published  at  his  father's  request. 
He  studied  law,  and  practised  it  with  great  suc- 
cess;  and  was  employed  in  several  high  offices 
in  the  city  of  Lyons.  He  formed  a  large  and 
valuable  library,  which  he  left  to  the  city  of 
Lyons,  for  public  use.  He  published  a  col- 
lection of  Factums  of  various  advocates,  in  two 
volumes  4to.  printed  at  Lyons  in  1710;  and 
a  new,  and  much  improved  edition  of  Richelet's 
Dictionary,  which  appeared  in  three  volumes 
folio,  in  1728.  Moreri.  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. 
— E. 

AL^BERTIN,  Edmund,  a  learned  French 
divine  of  the  reformed  church,  was  born  at 
Clialons  on  Marne  in  I  595,  was  chosen  mi- 
nister of  the  church  of  Chartres  in  1618,  and 
was  removed  to  the  church  of  Paris  in'  1631. 
He  wrote  a  work,  which  was  highly  admired 
by  the  reformers,  and  which  gave  great  offence 


Ciyrnhatre  po%w  1 4%  T'crite'  . 


A  T  T 


(    457     ) 


A  U  B 


to  the  Catholics,  entitled  "  L'Eucharistie  de 
J'ancienne  Kglisc,"  printed,  ia  folio,  in  1633. 
In  this  work,  after  discussing  tlic  subject  of  the 
ancient  churcli  on  the  ground  of  scripture  and 
•j'eason,  he  examines  tlic  belief  of  the  church 
through  the  first  six  centuries,  to  show  that, 
through  all  that  period,  the  doctrines  of  tran- 
substantiation,  and  the  real  presence,  were 
unknown.  The  historical  part  of  the  work 
was  answered  by  Arnauld,  and  other  divines  of 
Port  Royal,  in  the  work  entitled  "  La  Perpe- 
tuite  de  la  F'oi."  Aubcrtin  became  the  object 
of  clerical  odium,  and  a  jirocess  was  begun 
against  him,  for  having  st\  led  himself  pastor 
of  the  reformed  church  of  Paris.  'I'he  process 
was  dropped  ;  but  he  was  afterwards  suspend- 
ed, two  or  tlirce  years,  for  some  expressions 
which  lie  used  in  the  pulpit.  Intolerant  bi- 
gotry pursued  him  to  his  last  moments,  ^\'ilile 
he  was  upon  his  death-bed,  just  exiiiring,  Ol- 
leriiis,  the  curate  of  St.  Sulpice,  came  to  his 
door,  with  a  bailitF,  and  an  aimed  mob  to  the 
number  of  forty.  He  knocked  at  tiie  door, 
and,  in  order  to  gain  admittance,  pretended  to 
be  the  physician.  As  soon  as  the  door  was 
opened,  t'le  mob  rushed  into  the  hou^e,  affirm- 
ing that  tiie  sick  man  was  desirous  to  make  his 
abjuration  before  a  priest,  but  had  been  pre- 
vented, and  declaring,  that  thev  were  come  to 
■give  him  an  opportunity  of  disburdening  his 
conscience.  Alter  some  ineffectual  resistance 
from  the  son  of  the  dying  man,  the  curate  and 
bailiff  were  admitted  into  his  chamber.  The 
officious  and  cruel  zeal  of  the  curate  was, 
however,  frustrated.  The  honest  Aubertin, 
roused  for  a  moment  from  his  lethargic  state, 
declared  distinctly  his  perseverance  in  the  faith 
t){  the  reformed  church.  When  the  curate  and 
bailiff  withdrew,  tiie  mob  believed  that  they 
were  forced  out  of  the  house,  and  were  with 
difficulty  persuaded  to  disperse  without  plun- 
dering it.  Who  will  not,  in  better  times,  re- 
probate the  inhuman  bigotry  which,  after  h.a- 
rassing  a  worthy  man  all  his  days,  would  not 
4)ermit  him  to  die  tjuietly,  but,  ia  the  moments 
when 

**  Ctaudicat  ingciiiain,  dclirat  lin-^afiue  nicnsijue ;" 

Luckh.  lib.  iii.  v.  Ui. 
"  When  KHun  halts,   nml  thought  :iiiJ  spiich  arc  »i(d;" 

would  endeavour  to  extort  from  him  a  decla- 
ration, which  his  sound  reason  disclaimed  ? 
Aubertin  died  at  Paris  in  the  year  1652,  aged 
57  years.  His  famous  work  he  translated  into 
Latin,  and  the  translation  was  published  after 
his  death  by  David  Blondel.  in  folio,  at  De- 
vcntcr  in  the  year  1654.  Blandel.  Pin/.  Lib. 
jtHl/erlini  de  Eu(h.  Btij!c-.—-E. 
VOL.  l- 


AUBERY,  Anthony,  a  French  historian, 
born  in  1617,  after  having  been  educated  at 
Paris  for  the  law,  jirefcrrcd  the  tranquillity  of 
a  studious  life  to  the  tumult  of  business,  and 
chiefly  devoted  himself  to  historical  rcsc.-.rches. 
\yhen  he  was  very  young,  he  formed  a  design 
of  translating  Ciaconius  ;  but  finding  more 
satisfaction  in  writing  from  his  own  conccp. 
tions,  than  in  following  the  thoiighti  of  an- 
other, he  undertook  to  compose  a  "  General 
History  of  the  Cardinals,"  which  appeared,  in 
five  volumes  4to.  in  the  year  1642,  &c.  Naude 
and  Du  Puy  furnished  him  with  many  of  his 
materials.  In  1649,  he  published  an  historical 
treatise,  "  On  the  Pre-eminence  of  the  Kings 
of  France  above  the  Kings  of  Spain  and  the 
Emperors."  In  1654,  he  published  the  "  His- 
tory of  the  Cardinal  de  [oyeusc,  and  a  Col- 
lection of  Letters  written  by  that  Cardinal  to 
Henry  111."  In  1660,  appcaretl,  in  folio,  hi» 
"  Hi<;tory  of  Cardinal  Rithelicu,  containing 
the  History  of  the  principal  Events  in  the  Reign 
of  Louis  XIII."  This  publication  was  ac- 
companietl  with  two  other  volumes,  of  titles, 
letters,  dispatches,  instructions  and  memoirs, 
which  serve  as  documents  and  vouchers  to  the 
general  hi  tory.  It  is  said,  that  Beriier,  the 
l)rinter,  waited  upon  the  queen  regent,  request- 
ing her  special  authority  tor  the  publication  of 
a  work,  which  contain  severe  strictures  upon 
the  irregular  manners  of  many  persons  in  higli 
life  ;  and  that  the  queen,  in  reply  to  the  request 
said,  "  Go,  finish  your  work  without  fear,  and 
put  Vice  to  the  blush,  that  Virtue  alone  may- 
dare  to  show  her  face  in  France."  Notwith- 
standing the  freedom  with  which  Aubcry  jiro- 
fessed  to  write,  he  is  accused  of  having  deline- 
ated the  character  of  cardinal  Richelieu  witli  a 
flattering  pencil :  and  he  is  said  to  have  written 
the  work  under  the  strong  influence  of  lucrative 
motives,  to  gratify  the  vanity  of  the  cardinal's 
niece  the  duchess  d'Arguillon.  (Gui  Patin,  Ep. 
136.  a  Spon.) 

In  1667,  Aubery  wrote  a  book  on  the  just 
pretensions  of  the  king  of  France  to  the  empire, 
which  was  dedicated  to  Louis  XIV.  In  this 
work,  he  repeats  several  things,  which  had 
been  advanced  in  his  former  treatise  on  this  sub- 
ject, and  supported  his  position  with  new  facts 
and  arguments.  The  princes  of  the  empire 
were  alarmed,  and  made  tompbints  to  die 
court  of  France.  'I'o  Mlcncc  the  murmur,  an 
Older  was  given  for  commiiting  the  author  to 
the  Bastille i  he  was,  however,  well  treated  in 
his  confinement,  and  visited  by  the  first  person- 
ages in  the  kingdom,  and,  alter  a  sl>i>rt  time, 
was  set  at  liberty.    Many  answcrj  to  this  \voik 


A  U  B 


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A  U  B 


appeared  in  Germanv.  Aubery's  next  publi- 
carions  were,  a  treatise  "  On  tlie  dignity  of 
Cardinal,"  intended  as  a  general  introduction  to 
his  "  Histors'  of  Cardinals,"  and  anotlier,  "  On 
the  Re^a/e,  or  the  Right  of  enjoying  the  Re- 
venues of  vacant  Bishoprics  ;"  a  work  of  little 
value.  His  last  work,  which  was  published  in 
four  volumes  lamo.  in  i7i;i,was  "  The  His- 
tory of  Cardinal  Mazarin."  The  materials  for 
this  work  were,  in  a  great  measure,  drawn 
from  registers  of  parliament,  which  have  since 
disappeared  :  details  may  be  found  here,  which 
v^  ill  be  in  vain  sought  for  elsewhere.  'Jbis,  in- 
deed, is  the  chief  value  of  Aubrey's  writings; 
for  with  respect  to  style,  or  method,  they  have 
little  to  recommend  them  ;  and  the  author  was 
not  sufficientlv  independent,  cither  in  situation 
or  spirit,  to  write  with  impartiality.  He  was 
preparing  for  the  press  other  historical  col- 
lections, when  an  accident,  in  1695,  at  the  age 
of  78,  terminated  his  life.  Happening  to  fall 
as  he  passed  over  the  bridge  of  St.  Michael  in 
Paris,  he  received  bruises  which  proved  fatal. 
Having  never,  for  fifty  years,  had  occasion  for 
a  physician,  he  refused  all  medical  assistance, 
and  after  languishing  two  months,  expired. 

Though  much  commendation  may  not  be 
due  to  this  writer  for  judgment  in  the  choice  of 
his  subjects,  or  for  talents  and  impartiality  in 
treating  them,  he  is,  however,  entitled  to  the 
praise  of  great  industry.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
liis  daily  practice,  to  rise  at  five,  and  to  employ 
the  whole  day  in  study,  till  six  in  the  evening, 
after  which  his  only  amusements  were  the  con- 
versation of  a  friend,  or  an  entertaining  book. 
He  made  few  visits,  and  received  still  fewer. 
It  may  be  regretted  that  from  such  industry,  the 
world  has  not  reaped  more  benefit,  youriud 
c'fi  5'rtZ'itwT,  tome  xxiii.  p.  185.  Aiorcri.  Nouv. 
Diet.  HIst.—E. 

AUBERY,  Louis  deMaurier, a  French 
historian,  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  he 
was  young,  accompanied  his  father,  who  went 
as  ambassador  to  Holland,  and,  after  remaining 
some  rime  in  that  country,  visited  Germany, 
Poland,  and  Italy.  Returning  to  Paris,  he  ob- 
tained the  favour  of  the  queen  regent ;  but 
being  appointed  to  no  employment,  he  retired, 
after  the  death  of  cardinal  Richelieu,  to  his 
family-mansion,  and  devoted  himself  to  literary 
repose.  He  died  in  the  year  1687,  leaving  be- 
hind him,  in  French,  two  historical  works  : 
"  Memoirs  for  the  History  of  Holland,"  pub- 
lished, in  two  volumes  121110.  in  1682  ;  a  work, 
which,  though  it  has  displeased  the  Dutch, 
contains  curious  and  interesting  facts  ;  and 
"  Memoirs    of  Hamburg,   Lubeck,    Holstein, 


Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Poland,"  published  af- 
ter his  death,  by  his  grandsc^n.  These  two 
works  were  printed  together  at  Amsterdam,  in 
1736,     Aforcri.   Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

AUBIGNE,  Theodore-Agrippa  d'  a 
Calvinist  gentleman  attached  to  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  was  born  at  St.  Maury  near  Pons  in 
Saintonge  in  1550,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  early  progress  in  literature.  The  death  of 
his  father,  who  left  him,  at  thirteen,  the  heir 
only  of  his  name  and  his  debts,  caused  him  to 
quit  letters  for  the  profession  of  arms  ;  and  he 
entered  into  the  service  of  Henry  then  king  of 
Navarre,  whose  favour  he  acquired  to  such  a 
degree,  as  to  obtain  successively  the  posts  of 
gentleman  of  his  bedchamber,  marechal-de- 
camp,  governor  of  the  isles  and  castle  of  Mail- 
le'/.ais,  and  vice-admiral  of  Guicnnc  and  Bri- 
tany.  Yet  no  man  could  speak  with  more 
freedom  to  his  master,  or  refuse  with  more  in- 
flexibility to  serve  his  vicious  passions.  The 
necessity  under  which  Hciirv  lay  of  conciliating 
the  catholic  lords  by  favours,  made  him  some- 
times appear  ungrateful  to  his  old  and  tried 
servants;  and  d'Aubigne  did  not  fail  to  let  him 
know  his  sentiments  with  great  boldness  on 
these  occasions.  Henry  felt  these  remonstrances, 
but  bore  with  them  from  one  whom  he  knew 
to  have  justice  on  his  side,  and  to  be  of  incor- 
ruptible fidelity.  Though  d'Aubigne  refused  to 
follow  him  to  the  siege  of  Paris,  thcking  placed 
under  his  custody  the  cardinal  of  Bourbon, 
whom  the  league  recognised  for  king.  And 
when  Duplessi-Mornai  reminded  the  king  of 
the  causes  of  displeasure  d'Aubigne  had  against 
him,  "  The  word  of  d'Aubigne  discontented 
(replied  Henry)  is  worth  as  much  as  the  grati- 
tude of  another  man."  D'Aubigne  had  as 
much  generosity  of  sentiment  as  courage;  and 
when  Henry  reproached  him  for  his  friendship 
for  la  Tremouille  whom  he  had  disgraced  and 
banished,  "  Sire  (said  d'Aubigne),  he  is  unfor- 
tunate enough  to  have  lost  the  favour  of  his 
master — could  I  withdraw  my  friendship  from 
him  when  he  has  most  need  of  it?"  D'Au- 
bigne, however,  found  at  length  that  extreme 
frankness  becomes  displeasing  to  the  best  of 
princes.  He  quitted  the  court,  and  kingdom, 
and  retired  to  spend  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in 
lettered  freedom  at  Geneva,  where  he  died, 
highly  honoured  and  respected,  in  1630,  aged 
80.  By  his  wife,  Susanna  de  Lezai,  he  left 
several  children,  one  of  whom.  Constant  d'Au- 
bigne, was  father  of  the  famous  Madame  de 
Maintenon. 

D'Aubigne  wrote  several  works.  The  prin- 
cipal of  them  is  "  An  Universal  History  from 


A  U  B 


(    459    ) 


A  U  B 


1550  to  1601,  with  an  abridged  Account  of  the 
Death  of  Henry  IV."  in  three  volumes  folio, 
printed  in  16 16,  18,  20,  and  reprinted  with 
additions  and  corrections  in  1626.  It  is  a  very 
free,  and  in  some  respects  partial  account  of  the 
characters  and  transactions  of  the  times,  writ- 
ten with  much  dignity  of  sentiinent,  but  in  a 
style  partly  vulgar,  partly  affected  and  turgid. 
It  represented  the  character  of  Henry  III.  in 
such  an  odious  and  contemptible  light,  that  tlie 
parliament  of  Paris,  on  the  appearance  of  tlie 
lirst  volume,  condemned  it  to  tlie  flames.  The 
detail  of  military  operations  is  the  part  of  the 
work  most  esteemed  for  its  accuracy.  The 
*'  Confession  of  iiancy,"  and  the  "  Baron  de 
Foencste,"  are  two  satirical  jjieces,  of  which  the 
-iirst  is  valued  for  a  vein  ot  ingenious  and  deli- 
cate raillery ;  the  second  has  equal  acrimony, 
but  of  a  grosser  kind.  He  also  publislied  mis- 
tcllaneous  pieces,  tragedies,  poems,  &c. ;  and 
he  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  his  own  Life,"  which 
were  long  handed  about  in  MS.  but  not  pub- 
h'shed  till  1731.  They  arc  full  of  curious  and 
very  free  anecdotes,  and  afford  a  liveiv  picture 
of  the  man.  They  have  been  translated  into 
English.  Moreti.  et  Nouv.  Diet.  H'st. — A. 
AUBREY,  John,  in  Latin  Jlbcricus,  an 
English  antiquary  of  eminence,  was  born  at 
Easton  Piers  in  Wiltshire,  in  162 5 or  1626,  and 
studied  at  Trinity  college,  Oxford,  of  which 
he  was  a  gentleman  commoner.  He  early  ad- 
dicted himself  to  historical  and  antiquarian  re- 
searches, and,  while  at  the  university,  assisted 
in  compiling  materials  for  tlic  "  Monasticon 
Anglicum."  He  entered  at  the  Middle  Temple 
in  1646;  but  his  legal  studies  were  interrupted 
by  much  disagreeable  business  in  which  he  was 
involved  after  the  death  of  his  fatiier,  who  left 
him  several  estates,  and  a  multiplicity  of  law- 
suits. He  continued,  however,  the  correspon- 
dences he  had  formed  witli  the  lovers  of  anti- 
quity ;  and  furnished  Antony  Wood  with  many 
valuable  documents  for  his  great  works  relative 
to  the  universitv  of  Oxford.  He  also  pre- 
served a  connection  with  those  philosophers 
•who  afterwards  foimded  the  Royal  Societv,  of 
wliicli  he  became  a  member  in  1662.  In  his 
private  and  domestic  concerns  he  w;is  unfortu- 
nate. He  niarric-d  unsuitably  ;  and  by  various 
calamities  was  brought  to  the  necessity  of  sell- 
ing all  UIs  estates,  so  that  at  length  he  was  re- 
duced to  absolute  indigence.  Yet  he  liad  phi- 
losophy enougli  ti)  adapt  his  mind  to  his  cir- 
cumstances ,  and  he  says  of  himself,  "  From 
1670  I  have,  thank  God,  enjoyed  a  happy  dc- 
litescency."  He  was  su|>ported  by  the  kind- 
ness of  Lady  Long  of  Draycot  in  Wiltshire, 


in  wliose  house  he  had  an  apartment  till  Inn 
death,  which  h;;ppened  about  17CX5,  as  he  was 
upon  a  journey  to  Oxford,  Aubrey  was  a 
good  classical  scholar,  a  naturalist,  aiid  a  most 
industrious  antiquarian  ;  but  trifling,  credulous, 
and  much  inclined  to  su])crstition.  He  was 
the  autiior  of  several  works,  most  of  them  left 
behind  him  in  MS.  'I"lK->e  arc,  I."  The  Life 
ot  Mhiimas  Hobbcs  of  Malmesbury,"  never 
published,  but  the  materials  of  which  were  em- 
jdoyed  by  Di.  Blackbourne  in  his  account  of 
the  same  eminent  philosopher.  Hobbcs  was 
educated  at  Malmesbury  school  under  tiie  same 
master  that  Aubrey  was,  though  not  at  the 
same  time.  2.  "  Miscellanies  upon  the  follow- 
ing Subjects,  viz.  Day-Fatality,  Local-Fatality, 
Ostenta,  Omens,  Dreams,  Apparitions,  &<.. 
Sec,"  This  collection  of  anility  was  printed  in 
i6y6;  and  Aubrey  left  a  copy  with  additions 
aud  corrections  for  a  second  edition,  which  ap- 
peared in  172  I.  3.  "  A  Perambidation  of  the 
County  of  Surrey,  begun  1673,  ended  1692." 
This  was  printetl  in  five  volumes  8vo.  in  1719, 
and  is  held  in  estimation  among  topographical 
works.  4,  "  The  Natural  History  of  dies 
North  Division  of  Wiltshire,"  an  unfinished 
MS.  in  the  Museum  of  0.\t"ord.  Bishop  Gib- 
son made  some  use  of  it  in  his  edition  of  Cam- 
den. 5.  "  Mouumcnta  Briiannica,  or  a  Dis- 
course concerning  Stone  Henge  and  Rollrich 
Stones  in  Oxfordshire."  MS.  Aubrey  sup- 
ports the  opinion,  that  these  remains  are  drui-. 
dical,  and  anterior  to  the  Roman  invasion  of 
Britain.  It  is  proper  to  remark,  that  tlie  learncil 
Toland  expresses  a  high  opinion  of  Aubrey's 
knowledge  and  judement  on  tliese  subjects. 
6.  "  Architectonica  Sacra ;  a  Dissertation  con- 
cerning the  Manner  of  our  Cliurch-building  in 
England;"  a  short  MS.  in  the  O.xford  Mu- 
seum. He  wrote  likewise  "  The  Idea  of  Uni- 
versal Education,"  a  piece  not  known  now  to 
exist ;  and  several  letters  on  Natural  Piiilo-ophy 
and  other  curious  topics,  published  in  Kay's 
letters,  and  other  collections.  One  of  his 
MSS.  at  Oxford  is  an  aciount  of  English  writ- 
ers, especially  poets,  with  many  ot  whom  he 
was  well  acqunuited.  From  tiiis,  Wood  took 
his  account  of  Milton,  the  first  ever  published 
of  that  g:ear  man,  and  the  ba.us  of  ail  others. 
B'o^i .  liiilan. — A. 

AOBRIOT,  Hugh,  a  native  of  Dijon  in 
Burgundy,  was  so  well  recommended  by  the 
duke  his  sovereign  to  the  court  of  France,  that 
he  became  superintcndant  of  the  bnancts  to 
Charles  V.  and  mayor  of  Paris.  Ke  erected 
sevLial  buildings  in  Paris  for  use  and  oinam^nt ; 
aiid  among  die  rest  tlu:  Bastille,  in  i  ^0^,  whicU 


A  U  B 


(    460     ) 


A  U  D 


'Was  designed  as  a  fortress  against  the  English. 
His  y.cal  tor  the  correction  of  abuses  was  the 
cause  of  iiis  ruin  ;  for,  having  arrested  some  of 
tlie  scholars  of  the  university,  who  at  that  time 
committed  the  nn)St  insolent  outrages,  that 
body,  jealous  of  irs  privileges,  became  his  bitter 
enemies  ;  and  witii  the  support  of  the  duke  of 
Berry,  maintained  a  process  against  him  for 
heresv,  and  procured  Iiis  condemnation  to  per- 
petual imprisonment.  The  insurgents  against 
the  taxes  in  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  VI.  1 38 1,  called  Afaillotins,  broke 
open  the  prisons,  and  placed  Aubriot  at  their 
head;  but  he  left  tlicm  that  very  evening,  and 
made  his  escape  to  Burgundy,  where  he  died 
■  the   next  year.     Afoicri.     Nouv.    Dicl.    Hist. 

y—A. 

AUBUSSON,  Peter  n',  grand  master  of 
llie  order  ot  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  or  kniglils 
ot  Rhodes,  was  born  of  a  noble  parentage  in 
la  Marche,  in  the  year  1423.  Adopting  tlic 
military  profession,  he  served  first  under  Albert, 
son-in-law  to  the  emperor  Sigismund,  against 
the  Turks  in  Hungary,  where  he  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself.  He  returned  into  France  on 
occasion  ot  the  war  which  broke  out  with 
England,  and  attached  himself  to  the  dauphin, 
ion  of  Charles  VII.  whom  he  accompanied  to 
the  siege  of  Montereau-Faut- Yonne.  The  dau- 
phin afterwards  being  instigated  by  the  mal- 
content lords  to  revolt  against  his  father,  was 
brought  back  to  his  duty  by  the  persuasions  of 
d'Aubusson  ;  on  which  account  the  king  testi- 
fied his  admiration  of  the  rare  luiion  of  so  much 
fire  with  so  much  discretion.  The  recital  of  the 
baibarities  committed  by  tlie  Turks,  and  the 
great  exploits  of  Huniades  and  Castriot,  so 
warmed  the  imagination  of  diis  young  soldier, 
that  he  repaired  to  Rhodes  in  order  to  l>e  ad- 
mitted to  the  knighthood  of  St.  John  ;  and  by 
his  success  in  some  cruizes  against  the  infidels 
soon  obtained  the  comniandery  ot  Salins.  In 
1457  '1^  ^^"•'^  ^'^"'  ''y  ^^^  grand  master  on  an 
embassy  to  the  king  of  France,  to  implore  his 
assistance  against  the  Turks,  in  which  com- 
mission he  acquitted  himself  with  great  dexte- 
rity, and  brought  back  considerable  supplies  in 
money  and  ammunition.  A  new  office  of  bailly 
of  the  kniglits  of  Auvergne  being  created  in 
1471,  he  was  the  first  person  appointed  to  it; 
which  was  followed  by  those  of  superintendant 
of  the  fortifications  of  Rhodes,  and  grand-prior 
of  Auvergne.  His  high  reputation  at  length 
caused  him,  on  a  vacancy  in  1476,  to  be  elect- 
ed grand  master  of  the  order.  He  immediately 
exerted  himselt  in  making  preparations  against 
the  formidable  attack  long  menaced  by  Ma- 


homet II.  The  Turkish  fleet,  with  a  very  nu- 
merous army  on  board,  appeared  off  the  island 
in  May  1480,  and  laid  siege  to  Rhodes.  During 
two  months  it  was  pressed  vith  vigour,  and 
sustained  with  equal  intrepidity,  the  grand- 
master (xirticularly  distinguishing  himself,  and 
receiving  five  wounds,  one  of  which  was  for 
some  time  thought  mortal.  The  Turks  -were 
at  length  compelled  to  re-embark,  alter  the  loss 
of  9000  men  killed,  and  a  great  number 
wounded.  Mahomet  prepared  to  renews  the 
siege  next  ycar^  but  was  prevented  by  death  ; 
and  a  civil  war  ensued  between  his  sons  Ba- 
jazet  and  Ziziin.  The  latter,  in  1482,  took  re- 
fuge in  Rhotlcs,  \\hencc  he  was  sent  by  the 
grand  master  into  France.  The  possession  of 
this  competitor  to  the  throne  gave  him  a  great 
advantage  in  treating  with  Bajazct,  who  waj 
induced  to  pay  a  yearly  pension  to  the  order  an<J 
tlie  grand  master,  under  the  name  of  compen- 
sation for  the  damages  inflicted  in  the  siege, 
but  really  for  the  safe  custody  of  Zizim. 
D'Aubusson  employed  his  influence  over  Baja- 
zet  to  prevent  his  fleet  from  passing  the  straits 
of  Gallipoli,  for  which  service  the  pope  entitled 
him  the  deliverer  of  Christendom.  Bajazct  also 
gratified  him  with  the  gift  of  the  precious  relic 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist's  riglit  arm  taken  in 
Constantinople,  which,  after  a  due  recognition 
of  its  authenticity,  was  deposited  in  great  pomp 
in  the  church  of  St.  John  at  Rhodes.  Several 
princes  desired  to  obtain  the  person  of  Zizim, 
in  order  to  put  him  at  the  head  of  a  new  cru- 
sade ;  but  d'Aubusson  preferred  keeping  him  in 
his  own  power,  till  the  pope.  Innocent  VIII. 
made  a  similar  request  to  the  grand  master, 
■with  which  lie  complied,  and  Zizim  was  con- 
ducted to  Rome  in  1489.  In  return,  the  pope 
presented  him  with  a  cardinal's  hat,  and  re- 
nounced in  liis  favour  the  right  of  nominating 
to  benefices  belonging  to  tiie  order.  D'Au- 
busson employed  the  interval  of  peace  in  re- 
building the  churches  of  Rhodes,  and  augment- 
ing  the  splendour  of  religion.  He  had  nothing, 
however,  so  much  at  heart  as  forming  a  new 
league  against  the  infidels  ;  but  finding  himself 
tliwarted  in  tliis  design  by  pope  Alexander  VI. 
after  he  had  been  actually  appointed  chiet  ot  ^ 
crusade,  lie  fell  into  a  melancholy  under  wliich 
he  sunk,  in  his  8ist  year,  in  1503  ;  leaving  be- 
hind him  the  character  of  one  ot  the  most  ac- 
complished and  illustrious  heads  ot  his  order. 
Morerl. — A. 

AUDIUS,  a  Christian  teacher,  the  founder 
of  a  sect,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  4tli 
century.  (Ejiiphan.  Hsr.  70. 'N.  I.)  He 
was  a  native  ot  Syria  or  Mcsapotamia,  (Theod. 


F  Sfiu*M    t/e/  ■ 


Aiuit/ti/t    t/trtki' 


A  U  D 


(    461     ) 


A  U  D 


Hist.  Etc.  lib.  iv.  c.  10.)  and  was  much  esteem- 
ed among  his  countrymen  for  the  sanctity  of 
his  cliaractcr,  and  for  his  zeal  for  the  Christian 
faith.  Censuring  with  great  freedom  and  im- 
portunity the  corrupt  and  licentious  manners  of 
the  clergy,  and  admonishing  the  rich  presbvters 
and  bishops,  to  the  face,  for  thLir  luxurious 
course  of  life,  he  brought  upon  himst-lf  much 
ill-will  and  severe  treatment.  Tlie  clcrgv,  ^\ho 
were  offended  both  by  his  reproofs,  and  his 
popularity,  accused  him  to  the  emperor  ;  whe- 
ther Constantine  or  one  of  his  successors  is  not 
certain  ;  and  he  was  b.inished  into  Scvthia. 
(Epiph.  ibid.  n.  14,  15.)  Here  he  wiiit  among 
the  Goths,  and  made  many  converts.  His  fol- 
lowers, called  Audians,  were  separated  from 
the  catholic  church,  and  had  peculiar  tenets 
and  customs.  They  celebrated  Easter,  or  the 
paschal  feast,  with  the  Jews,  contrary  to  the 
decree  of  the  council  of  Nice;  and  they  are 
said  to  have  been  anthropomorphitcs,  or  to 
have  attributed  to  the  deity  a  human  form. 
(Augustin.  Hser.  i.)  They  made  use  of  apo- 
cryphal books  in  their  assemblies.  Lardner's 
Cred.  Pt.  ii.  ch.  80.     Alosheim. — E. 

AUDIFRET,  John-Baptist,  a  French 
geographer,  a  native  of  Draguignan  in  Provence, 
or,  according  to  some,  of  Marseilles,  flourish- 
ed at  the  end  of  the  17th,  and  the  beginning  of 
the  1 8th  centuries.  He  was  appointed  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  1698,  envoy  extraordinary  to 
the  courts  of  Mantua,  Parma,  and  Modena. 
He  died  at  Nancy  in  173^,  76  years  of  age. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work,  much  esteemed, 
entitled  "  Gcograpliie,  Ancicnne,  Modenic,  et 
Historique."  It  was  printed  in  3  volumes  410. 
at  Paris  in  1689  and  1691,  and  in  i2mo.  at 
Paris  in  1694.  It  comprehends  only  Europe, 
and  is  left  unhnished,  wanting  Spain,  Italy,  and 
part  of  Turkey  in  Europe.  The  author  has 
very  judiciously  united  geography  and  history. 
Morcri.    Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

AUDIGUIER,  Vital  de,  a  French  no- 
ble, who  united  the  profession  oi  arms  with 
the  study  of  letters,  was  born  at  Naiac,  near 
Villefranche  de  Rouergue,  about  the  year  1565. 
His  adventures,  and  his  writings,  were  nume- 
rous. Among  the  latter,  the  principal  are,  A 
Treatise  on  the  true  and  ancient  Usage  of 
Duels,  printed  in  8vo.  at  Paris  in  1617  ;  in- 
tended to  shew  the  injustice  of  common  duels, 
but  to  revive  the  ancient  practice  of  public  com- 
bats on  great  occasions,  under  royal  authority  : 
Poems  in  two  volumes,  Svo.  printed  at  Paris  in 
1614,  and  two  romances  under  the  titles  of  "  The 
Loves  of  Lvsander  and  Calista;"  and  "  The 
Loves  of  Anstandcr  and  Cleoaice ;"  the  former 


printed  at  Lyons  in  1622;  the  latter,  at  Pari* 
1625.  Though  he  had  not  much  learning,  he 
he  wrote  in  a  S[)rightly  and  clear  stvle,  and  his 
romances  were  much  read.  Audiguier  is  said 
to  have  been  assassinated  about  the  year  1630, 
but  on  what  occasion  is  not  known.  Baylc. 
Morni.  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

AUDRAN,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  family 
of  Fiench  artists,  of  which  several  individuals 
arrived  at  eminence  in  painting  and  engraving. 

Charles  son  of  Louis,  born  at  Paris  in 
1594,  applied  himself  to  the  art  of  engraving, 
and  went  to  Italy  to  perfect  himself.  He  was 
a  laborious  and  excellent  artist,  and  engraved  a 
number  of  pieces  from  the  works  of  [he  first 
painters.  Hi^  woiks  are  often  confounded  with 
those  of  his  brother  Claude,  whom  he  taught, 
but  whose  style  was  inferior.  As  Charles  dis- 
tinguished his  performances  by  the  letter  K.  he 
is  often  called  Karlcs  Audran.'  He  died  at  Pari« 
in  1674. 

Claude,  the  second  of  the  name,  bom  at 
Lyons  in  1639,  came  to  Paris  to  study  under 
his  uncle  Charles.  He  entered  under  Le  Brun 
at  the  Gobelins,  and  was  employed  by  him  in 
several  pieces  on  the  stair-case  at  Versailles, 
especially  in  the  four  great  pictures  of  Alexan- 
der's battles.  He  became  professor  of  painting 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Paris,  and  died  there 
in  1684.      His  talent  was  history  painting. 

GiRARD,  the  most  famous  of  the  family, 
brother  to  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lvoiis 
in  1640,  and  also  came  to  Paris,  and  entered 
under  Le  Brun.  'I'he  art  of  engraving  was, 
however,  that  tor  which  he  decided,and  at  the  age 
of  twenty-five  he  visited  Italy  for  improvement  : 
here  he  acquired  so  high  a  reputation,  that 
Louis  XIY.  recalled  him  to  Paris.  He  was  em- 
ployed to  engrave  Le  Brun's  four  large  pictuirs 
of  Alexander's  battles,  and  executed  them  in  so 
noble  a  style,  as  to  raise  him  to  the  first  rank 
in  his  profession.  Next  to  these,  his  most  eon- 
sidcrablc  work  was  the  cupola  ot  Valde  Grace, 
from  the  designs  of  .Mignard,  in  six  )>lates.  He 
also  engraved  many  pieces  from  the  pictures  of 
the  principal  masters  ot  Italy  and  FrarKe.  Mc 
is  distinguished  for  the  eorrecine>s  of  his  outline, 
and  the  strength  and  gr.iudeur  ol  liLs  maimer  of 
working;  and  few  ai lists  have  ever  equalled 
him  in  historical  pertorniunccs.  He  died  at 
Paris  in  1703,  aged  sixty- thice. 

Claude,  third  of  the  name,  son  of  Ger- 
main, born  at  Lyons  in  1658,  hcean-.e  eclebiat- 
ed  as  a  piinter  of  groies|ues  and  arabesques. 
His  inventive  genius  in  these  peitorm.inces  was 
admirable,  and  he  enriched  with  them  Ver- 
sailles, Meudon,  and  a  number  of  otiicr  palaces- 


A  \    E 


(     4'''2     ) 


A  V  E 


and  noblemen's  hotels.  One  of  his  piinclpal 
Works  was  the  twelve  months  of  the  year,  re- 
presented as  goddesses  with  their  attributes,  in- 
intended  to  be  copied  in  tapestry  for  the  queen. 
He  was  made  king's  jiainter,  and  warden  of  the 
palace  ot  Luxemburgh,  in  which  he  died,  in 
1734,  aged  seventy-five. 

John,  another  son  o(  Gernutin,  was  born  at 
Lyons  in  1667.  He  was  placed  under  his 
uncle  Girardto  Icam  the  art  of  engraving,  which 
he  practised  for  the  extraordinary  period  of  sixty- 
seven  years.  "His  industry  was  indefatigable, 
and  his  stroke  was  distinguished  foi  its  delicacy. 
He  engraved  the  lesser  battles  of  Alexander, 
and  a  vast  nunibcr  of  pieces  from  the  first  paint- 
ers, as  well  as  some  admired  portraits.  He 
died  at  Paris  in  his  ninetieth  year,  universally 
esteemed  as  an  artist  and  a  man  of  w-orth,  and 
left  three  sons  ;  one,  of  his  own  profession, 
another,  a  director  of  tlie  royal  tapestry  manu- 
factory of  the  Gobelins. 

Other  artists  of  reputation  of  the  name  and 
family  of  Indian  are  mentioned  in  dictionaries. 
Aloreri. — A. 

A\^ENPACE,  a  philosopher,  among  the 
Spanish  Saracens,  who  flourished  about  the  mid- 
dle ot  the  1 2th  century,  was  a  follower  of  Aris- 
totle. He  applied  the  peripatetic  philosophy  to 
the  illustration  of  the  mahometan  theology,  and 
the  explanation  of  the  Koran.  He  was  ou 
this  account  charged  with  heresy,  and  thrown 
into  prion  at  Corduba.  He  wrote  a  comment- 
ary upon  Euclid,  and  philosophical  and  theo- 
logical epistles.  Pococke  Spec.  Hist.  Arab. 
JB'ucker. — E. 

AVENl'lNE,  JoHK,  a  German  historian, 
the  son  of  an  inn-keeper  at  Abenspeig  in  Ba- 
varia, was  born  in  the  year  1466.  He  studied 
at  Ingolstadt,  and  at  Paris  ;  gave  private  lec- 
tures in  eloquence  and  poetry  at  Vienna,  and 
taught  the  Greek  language  publicly  at  Cracow 
in  Poland  :  he  read  lectures  on  some  books  of 
■Cicero  at  Ingolstadt;  and  was,  in  1512,  ap- 
pointed preceptor  to  prince  Louis,  and  prince 
Ernest  at  Munich.  He  travelled  with  the  lat- 
ter of  these  two  princes.  His  leisure  was  after- 
wards devoted  to  a  work,  which  has  been  much 
read,  and  has  obtained  him  great  reputation, 
"  Annalcs  Boiorum,"  "  The  Annals  of  the 
Bavarians."  He  began  the  work  about  the 
latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Maximilian,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  dukes  of  Bavaria,  and  spared 
no  pains  to  render  it  complete :  it  was  not  pub- 
lished, however,  till  1554,  several  years  after 
his  death.  It  contained  very  severe  strictures 
on  the  conduct  of  the  Romish  clergy,  and  por- 
tions of  secret  clerical  historv,  which  the  first 


editor,  Zicglerus,  professor  of  poetry  in  the 
university  ot  Ingolstadt,  chose  to  suppress,  but 
confessed  the  mutilation  in  the  preface.  The 
curiosity  of  the  protcstants  was  excited  ;  and  a 
complete  manuscript  was  found,  and  published, 
by  Cisner,  at  Basil,  in  1580. 

Aventine,  from  some  cause  which  remains 
unknown,  was  in  the  year  1529,  taken  out  of 
his  sister's  hous;;  in  Abensperg,  and  committed 
to  prison.  The  duke  of  Bavaria,  however,  did 
not  suffer  him  long  to  remain  in  confinement : 
for  the  next  year,  after  having  remained  sixty- 
four  years  in  a  state  of  celibacy,  he  formed  aa 
imprudent  matrimonial  connection,  which  dis- 
turbed till,  repose  of  his  last  days.  He  died  ia 
1534.  The  catholics,  in  order  to  weaken  the 
force  of  his  invectives,  said  that  he  was  secretly 
a  protcstant.  It  is  true,  that  he  corresponded 
with  several  of  the  reformers,  particularly  Me-' 
lancthon  ;  and  it  is  probable,  that  he  disapprov- 
ed of  some  of  the  popish  doctrines  ;  but  there  is 
no  proof  that  he  ever  renounced  the  Romish 
cliurch  ;  and,  tliat  he  died  in  tlie  catholic  faith 
appears  from  his  having  been  buried  at  Ratis- 
bon,  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Hemeran,  with  the 
usual  Romish  ceremonies.  Aventine  seems, 
like  Erasmus,  to  have  been  well  disposed  to- 
wards the  reformation,  but  to  have  contented 
himself  with  such  service  as  he  might  render  the 
cause  from  within  the  pale  of  tlie  church,  by 
lashing  the  vices  of  the  monks  and  clergy.  Be- 
sides the  Annals  of  Bavaria,  whicli  were  re- 
printed, in  folio,  in  17  10,  he  published,  in  1532, 
at  Ratisbon,  a  curious  book,  conrerning  the 
manner  of  counting  and  conversing  by  the  fin- 
gers, entitled,  "  Numerandi  per  digitos  manus- 
que,"  &c.  with  heads  of  a  plan  for  a  large  work 
on  the  antiquities  of  Germany.  Foss.  de  Hist, 
Lat.  lib.  iii.  c  10.  Bayle.  Mtreri.  Nouv, 
Diet.  Hist.—E. 

AVENZOAR,  properly,  Al  Wazir  Abu 
Merwan  Abdelmelech  Ibn  Zohr,  was 
a  Spaniard  of  Seville,  son  of  a  physician  of 
eminence,  whose  profession  he  adopted,  but 
vi'ith  the  addition  of  pharmacy  and  surgery. 
He  is  praised  by  Averrhoes,  who  lived  about 
the  same  time,  as  the  greatest  master  of  liis  art 
from  the  time  of  Galen.  He  seems  to  have 
travelled  much,  and  to  have  gone  through  va- 
rious scenes  in  life,  among  which  was  a  long 
imprisonment  by  Hali,  the  governor  of  Seville, 
He  had  the  care  of  an  hospital,  and  must  have 
enjoyed  uncommon  advantages  from  experience, 
if  it  be  true  that  he  lived  in  perfect  health  to  the 
age  of  135.  From  the  extent  of  his  practice  he 
was  called  the  Experimenter,  and  not,  as  some 
have  supposed,  from  an  empirical  turn,  since 


AVE 


(     463    ) 


AVE 


he  was  a  subtle  inquirer  into  the  causes  of  dis- 
eases. He  died  at  Morocco  in  ii6g.  His 
print  ipal  work,  called  at  Thclser,  is  a  compen- 
dium ot  practice,  containing  many  notices  of 
diseas-  s  and  medical  facts  not  readily  to  be  met 
with  elsewlicrc.  It  was  several  times  publislied 
after  the  revival  of  letters,  when  a  great  curio- 
sity prevailed  concerning  the  authors  of  the 
middle  ages.  He  had  a  son  of  the  same  pro- 
fession, wlio  lived  at  Morocco,  and  \\rote  a 
book  on  the  regimen  of  health.  Probably  he  is 
confounded  with  the  father  in  the  great  length 
of  life  attributed  to  the  latter.  Frcind's  Hist, 
ef  Phys,  vol.  ii.  Halleri  Bill.  Med.  Praet. 
torn,  i.' — A. 

AVERANI,  Benedict,  a  learned  Floren- 
tine, born  in  the  year  1652,  taught  the  Greek 
language  with  great  reputation  in  the  university 
of  Pisa.  He  wrote  excellent  "  Dissertations" 
on  the  "  Anthologia,"  on  Thucydides,  on 
Euripides,  and  other  ancient  Greek  classics. 
His  acquaintance  with  Roman  literature  was 
equally  accurate  and  profound  ;  as  appears  from 
his  "  Remarks  and  Discourses  on  Livy,  Cice- 
ro and  Virgil  ;"  and  his  lectures  and  writings 
were  well  calculated  to  promote  a  correct  and 
elegant  taste  in  polite  literature.  In  truth,  no 
one  was  a  greater  enemy  to  the  corrupt  taste  of 
his  age,  or  declared  more  open  war  with  it, 
than  this  learned  man.  His  original  pieces, 
whether  prose  or  verse,  were  all  adapted  to  re- 
call his  countrymen  to  a  just  manner  of  think- 
ing and  writing.  Whatever  were  the  criti- 
cisms, the  railleries,  or  the  persecutions  of 
those  who  followed  the  reigning  taste,  Averani 
steadily  pursued  his  path  ;  exposed  whatever 
was  false  or  ridiculous  in  the  fashionable  stvle 
of  writing;  and  with  persevering  assiduity,  con- 
tributed much  towards  bringing  back  in  Italy 
the  golden  period  of  the  sixteenth  century.  His 
merit  in  this  respect  was  so  great,  that  the 
Italians  ought  for  ever  to  cherish  the  remem- 
brance of  this  excellent  scholar.  Averani  died 
at  Pisa  in  1707,  in  the  fifty-fifth  year  of  his  age. 
His  works  were  collected  and  printed  at  Flo- 
rence, in  three  large  volumes,  in  17 16  and 
1717.  Landi.  Hist.  Lett,  de  Italie.  hb.  xiv. 
n.  4. — E. 

AVERROES,  or  Aven-rosch,  an  emi- 
nent philosopher,  who  flourished  in  the  12th 
tentury,  was  a  native  of  Corduba,  the  capital 
of  the  Saracen  dominions  in  Spain,  where  his 
grandfather  and  father  had  possessed  the  ofEces 
of  chief  priest  and  chief  magistrate.  In  his 
vouth  he  was  well  instructed  under  Thophail 
in  law,  and  in  the  Aristotelian  philosophv  ;  as 
well  as  in  the  Mahometan  theology.     Under 


Avenzoar  he  studied  medicine,  and  the  mathe- 
matical sciences  under  Ibuu-Saig.  He  succeed- 
ed his  father  in  his  hi^h  offices,  and  occupied 
them  with  great  rej.utation.  The  fame  <.f  his 
talents  and  learning  induced  the  Caliph  Jacob 
Al  Mansor,  to  offer  him  the  dignities  of  chief 
judge  and  priest  of  Morocco,  and  of  all  Mau- 
ritania, wit!i  the  liberty  of  continuing  tlic  posts 
which  he  possessed  in  Spain.  Averroes  accept- 
ed tiie  proposal,  and  went  to  Morocco,  where 
he  remained  till  he  had  appointed  throujrh  t!ie 
kingdom  able  judges,  and  settled  an  improved 
plan  of  administration :  he  then  returned  to 
Corduba  and  resumed  his  offices. 

Neither  the  great  talents,  nor  the  high  sta- 
tion of  Averroes  could  protect  him  against  the 
assaults  of  bigotry.  Having  given  some  oc- 
casion for  suspicions,  that  he  secretly  held 
opinions  inconsistent  with  the  mahometan  faith, 
some  of  the  zealous  doctors  of  Corduba  engaged 
several  young  persons  to  apply  to  him  for  ni- 
struction  in  philosophy,  that  they  might,  in  the 
course  of  his  lectures,  detect  his  heresy.  Aver- 
roes complied  with  their  request,  and  commu- 
nicated to  his  pupils,  with  great  frankness,  his 
sentiments  in  theology.  The  scholars  industri- 
ously took  minutes  of  his  discourses  ;  and  had 
the  baseness  from  these  hints,  to  furnish  their 
preceptor's  enemies  with  heads  of  accusation 
against  him.  An  information,  regularly  drawn 
up  by  a  notary,  and  signed  by  a  hundred  wit- 
nesses, was  sent  to  Al-Mansor.  Upon  perus- 
ing it,  the  jirince  exclaimed,  "  It  is  evident  this 
man  is  not  a  believer  in  our  law,  "  [Hunc  nos- 
tfcT  legis  non  esse  patct.'")  and  gave  immediate 
orders,  that  his  goods  should  be  confiscated, 
and  that  he  should  he  obliged  to  reside  in  those 
precincts  of  the  city  of  Corduba  which  were 
inhabited  by  the  Jews.  Here  he  became  an 
object  of  general  obloquy  and  persecution. 
Even  the  boys  in  the  streets  pelted  him  with 
stones,  when  he  ventureil  to  go  up  to  the  mosque 
in  the  city  to  perform  his  devotions.  His  pu- 
pil, Maimonides,  that  he  might  escape  the  ne- 
cessity of  joining  the  general  cry  against  him, 
left  Corduba.  Averroes  himself,  soon  after- 
wards, found  means  to  esca|)c  to  Fez.  He  was, 
however,  in  a  few  days  discovereil,  and  com- 
mitted by  liic  magistrates  to  prison.  The  king, 
Avho  was  soon  informed  of  his  late  flight  and 
present  confinement,  summoned  an  assembly 
of  doctors  in  theology  and  law,  to  deliberate  on 
the  treatment,  which  this  heretic  should  now 
receive.  Some  thought  that  a  man,  who  had 
dared  to  contradict  the  Mahometan  faith,  ought 
to  suffer  death  :  others  were  of  opinion,  that 
such  severity,    iuflicied  upon  a  divine  and  a. 


A  V  E 


(    464    ) 


AVE 


lawyer,  would  biing  their  religioivinto  discredit; 
and  that  it  would  be  most  adviseable,  only  to 
require  from  the  offender  public  penance  and 
recantation.  Al-Mansor,  though  he  wanted 
sufficient  illumination  to  see  the  injustice  and 
absurdity  of  the  whole  proceeding,  had,  how- 
ever, the  wisdom  to  follow  the  milder  opinion. 
Accordingly,  Averroes  was  conducted,  on  a 
Friday,  to. the  gate  of  the  mosque,  at  the  hour 
of  prayer,  and  placed,  bare-headed,  on  the 
upper  step,  where  every  one,  as  he  entered  the 
mosque,  spat  on  his  face.  At  the  close  of  the 
prayers,  the  doctors  with  the  notaries,  and  the 
judge  witli  l)is  assistants,  came  to  the  degraded 
philosopher,  and  asked  him,  whether  he  re- 
pented of  his  heresy.  Averroes  declared  his 
repentance,  and  was  released.  He  remained  a 
short  time  at  Fez,  and  read  lectures  in  the  civil 
law  ;  but  he  met  with  so  little  encouragement, 
that  he  determined  to  return  to  Corduba.  Here 
he  passed  several  years  in  retirement  and  pover- 
ty. At  length,  however,  the  people  of  the 
city,  finding  themselves  grievously  oppressed 
by  their  present  governor,  entreated  from  the 
king,  that  Averroes  might  be  restored.  With 
the  concurrence  of  a  council  better  disposed  to- 
wards the  philosopher  than  the  first,  Al-Man- 
sor granted  the  petition,  and  Averroes  was  re- 
instated in  all  his  former  honours.  Returning 
vith  his  family  to  Morocco,  he  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  days  in  that  city,  and  (Reinasius 
Ep.  15.)  taught  m  its  schools.  According  to 
Leo  Africanus,  Averroes  died  in  the  603d  year 
of  the  Hegira,  or  the  year  of  Christ,  1206. 

This  pliilosopher  has  been  highly  celebrated 
for  his  virtues.  He  contented  himselt  with  the 
plainest  food,  and,  being  inclined  to  corpulence, 
eat  only  once  in  the  day.  He  was  so  industri- 
ous, that  he  was  never  seen  to  play,  or  seek 
any  other  amusement  than  passing  from  severer 
studies  to  poetry  or  history :  he  frequently 
spent  whole  nights  in  study.  His  humanity 
would  not  permit  him  to  pass  the  sentence  of 
death  upon  any  criminal ;  he  left  that  painful 
office  to  his  deputies.  When  one  of  his  ene- 
mies, while  he  was  reading  a  lecture  on  the 
law,  sent  a  servant  to  whisper  some  abusive 
language  in  his  ear,  he  took  no  other  notice  of 
what  passed,  than  if  it  had  been  a  secret  mes- 
sage of  business :  the  servant  returning  the  next 
day  to  ask  his  pardon,  confessed  before  all 
the  students  the  insults  he  had  offered  the 
professor :  upon  which,  Averroes  thanked  him 
for  giving  him  an  opportunity  of  displaying 
his  self-command  ;  and  afterwards,  presenting 
him  with  a  sum  of  money,  advised  him  never 
to  run  the  like  hazard  with  another  person. 


This  philosopher  was  exceedingly  liberal  to 
learned  men,  without  making  any  distinction 
between  his  fi  lends  and  his  enemies  ;  for  which 
he  assigned  this  reason,  that  in  giving  to  his 
friends  he  only  followed  the  dictates  of  nature, 
but,  in  giving  to  his  enemies  he  obeved  the 
commands  of  virtue ;  and  he  boasted  that  the 
wealth  which  he  had  thus  employed,  had  not 
been  ill  bestowed,  for  it  had  converted  his  ene- 
mies into  friends.  He  is  said  in  his  old-age  to 
have  burned  some  amatory  verses  which  he 
composed  in  his  youth,  accompanying  the  sa- 
crifice with  the  remark,  that  when  he  was 
young,  he  was  disobedient  to  reason,  but  that 
now  he  was  old,  he  followed  it ;  and  adding  a 
singular  wish,  that  he  liad  been  born  an  old 
man.  "  Utinam  natus  fuissem  sencx!"  He 
did  not,  however,  take  the  same  freedom  with 
the  writings  of  others.  Being  called  upon  to 
exercise  his  magisterial  authority  in  the  sup- 
pression of  some  wanton  poems,  published  by 
a  learned  Jew ;  and  being  told,  that  his  own 
son  had  been  found  at  the  house  of  the  poet 
copying  out  some  of  his  verses,  and  that  there 
was  not  in  all  Corduba  a  man,  woman,  or 
child,  who  had  not  learnt  some  of  the  songs  of 
Sahal ;  Averroes  exclaimed,  "  Can  a  single 
hand  stop  a  thousand  mouths  ?" 

As  a  philosoplier,  Averroes  was  an  idolatrous 
admirer,  and  zealous  follower  of  Aristotle.  He 
esteemed  the  doctrine  of  that  illustrious  Greek 
the  pure  essence  of  truth,  dictated  by  wisdom 
rather  divine  than  human.  Yet  it  is  certain, 
that  he  was  unacquainted  with  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, and  read  the  works  of  Aristotle  only  in 
miserable  Arabic  translations,  not  rendered  from 
the  original,  but  from  Latin  or  Syriac  versions. 
His  commentaries  on  Aristotle  were  so  famous, 
that  he  was  called,  by  way  of  eulogy,  the 
commentator  ;  but  it  was  impossible  that,  inade 
up  as  they  were  froin  blundering  Arabic  trans- 
lations, and  accoinpanied  with  little  knowledge 
of  the  doctrines  and  sects  of  antiquity,  they 
should  not  abound  with  error  and  confusion. 
Froin  the  manner  in  which  he  quotes  the  writ- 
ings, and  even  the  names,  of  many  ancient 
Greek  authors,  it  is  evident  that  he  had  not 
read  them.  His  commentaries  on  Aristotle  are, 
nevertheless,  very  nuinerous  ;  and  they  were  so 
much  admired  by  the  Jews,  that  several  of 
them  were  translated  into  Hebrew.  He  also 
wrote  a  paraplirase  of  Plato's  republic,  and  a 
treatise  in  defence  of  philosophy,  under  the 
title  of  "  Habapalah,  Altabapalah,"  or  "  De- 
structiones  Destructionum,  contra  Al-Gazekm" 
written  to  confute  the  metaphysical  opinions 
which  Al-Gazel  had  maintained  against  those 


AVE 


(    465     ) 


AVE 


philosophers,  vlio  assprc  two  uncreated  na- 
tures. Averroes  also  studied  medicine,  and  ap- 
pears to  have  valued  himself  on  his  great  know- 
I'^dge  in  that  science.  He  wrote  a  work  in 
medicine  entitled,  Cofigct,  or  "  Universal," 
in  which  he  undertakes  to  teach  the  general 
principles  of  the  science,  and  promises  another 
work  concerning  particulars.  He  entertained 
so  mucli  jealousy  of  his  great  rival  in  this 
science  Avicenna,  that  he  affectedly  avoids 
naming  him  in  his  writings,  and  in  confuting  a 
doctrine  maintainetl  by  Avicenna,  treated  it  only 
as  die  opinion  of  Galen.  Averrocs  wrote  va- 
rious other  treatises  on  medicine,  law,  dicology, 
and  philosophy.  His  commentary  on  Aristotle 
■was  published  in  Latin  at  ^'enice,  in  folio,  in 
1495.  An  edition  of  his  works  was  published, 
in  4to,  at  Lyons,  in  1537  ;  another,  in  folio, 
with  the  former  Latin  translations,  by  Bagolin, 
at  Venice  in  1552  ;  and  a  third,  by  Mossa,  at 
Venice,  in  1608. 

With  respect  to  the  opinions  of  Averroes, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  though  he  professed 
the  Mahometan  religion,  he  had  little  reverence 
for  his  prophet.  It  is  related  of  him,  that  he 
called  Christianity  an  impossible  religion,  be- 
cause it  taught  men  to  eat  their  God  ;  (Ecquem 
tarn  amentem  esse  putas,  qui  illud  quo  vescatur, 
Deum  credat  esse  ?  Cic.  de  Nat.  Deor.  lib.  iii. 
c.  16.)  that  Judaism,  on  account  of  its  rites 
and  ceremonies,  was  the  religion  of  children ; 
and  that  Mahometanism,  offering  only  sensual 
rewards,  was  the  religion  of  swine  ;  and  that 
he  exclaimed,  "  Let  my  soul  be,  at  death, 
among  the  pliilosophers  !"  Some  have  said  that 
he  furnished  the  materials  of  the  work  entitled 
*'  De  tribus  Impostoribus."  Averrocs  taught 
a  doctrine  concerning  the  soul,  which  some 
Iiave  considered  as  peculiarly  his  own,  but 
which  others  have  asserted  to  be  the  doctrine  of 
Aristotle,  and  to  have  been  embraced  before 
jthe  time  of  Averrol's  by  Theophrastus,  Sim- 
plicius,  and  Themistius  :  (Coimbrensis  in 
Lib.  de  Anim.  Pomponatius  de  Immorc.  Anim. 
c.  4.) :  this  was,  that  intellect  does  not  exist  in- 
dividually in  this  or  that  man,  but  that  there  is 
one  intellect  belonging  to  the  whole  race  of 
human  beings,  the  common  source  of  all  in- 
dividual thought,  as  the  sun  is  the  common 
source  of  light  to  the  world.  This  notion  of  a 
common  soul,  chimerical  and  absurd  as  it  may 
appear,  has,  in  different  forms,  had  many  ad- 
vocates. In  hopes  of  solving  the  difficult  pro- 
blem concerning  the  origin  of  thought,  some  have 
supposed  that  the  deity  operates,  as  an  assisting 
intellect,  to  present  ideas  to  the  passive  facidty 
of  understanding  in  man.     This  was   die  doc- 

voi.-  I. 


trine  of  Malebranchc,  who  ascribed  the  pro- 
duction of  ideas  immediately  to  God,  and  caught 
that  the  human  mind  immediately  perceives 
God,  and  sees  all  things  in  him.  Avcrrois 
seems  to  have  proceeded  a  step  further,  and  to 
have  conceived,  that  there  was  no  odier  cause 
of  thought  in  individual  men,  than  one  univer- 
sal intelligence,  which,  without  multijdving  it- 
selt,  is  actually  united  to  all  tiie  individuals  of 
the  species,  as  a  common  soul.  This  notion, 
with  its  obvious  consequences  respecting  the 
distinct  existence  and  immortality  of  tlie  human 
soul,  obtained  so  much  credit  among  philoso- 
phers tor  several  centuries,  especially  in  Italy, 
that  it  was  thought  necessary  to  employ  the 
papal  authority  for  its  suppression.  At  present, 
the  notions  of  Averroes  are  exploded,  and  liis 
writings  are  forgotten.  Leo  Afr'icanus  dc  VW. 
Illustr.  Arab.  Hott'inger  B'tbiioth.  Gilia  de 
Rome  in  quodl'tb.  lib.  ii.  Voss.  dc  Phil.  c.  14. 
de  Math.  c.  35.  Bayle.  Moreri. — E. 

AVESBUKY,  Robert,  an  English  histo- 
rian, flourished  in  the  14th  century.  Nothing 
is  known  of  him,  personally,  except  that  from 
the  title  of  his  work,  it  appears  that  he  was 
register  of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury's  court. 
His  history  is  entitled,  "  Mirabilia  Gesta  Mag- 
nifici  Regis  Anglite  Domini  Edwardi  Tcrtii, 
&c."  It  contains  a  minute  account  of  transac- 
tions during  the  life  of  Edward  III.  from  his 
binh  to  the  end  of  the  year  1356,  when  the 
author  was,  probably,  interrupted  in  the  pro- 
secution of  his  design  by  death.  This  valuable 
piece  of  English  history  is  a  plain  narrative  of 
facts,  authenticated  by  exact  copies  of  public 
papers.  The  author  is  accurate,  beyond  most 
of  the  writers  of  that  age,  in  giving  the  dates  of 
events.  If  his  style  lias  a  tincture  of  the  rude 
taste  of  the  times,  this  defect  is  amply  compen- 
sated by  the  apparent  candour  and  impartiality 
of  the  historian.  This  curious  work  lay  long 
concealed  even  from  the  most  industrious  Eng- 
lish antiquaries.  At  length,  in  the  year  1720, 
that  indefatigable  antiquary,  Thomas  Heanie, 
printed  it  at  Oxford,  from  a  manuscript  in 
the  possession  of  sir  Thomas  Seabright,  t'ui- 
merly  in  the  hands  of  archbishop  Parker,  com- 
pared with  two  other  manuscripfi,  one  in  the 
Harleian  librar)-,  the  other  in  the  University 
library  at  Cambridge.  These  manuscripts  arc 
thought  to  be  as  old  as  the  time  in  which  the 
author  flourished.  Tynel,  in  the  preface  to 
the  third  volume  of  his  General  History  of 
England,  cites  Avcsbury,  and  says,  diat  he 
was  a  considerable  writer  of  that  age,  and  very 
exact  in  his  account  of  king  Edward's  actions 
beyond   the  sea,  as  having  taken   tliem  fro« 

SO 


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AUG 


several  original  letters  of  persons  of  note. 
Hearne's  edition  of  this  history  is  accompanied 
with  an  Appendix,  containing  several  curious 
pieces  in  English  antiquities,  which  have  no 
connection  viith  the  work  ;  and,  among  tlie 
rest,  a  transcript  of  the  l<:)ve  letters  between 
Henry  VI 11.  and  Anne  Bullen.  Presfat.  ad 
jivesb.  Hist.  cd.  Hcarne..  N'lchohoiCs  English 
Lib.  p.  80.  Biog.  Biit. — E. 

AtJGER,  Edmund,  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
of  labouring  parents,  in  1530,  at  Alieman,  a 
village  near  Sezanne  in  the  diocese  of  Troyes, 
received  the  first  rudiments  of  education  under  an 
uncle  who  was  a  clergvman,  and  was  sent  by 
his  brother,  a  physician  in  Lyons,  to  Rome, 
with  a  recommendation  to  the  celebrated  Father 
Lc  Fevre,  but  with  so  little  money  in  his  pocket, 
that,  before  he  arrived  at  the  end  of  his  journey, 
he  was  obliged  to  beg  alms.  On  his  arrival  at 
Rome,  finding  that  I,e  Fevre  was  dead,  he 
hired  himself  as  a  domestic  servant  to  a  Jesuit. 
His  superior  talents  and  behaviour  soon  attract- 
ed his  master's  attention,  and  he  was  removed 
irom  his  humble  station  to  that  of  a  novice, 
and  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  further  instruction. 
Alter  his  admission  into  the  order  of  Jesuits,  he 
taught  rhetoric  and  poetry,  and  displayed  great 
powers  of  eloquence.  For  the  purpose  of  check- 
ing the  progress  of  the  reformation,  several 
bishops  of  iJie  French  church  applied  to  Father 
Laynez,  tlie  general  of  the  society  of  Jesuits, 
requesting  him  to  send  from  Italy  proper  per- 
sons to  assist  them  in  this  necessary  w'ork. 
Auger  was  sent,  in  1559,  with  two  other  bre- 
thren, into  France,  and  from  that  time  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  zeal  for  the  conversion 
of  heretics.  In  the  cities  of  Yssoire  and  Lyons, 
he  made  many  converts.  He  was  appointed 
preacher  and  confessor  to  Henrv  III.  In  this 
situation,  his  invincible  attachment  to  the  king 
rendered  him  odious  to  the  cathoHcs  who  had 
entered  into  the  league.  By  an  order  of  the 
general  he  returned  into  Italy,  where  he  was 
treated  as  an  excommunicated  person,  and  was 
obliged  to  travel  on  foot  in  tlie  inidst  of  winter. 
He  died  of  fatigue  and  vexation  in  the  year 
1 59 1,  in  the  sixty-first  year  of  his  age.  It  is 
astonishing,  that  the  church  should  have  treated 
so  ungratefully  one  of  her  most  zealous  sons, 
of  whom  it  is  said,  that  he  converted  forty- 
thousand  heretics.  Whether  this  account  be 
accurate,  or  whether  the  conversion  was  effect- 
ed by  the  mere  force  of  argument,  may  be 
questioned.  Auger  wrote  some  violent  books 
in  theological  controversy  ;  and  particularly 
showed  his  intolerant  spirit  in  a  work  entitled 
"  Lc  Pedagogue  d'Armes,"  in  which  a  Chris- 


tian prince  is  instructed  how  to  undertake,  and 
happily  coinplete,  a  good  war,  victorious  over 
all  tlie  enemies  of  the  state  and  the  church." 
Few  Christian  princes  have  needed  such  in- 
structions, or  such  stimulants,  for  good  wars. 
Fie  d^  Auger  par  M.  Dorigni,  17  16.  Moreri. 
Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

AUGURELLO,  Giovanni  Aurelio,  3 
learned  Italian,  was  born  of  a  good  family  at 
Rimini,  about  1441,  and  studied  at  Padua. 
The  friendship  he  contracted  with  Franco,  the 
bishop  of  Trevigi,  caused  him  to  fix  his  abode 
in  that  city,  of  which  he  was  made  a  citizen. 
After  the  bishop's  death  he  attempted,  but  with- 
out success,  to  obtain  the  chair  of  rhetoric  at 
Venice,  and  lived  some  time  a  wandering  life  ; 
but  at  length  returned  to  Trevigi,  where  he 
was  public  professor  of  polite  literature,  and 
had  a  canonry,  and  where  he  died  in  1524. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  much  addicted  to  the 
folly  of  alchemv,  and  various  stories  are  tolJ 
of  him  to  this  effect,  particularly  that  pope  Leo 
X.  presented  him  with  a  large  empty  purse,  as 
a  reward  for  the  dedication  of  his  Latin  poem 
entitled  Chrysopceia,  saying  that  he  knew  how 
to  fill  it.  Probably,  however,  this  story  is  aa 
invention  ;  as  it  appears,  that  in  the  poem  in 
question,  he  protests  that  he  is  no  believer  ia 
the  pretended  art,  but  merely  takes  it  for  a 
topic  of  fiction.  Besides  the  Chrysopceia,  he 
published  various  Latin  poems,  odts,  elegies, 
and  iambics,  which  are  as  much  extolled  by  Paul 
Jovius,  as  vilified  by  Jul.  Cses.  Scaliger.  It 
cannot  be  denied,  however,  that  some  of  them 
possess  much  elegance  and  purity.  He  wrote 
likewise  Latin  harangues  ;  and  poems  in  his 
own  language,  which  last  were  not  published 
till  1765.  He  was  a  good  Grecian,  and  well 
acquainted  with  the  studies  of  philosophy  ami 
antiquity.      Tirahoschi.    Bailltt. — A. 

AUGUSTIN,  Anthony,  a  Spanish  law- 
yer and  divine  of  the  i6th  century,  archbishop 
of  Tarragona,  was  born  at  Saragossa  of  illus- 
trious parents,  and  studied  in  various  universities 
in  Spain  and  Italy.  His  liberal  education 
quahtied  him  to  become  an  early  writer.  At 
twenty-five,  he  published  at  Florence  a  treatise 
in  law,  which  gained  him  much  reputation, 
under  the  title  of  "  Emendationes  et  Opiniones 
Juris  civilis."  He  was  sent  as  nuncio  to  Eng- 
land hv  pope  Julius  III.  in  1554;  and  in  1562, 
he  dis:iuguished  himself  in  the  council  of  Trent. 
From  1574  to  1586,  the  time  of  his  deadi,  he 
enjoyed  the  archbishopric  of  Tarragona.  His, 
liberality  to  the  poor  was  such,  that,  when  he 
died,  there  was  not  found  money  enough  in  hiS: 
coiFers  to  bury  him  according  to  his  rank.    H« 


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V^n  Eerw.P.  EDM0NDV5    AVGERIV5  van  5ocieteytlESVJ 


AUG 


(    467    ) 


A  V  G 


left  many  writings  in  law,  of  which  tlie  most 
valuable  is,  a  treatise,  "  De  Emend;itionc  Gra- 
tiani,"  published,  in  8vo.  by  JJaluzc  with 
■notes,  in  1672.  The' original  cditioa  of  Tar- 
ragona, in  4to.  printed  in  1587,  is  scarce. 
Tiiis  is  a  very  valuable  treatise  on  the  canon 
law :  a  work  of  vast  labour,  and  wonderful 
exactness.  We  have  also  from  this  wiiter, 
"  Antiquje  Collectiones  Dccretalium,"  printed, 
in  folio,,  at  Paiis  in  1621,  witli  valuable  notes; 
"  Dialogues  on  Medals,"  written  in  Spanisli, 
and  published,  in  410.  at  Tarragona  in  1587  ; 
and  other  pieces,  cliiefly  in  canon  law.  Tliis 
author  united  purity  of  language  to  skill  in  the 
law.  Dupin.  Aforeri.  Kouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 
AUGUSTINE,  bishopof  Hijjp  J,  honoured 
with  the  appellation  of  Saint,  a  celebrated 
Christian  divine  of  the  catholic  church,  was 
born  in  the  year  354,  at  Tagaste  in  Africa. 
His  father,  whose  name  was  Patricius,  was  a 
citizen  of  mean  rank ;  his  mother,  named  Mo- 
nica, is  celebrated  for  her  jiicty.  That  he 
might  eariy  imbibe  the  principles  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  his  mother  placed  him  among  the 
catechumens :  and,  in  a  dangerous  illness,  he 
was  desirous  of  being  baptised:  but,  on  his  re- 
covery, he  postponed  the  ceremony  from  a  su- 
perstitious notion,  that  sins  committed  after 
baptism  are  more  dangerous  than  such  as  are 
committed  before.  (Confess,  lib.  i.)  His  fa- 
ther sent  him,  much  against  his  inclination,  as 
he  himself  confesses,  (Confess,  lib.  i.  c.  19.)  to 
study  classical  learning,  first  in  his  native  place, 
and  afterwards  at  Madaura.  While  he  was  a  boy, 
he  was  more  attentive  to  his  sports  than  to  his 
books  ;  and  to  escape  punishment,  and  supply 
liimself  and  his  companions  witli  whatever  they 
wished,  he  made  no  scruple  of  deceiving  his 
masters,  and  pilfering  from  his  parents.  He 
had  a  particular  aversion  to  Greek  ;  and  could 


monitus  mulicbres  videbantur,  quibus  oblcmpe- 
rare  erubcscercm  :)  with  that  false  shame  which 
so  frequently  seduces  young  people,  he  bluslied 
to  listen  to  a  woman's  advice.  The  habits  of  in- 
continence, which  lie  now  formed,  did  not 
Soon  forsake  him  :  it  ought,  however,  to  be 
remembered  to  his  credit,  that,  when  he  be- 
came sensible  of  his  folly,  he  had  the  inge- 
nuousness to  record  it  in  a  book  of  Confessions  ; 
and  that  whatever  blot  this  part  of  his  life  may 
leave  upon  the  page  of  his  stoiy,  is  voluntarily 
left  by  himself.  Even  Rousseau,  in  his  Con- 
fessions, has  scarcely  been  more  lioiicst  than 
Augustine. 

At  Carthage,  whither  Augustine  was  sent  by 
his  father  in  the  year  37  i,  the  only  studies  which 
this  young  man's  fondness  for  pleasure  would 
suffer  him  to  jjursue  with  success,  were  rhe- 
toric and  polite  liteiature.  Yet  his  mind, 
though  tainted  widi  vice,  was  not  so  entirely 
depraved,  as  to  be  insensible  to  the  charms  of 
wisdom.  He  read  with  delight  the  philosophi- 
cal writings  of  Cicero,  particularly  his  Honen- 
sius,  "  An  exhortation  to  the  study  of  philoso- 
phy," at  present  desiderated  among  his  works. 
Having  been  eaily  instructed  in  religion,  he  now 
turned  his  attention  to  the  Scriptures,  to  read 
again  the  sacred  lessons  which  he  had  been 
taught  in  his  childhood:  but  not  finding  in  them 
that  kind  of  eloquence  which  he  found  in  pagan 
writers,  he  disrclislied  the  simplicir\-  of  these 
books,  and  threw  them  aside.  He  did  not, 
however,  altogether  abandon  the  search  of  wis- 
dom in  the  Christian  school.  A  sect  had  risen 
towards  fhe  close  of  the  preceding  century, 
from  their  founder  Mani  called  Manichccs, 
(Mosheim,  Ecc.  Hist.  cent,  iii.)  who  combined 
the  tenets  of  Christianity  with  the  |)bilosophy 
of  the  Persians,  applying  to  Jesus  Christ  the 
characters  and  actions  which  the  Persians  attri- 


nevcr  be  enticed  to  this  study,  till   he  began  to     huted  to  the    god   .Mithras,  aud  teaching  that 


relish  the  beauties  of  poetry.  At  sixteen  years 
of  age,  his  father,  probably  from  dissatisfaction 
with  his  conduct  and  his  progress  in  learning, 
determined  to  remove  him  from  Madaura  to  the 
schools  at  Carthage  ;  but,  not  being  provided 
with  immediate  sujiplics  to  defray  the  expense 
of  this  plan,  he  kept  him  for  one  year  at 
home.      During   this   year,    so   dangerous    to 


there  are  two  princi|)les  in  nnture.  Light  and 
Darkness,  and  two  independent  beings,  the 
Ruler  of  the  Light,  or  God,  and  the  Prime  of 
Daikness,  who  are  perpetually  eontcnding  widi 
each  other.  To  this  sect  Augustine  attached 
himself  while  he  was  at  Carth.Tge,  in  the  nine- 
teenth year  of  his  age;  and  he  remained  a  fol- 
lower, and  zealous  supporter,  of  their  doctrine. 


youth,  his  indolence  led  him  into  extreme  dissi-  till    his    twenty-eighth    or    twenty-nir.th    year, 

pation, —  (totas  manus  dedi  vesania:  libidini.' —  His  excellent  mother,  who  had  become  a  wi- 

Confess.  lib.  ii.  c.  2.)  and  he  devoted  himself  to  dow  when  her  son  was  about  eighteen,  obser\cd 

licentious  pleasure  without  restraint,  noiwith-  his  conduct  with  sorrow,  and  came  to  Carthage 

standing  the  kind   admonitions  of  his   anxious  to  endeavour,  if  possible,  to  reclaim  him  from 

mother :   (Secreto  mcmini  ut  monuerit  cum  so-  debauchery   and   heresy.     She   prevailed  upon 

licitudine   ingcnti,    ne   fornicarer,    maximequc  him  to  return  to  Tagaste,  where  he  opened  a 

ne  adulterarem  cujusquam  uxorcm.     Q[_ii  mihi  school  of  grammar  and  i?..to:u.     He  tauglit 


AUG 


(    468     ) 


AUG 


with  so  much  a])plaiise,  that  his  mother  was 
congratulated  on  having  so  admirahle  a  son  ; 
but  still  the  causes  of  her  vexation  and  grief  re- 
mained ;  and  Augustine,  in  his  Confessions, 
(Conf.  lib.  iii.)  sneaks  with  great  tenderness  of 
the  prayers  which  his  motlier  at  this  time 
made,  and  the  teais  which  she  shed,  on  his 
account.  While  he  was  at  Tagaste,  he  lost 
one  of  his  intimate  friends,  and  wis  much  af- 
flicted bv  '.is  death  ;  an  incident  which  has  oc- 
casioned some  fine  rcm.irks  upon  true  and  false 
friendship  in  the  "  Confessions." 

To-.vards  the  close  of  die  year  379,  when 
Augustine  was   at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  he 
wished  for  a  wider  field  for  the  display  of  his 
talents  than  Tagaste  aiforded,  an  1  returned  to 
Carthage  to  teac'i  rhetoric.      Here  he  still  re- 
tained his  attachment  to  the  Manichaean  system, 
and  took  great  pains  to  support  it.     He  made 
several  converts   among  persons  of  good  under- 
standing and  addicted  to  study,  and  frequently 
disputed   successfully  with  the  more  illiterate. 
"  In  disputing,"    says   he,    "  with    unlearned 
Christians,  it  was  almost  always  my  misfortune 
to  gain  the  advantage  ;  and  this  frequent  success 
added  fuel  to  the  heat  of  my  youth,  and  con- 
firmed ine  in  most  pernicious  obstinacy."   (Aug. 
de  duabus  Anim.)      Neither  the  labours  of  his 
school,  nor  his  theological  disputes,  could  dis- 
engage his  mind  from  the  love  of  pleasure.   Au- 
gustine, at  this  time,  formed  an  illicit  connec- 
tion with  a  mistress,   to  whom,  however,  he 
remained   constant.      He   had    by    her  a    son, 
(Conf.  lib.  ix.  c.  6.)   whom    he   named,    with 
no  great  regard  to  decorum,    j^deodatus,    the 
gift  of  God,  and  of  whom  lie  speaks,  as  at  the 
age   of  fifteen    a   youth   of  wondcrtul   talents. 
Displeased  with  the  insolence  of  his  scholars  at 
Carthage,  he  resolved  to  try  his  fortune  in  some 
other  place.     That   he  might  not  be  diverted 
from  his  purpose,  without  informing  either  his 
good  mother,  or  his  near  relation  Romanian, 
who  from   the  time  of  his   father's  death  had 
been  his  frequent  benefactor,  he  took  shipping, 
with  his  mistress  and  child,  for  Italy.     Being 
arrived  there,  he  settled  for  sometime  at  Rome, 
as  a  teacher  of  grammar  and  rhetoric.     Here 
he  met  with  friendship  in  the  house  of  a  Mani- 
cliee,  who  treated  hiin  kindly  during  an  illness  : 
but  some  of  of  his    scholars   having  had  the 
baseness  to  leave  him  without  making  the  sti- 
pulated payment,    he  thought  it   necessary  to 
seek  some  other  more  promising  situation.     It 
happened,    at  this  time,    that   Symmachus  the 
praefect  of  Rome,  to  whom  Augustine  was  per- 
sonnallv   kno^vn,  had   received  an  application 
from  iVlUan  for  his  assistance  in  supplying  a 


vacant  professorship  of  rhetoric.  Symmachus, 
who  hat!  formed  an  high  opinion  of  Augustine's 
talents,  sent  him  thither  ;  and  he  was  appointed 
to  the  professorship  in  the  year  313. 

In  this  new  situation  the  opinions  of  Augus- 
tine gradually  underwent  a  complete  alteration. 
Having  heard  much  of  the  talents  of  Ambrose, 
bishop  of  Milan,  as  a  preacher,  he  attended  his 
sermons,  to  judge  whether  he  merited  the  re- 
putation he  had  acquired.  The  elo'^ent  dis- 
coinses  of  the  prelate  made  so  powerful  an  im- 
pression upon  him,  that  his  mind  began  to 
waver  between  the  Manichsean  and  the  catho- 
lic faith.  He  read  the  writings  of  Faustus  the 
Manichee,  and  detected  his  ignorance.  While 
his  judgment  was  vibrating  between  the  two 
systems,  which  it  appears  to  have  done  for 
more  than  a  year,  his  mother  came  to  him  at 
Milan,  and  used  all  her  entreaties  to  persuade 
him  to  forsake  the  sect  of  the  Manichees, 
and  to  quit  his  irregular  course  of  life.  The 
conversation  of  two  worthy  men,  Simplician. 
and  Petilian,  who  related  to  him  cases  of  sud- 
den conversion,  prepared  him  for  the  change  ; 
and — whether  his  mind  was  really  tinder  so^ 
strong  an  enthusiastic  impulse  as  to  fancy  a  su- 
pernatural interposition,  or  whether  he  thought 
it  expedient  to  grace  his  conversion  with  a 
splendid  miracle — we  are  infonned  from  him- 
self, that,  while  he  was  in  his  garden,  praying 
to  God  for  illumination,  he  heard  a  voice,  as 
of  a  singing  boy,  saying,  "  Take,  read ;  take, 
read."  (ToUe,,  lege ;  tolle,  lege.)  Then  't 
opening  the  New  Testament,  he  turned  to  this 
passage  :  "  Not  in  rioting  and  drunkenness, 
not  in  chambering  and  wantonness,  &:c."  He 
immediately  resolved  to  become  a  member  of 
the  catholic  church,  and,  entered  himself  among 
the  catechumens.  As  a  further  proof  of  his 
sincerky,  he  determined,  in  compliance  with  the 
advice  of  his  mother,  to  marry.  Sending  back 
his  mistress  to  Carthage,  while  their  son  Adeo- 
datus  remained  with  him  to  prepare  for  baptism, 
he  made  choice  of  a  young  damsel  for  his 
wife.  Unfortunately,  however,  her  tender  age 
required  a  delay  of  two  years,  during  which 
Augustine  discredited  his  conversion  by  taking 
a  new  inistress.      (Aug.  Conf.  lib.  vi.  c.  15.) 

At  the  vacation  of  the  year  386,  Augustine 
took  his  leave  of  his  profession,  and  retired  to 
the  house  of  a  friend  to  employ  himself  in  the 
study  of  theology,  and  prepare  himself  for 
baptism.  He  employed  this  interval  in  \vriting^ 
in  defence  of  the  catholic  faith,  and  in  explain- 
ing the  scriptures.  Having  formed  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  bishop  Ambrose,  he  was 
persuaded  by  tliat  prel.Ue  to  devote  himself  to 


AUG 


(    469     ) 


AUG 


the  ministry :  he,  accovdingly,  dismissed  his 
new  mistress,  forsook  his  intended  wife,  and, 
alter  receiving  baptism  with  his  illegitimate 
son,  and  his  friend  Alypiiis,  on  Easter-eve,  in 
the  year  387,  consecrated  the  remainder  of  his 
davs  to  religion. 

The  next  year,   Augustine,  having  lost  his 
mother  at  Ostia,  whence  they  were  to  have  set 
sail   for   Tagaste,    returned    to   Africa.      He 
spent  three  years  in  his  native  city,  exhibiting 
among  his  friends  an  example  of  abstinence  and 
piety,   and   diligently  applying  himself  to   the 
Study  of  the  scriptures.     Paying  a  religious  visit 
to  a  person  of  distinction  at  Hippo,  Valerius, 
the  bishop  of  that  city,   recommended  him  to 
the  people  as  a  proper  person  to  be  chosen  as 
their  presbyter;  and  he  was  elected,  and  ordain- 
ed, in  the  year  391.   The  first  action,  by  which 
he  established  his  reputation  for  zeal  and  sanc- 
tity, was  the  institution  of  a  monastery,  or  re- 
ligious   society,    in    Hippo,    the    members    of 
which  were  to    throw    their  property  into   a 
common   stock,  and  to  devote  themselves  to 
exercises  of  piety.      He   was   permitted,   con- 
trary to  the  custom  of  the  African  churches,  to 
preach  in  the  presence  of  his  bishop  ;  and,  con- 
trary to  a  canon  of  the  council  of  Nice,  he 
■was,  in  the  year  395,  ordained  coadjutor,    or 
joint-bishop,   with  Valerius,   to  the  church  of 
Hippo.     In  his  episcopal  office,  Augustine  op- 
posed, with   great  zcai,   by  his   preaching  and 
writings,  and  in  councils  and  synods,  the  various 
sects,  which  the  catholic  church  disgraced  with 
the  common  name  of  heretics ;  and  Manichees, 
Donatists,   Circumcellions,  and   Pelagians,  by 
turn  fell  under  his  censure.     The  history  of 
councils  during  the  period  of  his  prelacy,  fre- 
quently cxliibits  him  as  a  zealous  champion  for 
the  oit'liodox  faith.     Of  his  private  life  after  he 
ascended  the  episcopal  chair,  little  is  recorded. 
From  one  of  his  honest  confessions  it  has  been 
inferred,  that  lie  was  a  hard  drinker  ;  with  what 
justice,    will  be  best   seen   trom    the   passage. 
"  Drunkenness  is  far  from  me :  have  mercy  on 
me,  that  it  may  not  come  near  me :  but  the 
hcad-ach   sometimes  seises  thy  servant ;    have 
pity  on   me,    that    it   may   be  far  from    me." 
["  Ebrietas  longc  est  a    me:    miserebcris,   no 
appropinquet  mihi.     Crapula  autem   nonnim^ 
quam  surrepit  servo  tuo  ;  misereberis,  ut  longc 
hat  a  me.    Conf.  lib.  x.  con.  31.]     Much  is 
said,  bv  his  encomiasts,  of  his  mildness,  urba- 
nity, aird  moderation.    The  law  which  he  in- 
scribed upon  his  table  may  deserve  copying  : 

4^uisr]ui$  :\mat  dictU  abscntcm  rodtTC  vttnni, 
Hanc  nicDtam  indi^nam  nuvcrit  esse  sibi. 
!"ur  iVoin  tins  lablo  br  tlic  worthless  guest, 
^S'llu  wuuniU  auuliie['>  tame,  lltough  but  iu  jest. 


After  a  life  of  varied  fortune  and  mixed  cha- 
racter, Augustin  died  in  the  year  430,  aged  76 
years  ;  harassed,  in  liis  last  days,  by  seeing  his 
country  invaded  by  the  Vandals,  and  the  city 
of  which  he  was  bishop  besieged.  The  Van- 
dals, who  took  Hippo,  respected  his  library,  his 
writings,  and  his  body.  The  catholic  bishops 
of  Africa,  driven  fVom  their  sees  by  Thrasa- 
mond  kitig  of  the  Vandals,  carried  h.is  rctn;iins 
into  Sardinia,  the  place  of  their  exile,  whence 
they  were,  two  hundred  years  afterwaids,  con- 
veyed by  Luitprand  king  of  the  Lombards  to 
Pavia,  his  capital. 

Of  the  class  of  writers  called  Christian  Fa- 
thers, Augustine  is  one  of  the  most  voluminous. 
His  separate  treatises,  besides  epistles  and  ho- 
milies, arc  upwards  of  two  hundred  in  number. 
In  the  Benedictine  edition  pritncd  at  Pat  is  in  (he 
year  1679,  ''"'^  reprinted  at  Antwerp  in  1700, 
his  works  fill  eleven  volumes  in  folio.  The 
first  volume  contains  the  works  which  he  wrote 
before  he  was  a  priest,  and  his  Retractations 
and  Confessions  ;  the  former  a  critical  review 
of  his  works,  the  latter  a  curious  and  interest- 
ing picture  of  his  life.  The  iccond  zc>m\ixv^i% 
his  Epistles,  in  nutnber  270,  \\hich  relate  to  a 
great  variety  of  subjects,  doctrinal,  moral,  and 
personal,  in  which  the  controversies,  opinions, 
and  customs  of  the  times,  and  the  notions  and 
dispositions  of  the  writer,  are  amply  laid  open. 
The  M/r<^  comprehends  his  treatises  on  the  holy 
scriptures.  'Y\\t fourth,  his  commtntarv  on  the 
psalms.  The  fifth.  Sermons  or  Homilies. 
The77.v///,  dogmatical  treatises  on  various  points 
of  discipline  and  morality.  The  siventft,  a 
tieatise  "  On  the  City  of  God,"  a  work  writ- 
ten to  refute  the  charge  of  the  pagans,  that  the 
taking  of  the  city  of  Rome  was  to  be  attributed 
to  the  Christian  religion,  and  containing  tnuch 
historical  and  miscellaneous  matter.  The  i-ig/:ih, 
ninth,  and  ti>ii,%  writings  against  liere;ics ;  and 
the  e/cvrnt/i,  the  life  of  Augustine,  drawn  prin- 
cipally from  his  works,  widi  copious  and  useful 
tables. 

Augustine,  both  in  his  life  and  in  his  writings, 
is  entitled  only  to  qualified  and  limited  praise. 
If  some  atonement  was  made  for  the  mors  of 
his  early  years  bv  his  book  of  honest  Con- 
fessions, these  confeviions  themselves  must  re- 
main an  eternal  memorial  of  disgrace  ;  and  it 
will  be  impossible,  in  contemplating  the  vinues 
of  the  saint,  altogether  to  forget  the  frailties  of 
the  man.  From  the  c<immon  error  of  the  age 
in  which  he  lived,  intolerance,  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing that  Augustine  w  as  not  free.  In  the  early 
part  of  his  ministry  he  coteriaii.etl  sentiments  of 
mildiKS";  and  charitv  towards  heretics  ;  but  af- 
tei'wards,  he  suiicred  his  passions  to  be  so  much 


AUG 


i     4/0     ) 


A  U  G 


iiiflanieJ  by  his  disputes  with  the  Donatists,  that 
he  became  an  advocate  for  persecution.  In  a 
letter  to  Vincentius  (Epist.  93.),  a  Donatist 
bishop,  he  assigns  several  reasons  for  the  co- 
ercive exercise  of  secular  autliority  against 
scliismatics,  and  urges  the  good  effects  wliich 
tlie  terror  of  tlie  imperial  laws  had  produced  in 
the  conversion  of  several  whole  cities.  He  con- 
fesses, that  it  was  his  opinion  formerly,  that  no 
man  ought  to  be  forced;  that  words  only  were 
to  be  used,  as  otherwise  none  but  counterfeit 
catholics  could  be  made  ;  but  tliat,  liaving  with- 
stood all  reasons,  he  at  last  yielded  to  experi- 
ence. This  letter  was  written  about  the  year 
408.  In  anotlier  letter,  of  the  same  date,  he 
entreats  the  proconsul  of  Africa  to  restrain  the 
Donatists,  but  not  to  punish  them  with  death: 
yet  in  this  letter,  purposely  written  to  urge  the 
magistrate  to  persecution,  Augustine  has  the 
inconsistency  to  conclude  with  this  liberal  sen- 
timent :  "  It  is  a  more  troublesome  than  pro- 
fitable labour,  to  compel  men  to  forsake  a  great 
evil  by  force,  rather  than  by  instruction."  (Ep. 
100.)  Voltaire  observed  this  inconsistency  in 
Augustine's  opinion  on  the  subject  of  toleration, 
and  pleasantly  remarked,  "  I  would  say  to  the 
bishop  of  Hippo,  As  your  reverence  has  two 
opinions,  you  will  have  the  goodness  to  permit 
me  to  abide  by  the  first,  since  I  really  think  it 
the  best."  (Treatise  on  Tokration.)  Le  Clerc 
(Letter  prefi.xed  to  Supplement  to  Hammond's 
Paraplirase)  expresses  himself  more  seriously 
and  warmly;  and  charges  Augustine  with  being 
one  of  the  first,  who  advanced  two  doctrines, 
which  take  away  goodness  and  justice  both 
from  God  and  man;  the  one,  representing  God 
as  consigning  men  to  eternal  torments,  for  sins 
which  they  could  not  avoid ;  the  other,  stirring 
up  magistrates  to  persecute  those  who  differ 
from  them  in  religion.  It  is  not  easy  to  say, 
how  extensive  an  influence  the  doctrines  of  this 
father  in  tlie  church,  who  through  so  many 
ages  of  darkness  retained  a  powerful  sway  over 
the  world,  might  have,  in  leading  men  to  adopt 
a  gloomy  system  of  religion,  and  to  support  it 
with  all  the  rigour  of  persecution.  It  is  cer- 
tain, that,  except  the  works  of  Aristotle,  no 
writings  contributed  more  than  Augustine's  to 
encourage  that  spirit  of  subtle  disputation  which 
distinguished  the  scholastic  age.  As  an  ex- 
pounder of  the  scriptures,  this  writer  is  entitled 
to  little  respect.  He  had,  as  he  himself  confesses, 
(Contra  Petil.  lib.  ii.  c.  38.  t.  9.  See  Lard- 
ner's  Crcd.  pt.  ii.  ch.  117.)  scarcely  any  know- 
ledge of  the  Greek  tongue  ;  and  it  is  pretty  cer- 
tain, that  lie  knew  still  less  of  the  Hebrew. 
Instead  of  learned  criticism,  little  will  be  found 
in  liis  com.meirtaries  besides  popular  reflections, 


spiritual  and  moral,  or  allegorical  and  mystical 
perversions  of  the  literal  meaning.  The  chief 
qualities  to  be  admired  in  the  writings  of  Au- 
gustine are,  a  facility  of  invention,  and  strength 
of  reasoning,  which  enabled  him  to  strike  out 
new  opinions,  and  to  support  them  with  inge- 
nuity, and  with  a  consecutive  train  of  argu- 
ment which  gives  his  larger  works  a  systematic 
appearance.  In  Augustine's  style,  there  is  more 
aigument  than  oratory,  more  fluency  than  ele- 
gance, and  more  wit  than  learning;  he  has  a 
certain  subtlety  and  intricate  involution  of  ideas 
through  long  periods,  which  requires  in  the 
reader  acute  penetration,  close  attention,  and 
quick  recollection.  In  fine,  he  is,  as  Erasmus 
has  observed,  a  writer  of  obscure  subtlety,  and 
unpleasant  prolixity.  If  these  circumstances  be 
considered  in  connection  with  tlie  dry  and  bar- 
ren nature  of  many  of  his  speculations,  it  can 
no  longer  remain  a  wonder,  why  these  volumi- 
nous writings  are  neglected  ;  the  only  wonder 
will  be,  how  they  ever  came  to  be  read  and 
admired.  Augustin.  Confess.  Po^scdius  in  Fit. 
Aug.  Diipin,  cent.  V.  Bayle.  Alorcri.  Ro~ 
I'in^on^s  Hist,  of  Baptism,  ch.  xxiii. — E. 

AUGUSTIN,  or  AUSTIN,  called  Saint, 
and  distinguished  by  the  title  of  T/ie  Apostle  of 
the  English,  flourished  at  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century.  In  the  reign  of  Ethelbert  in  the  king- 
dom of  Kent,  although  his  queen  Bertha,  de- 
scended from  Clovis  the  conqueror  of  Gaul, 
was  a  Christian,  and  enjoyed  the  free  pro- 
fession of  her  religion ;  and  although  her  bi- 
shop and  chaplain  Luidhard  preached  the  go- 
spel to  her,  and  her  French  attendants  ;  pagan 
idolatry  w-as  still  universally  prevalent  in  Eng- 
land. Pope  Gregory  I.  who,  before  he  a- 
scended  the  papal  throne,  had  formed  the  de- 
sign of  christianising  the  English  (see  Hume's 
Hist.  Engl.  b.  i.  ch.  i.),  in  the  year  596  began 
to  execute  his  benevolent  purpose.  He  de- 
puted Augustin,  a  monk  of  die  convent  of 
Saint  Andrew  at  Rome,  who  had  formerly  been 
his  pupil,  with  forty  other  monks  of  the  same 
order,  to  undertake  a  mission  to  England.  Be- 
fore Augustin  entered  upon  this  charge,  he 
received  episcopal  ordination.  In  a  letter  to 
Brunehaut,  queen  of  France,  written  by  pope 
Gregory  in  597,  to  recommend  him  to  her 
good  ofilces,  the  jiope  calls  him  brother  and 
fellow-bishop.  (Wharton's  Anglia  Sacra,  torn, 
ii.  p.  89.)  Augustin  and  his  associates,  on  their 
journey  to  England,  began  to  be  terrified  by 
the  apprehension  of  the  dangers  which  they  had 
to  encounter  in  offering  a  new  religion  to  so 
fierce  a  people,  with  whose  language  they  were 
unacquainted  ;  and,  stopping  in  France,  it  was 
agreed  to  send  back  Augustin  to  Rome,  to  state 


AUG 


(    471     ) 


AUG 


their  difficulties  to  the  pope,  and  entreat  his 
permission  to  relinquish  so  hazardous  an  under- 
taking Gregory  was  not  to  be  prevailejl  upon 
to  abandon  liis  tavourjte  project ;  and  Aui'us- 
tin  returned  with  a  letter  from  the  pope  to  the 
missionaries,  urging  them  not  to  be  disheartened 
by  difficidties  in  so  laudable  a  design,  and  with 
instructions  to  carry  witli  them  some  intcrpreteis 
from  the  Franks,  whose  language  was  still 
nearly  the  same  with  that  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
In  consequence  of  letters  written  by  the  pope 
to  the  king  and  queen  of  France,  and  to  the 
bisliop  ot  Aries,  the  missionaries  received  every 
accommodation  on  their  journey,  and  were 
provided  with  interpreters. 

Augustin  aixl  his  associates  in  the  year  597 
landed  in  the  isle  of  Thanet,  and  sent  inter- 
preters to-  the  king,  to  inform  him  of  their 
arrival,  and  of  the  design  of  their  mission.  E- 
thclbert  received  them  kindly,  and,  soon  after- 
wards, admitted  them  to  a  conference :  but 
superstitious  fears,  lest  these  strangers  should 
employ  magical  arts  to  delude  his  understand- 
ing, induced  him  to  receive  them  in  the  open 
air;  from  an  opinion,  as  it  seems,  that  the 
force  of  their  magic  would  here  be  more  easily 
dissipated,  than  within  the  walls  of  a  house. 
Augustin,  by  means  of  the  interpreters,  deli- 
tered  his  embassy,  laying  before  the  king  the 
leading  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  assuring 
him  of  an  eternal  kingdom  in  heaven,  if  he 
would  embrace  the  religion  of  Christ.  Ethel- 
bert  gave  him  a  candid  hearing,  but  replied, 
that  he  could  not  immediately  exchange  the  re- 
ligion which  he  had  received  from  his  an- 
cestors for  a  new  faith:  he  added,  houever, 
with  a  liberality  and  courtesy  which  rellect 
honour  upon  his  memory,  that,  as  they  had 
undertaken  so  long  a  journey  with  a  kind  in- 
tention, they  were  at  liberty  to  remain  in  the 
country,  and  to  make  as  many  converts  as  they 
were  able  among  his  subjects.  A  fixed  habi- 
tation was  appointed  them  at  Dorovernum, 
.since  called  Canterbury,  in  the  part  of  the  city 
now  called  Stable-gate,  where,  lx.fore  the  time 
of  Augustin,  was  a  kind  of  temple  for  tiie  royal 
family,  in  which  they  worshipped  and  offered 
sacrifice  to  their  gods.  The  missionaries  en- 
tered the  city  in  procession,  singing  a  psalm. 
At  hist,  their  apostolic  labours  were  confined 
to  the  city  and  i>recincts  of  Canterbury,  and 
the  number  of  converts  was  small ;  but  wiien, 
after  a  short  internal,  the  king  himself  sub- 
mitted to  baptism,  great  numbers  of  the  Kentish 
men  followed  his  example,  and  full  permission 
was  granted  to  preach  the  gospel  in  any  part  ot 
the  kingdom.    The  abstinence  and  self-denial 


which  Augustin  practised,  and  the  supernatural 
powers  to  wliich  he  made  pretensions,  had  no 
small  degree  of  influence  in  extending  his  credit 
and  authority  among  the  people.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  so  successful  in  his  labours,  as  to 
have  baptised  in  one  day  (Cam('cn's  Britan, 
by  Gibson,  p.  166.)  ten  thousand  persons,  in 
the  river  Swale.  This  is  said  by  Gervase 
(Act.  Pontif.  Cant,  apud  Decern  Sciipt.  Col. 
1632.)  to  have  been  done  in  the  river  Swale 
near  York  :  but  Bcde  relates  this  story  of  Pau- 
linus  archbi-,hop  of  York,  and  says,  that  he 
baptised  in  the  river  Swale,  which  runs  by 
Catterick.  We  have,  however,  the  authority 
of  pope  Gregory,  in  a  letter  to  Eulogius  (Cami>- 
den's  Britannia  by  Gibson,  p.  166^',  patriarch 
of  Alexandria,  for  tlie  fact  that  Augustin,  on 
one  Christmas  day,  baptised  ten  rtiousand  per- 
sons in  the  river  Swale.  If  two  such  wonderful 
stories  of  baptisings  can  be  credited,  it  muit  be 
supposed,  that  Augiisiin's  bajvtismal  ceremony 
was  performed  in  another  river  Swale,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Medway.  It  is  added,  that,  for 
want  of  a  sufficient  number  of  priests  to  per- 
form the  ceremony,  Augustin,  after  consecrat- 
ing the  river,  commanded  by  criers,  that  the 
people  should  go  in  with  faith,  two  anil  two, 
and  in  the  name  of  the  holy  Trinity  baptise 
each  otiier. 

In  the  commencement  of  his  mission,  Au- 
gustin thought  it  expedient  to  rcf'-'.in  from  co- 
ercive measures.  He  instructed  Kthelbcn,  that 
the  service  of  Christ  must  be  voluntary,  and 
that  no  compiiNi'^n  ought  to  be  used  in  propa- 
gating his  gospel  (Rede,  Ecc.  Hist.  lib.  i.e.  26.) : 
and,  though  his  master  pope  Gregory  was  no 
enemy  to  intolerance  (Ibid.  c.  32.),  no  other 
violence  appears  to  have  been  used  in  the  first 
establishment  of  Christianity  in  England,  than 
tliat  of  demolishing  idols,  and  converting  pagan 
temples  into  Christian  churches.  (Greg.  Epist. 
71.   lib.  xviii.) 

Tlie  ra]iid  success,  whith  attendc«l  this 
mission,  excittd  in  Augustin  the  ambitious  de- 
sire of  possessing,  under  the  sanction  ot  the 
pope,  the  supreme  authority  in  the  English 
churches,  as  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  liedc 
relates  that  Augustin  went  over,  at  this  time, 
to  the  archbishop  of  Aries,  to  receive  from  him 
consecration  ;  but  this  must  i)e  a  mistake  ;  for 
it  appears  that  he  had  been  eonsrcrat«l  before 
he  came  to  England.  (\'id.  Wharton,  Aug). 
Sac.    loc.   cit.)      He   sent    \-  ■-    to  the 

pope,   probably  to  solicit  thl>  .  and  for 

instructions  in  various  particulars,  i'he  <|uacrie» 
which  he  propose*!,  and  the  answers  he  re- 
ceived, if  they  give  us  no  liigh  opinion  of  tho 


AUG 


(     4/2     ) 


.AUG 


judgment  of  chis  missionary,  or  of  the  wisdom 
of  his  muster,  may  at  least  serve  as  a  specimen 
of  the  ridiculous  casuistry  of  the  times.  The 
following  are  a  specimen,  ^tare.  I.  Are 
cousin  germans  allowed  to  marry  ?  Answer. 
This  indidgcnce  was  fonnerly  granted  hy  the 
Roman  law  ;  hut  experience  having  sliown  that 
no  posterity  can  come  from  such  marriages, 
they  are  prohihited.  ^.  1.  Is  it  lawful  to 
baptise  a  woman  with  child?  A.  No  incon- 
venience can  arise  from  the  practice.  ^.  3. 
How  soon  after  the  birth  may  a  child  be  bap- 
tised ?  A.  Immediately,  if  necessary.  ^.  4. 
How  soon  may  the  husband  return  to  his  wife 
after  her  delivery  ?  A.  Not  till  after  the  child 
is  weaned.  ^.  5.  May  a  menstrual  woman 
enter  the  church,  or  receive  the  communion  ? 
A.  She  is  not  prohibited  ;  but  if  she  absent  her- 
self, from  reverence  for  the  sacred  mysteries, 
she  is  to  be  commended.  ^  After  sexual  in- 
tercourse, how  soon  is  it  lawful  for  a  husband 
to  enter  the  church  ?  J.  Not  till  he  has  purg- 
ed himself  by  prayer  and  ablution. — These  nice 
cases  of  conscience  were  accompanied  with 
other  inquiries  concerning  episcopal  duties. 
With  the  solution  of  these  problems,  the  pope 
sent  Augustin  the  pall,  a  piece  of  white  woolen 
cloth,  to  be  thrown  over  the  shoulders,  as  a 
badge  of  archiepiscopal  dignity  ;  sundry  eccle- 
siastical vestments  and  utensils  ;  and  instructions 
to  erect  twelve  sees  within  his  province,  and 
particularly  to  appoint  one  at  York,  which,  if 
the  country  should  become  Christian,  he  was  to 
convert  into  a  province,  with  its  suffragan  bi- 
shops. Among  other  counsels,  which  Augustin 
received  from  the  pontif  on  this  occasion,  was 
an  exhortation,  not  to  be  elated  with  vanity  on 
account  of  the  miracles  which  he  had  been  en- 
abled to  perform  in  confirmation  of  his  ministry, 
but  to  remember,  that  this  power  was  given 
him,  not  for  his  own  sake,  but  for  the  sake  of 
those  whose  salvation  he  was  appointed  to  pro- 
cure. What  these  miracles  were,  will,  in  part, 
appear  in  the  sequel. 

Having  fixed  his  see  at  Canterbury,  Augustin 
<iedicated  an  ancient  church,  formerly  built  by 
some  Roman  Christians,  to  the  honour  of 
Christ;  and  king  Ethelbert  founded  the  abbey 
of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  afterwards  called  St. 
Augustin's  (Bede,  Hist.  Ecc.  c.  33.),  and  since 
cou'verted  into  the  archbishop's  palace. 

The  attachment  of  Augustin  to  the  see  of 
Rome  induced  him  to  make  an  attempt  to  bring 
the  British  bishops  in  Wales  under  the  authority 
of  the  Roman  see.  From  the  time  when  the 
ancient  Britons,  or  Welsh,  were  first  instructed 
in  the  Cluistian  faith  by  Faganius  and  Dami- 


anus,  who  at  the  request  of  Luciu;;  \vere  sent,  in 
the  second  century,  as  missionaries  by  Eleu- 
thcrius  bishop  of  Rome,  these  churches  had 
constantly  followed  the  rules  of  their  first  ma- 
sters, without  regarding  the  subsequent  alterations 
prescribed  by  the  church  of  Rome.  Pope  Gre- 
gory, however,  by  appointing  Augustin  metro- 
politan of  tha  whole  island  (Gregor.  Epist. 
apud  Bede,  lib.  i.  c.  29.),  had  claimed  juris- 
diction over  the  churches  of  Wales,  and  Au- 
fustin  was  well  inclined  to  support  the  claim, 
le  held  a  conference  with  the  Welsh  bishops 
at  a  place  in  W^orcestershire,  since  called  Au- 
gustin's Oak,  in  which  he  endeavoured  to  per- 
suade them  to  unite  with  the  new  English 
church  in  one  c6mmunion,  arid  to  co-operate 
with  him  and  his  brethren  in  proir.oting  the 
conversion  of  the  Saxons.  These  ancient  Bri- 
tons were  probably  jealous  of  their  religious 
rights,  as  they  have  always  been  of  their  civil 
liberties  ;  for  Augustin,  though  he  attempted  to 
support  his  claim  to  authority  by  the  pretended 
miraculous  restoration  of  a  blind  man  to  sight, 
was  obliged  to  dissolve  the  assembly  without 
accomplishing  his  purpose.  A  second  confe- 
rence was  soon  afterwards  held,  which  proved  as 
unsuccessful  as  the  former.  This  meeting  was 
attended  by  seven  British  bishops,  and  many 
monks  from  the  monastery  of  Bancornaburg, 
or  Bangor,  under  the  direction  of  their  abbot 
Dinoth.  By  this  second  attendance  they  show- 
ed a  disposition  to  pay  all  due  respect  to  the 
archiepiscopal  dignity  of  Augustin :  but,  pre- 
viously to  the  meeting,  they  took  a  singular 
precaution  against  any  termination  of  the  con- 
ference unfavourable  to  their  interests.  On 
their  way  to  the  synod,  they  called  upon  a  cer- 
tain hermit,  eminent  for  sound  understanding, 
and  requested  his  opinion,  whether  they  should 
give  up  their  independence,  and  their  ancient 
customs  and  privileges,  to  the  pretensions  of 
Augustin.  The  hermit,  who  had  probably  re- 
ceived some  information  concerning  the  dispo- 
sition and  character  of  the  metropolitan,  an- 
swered :  "  If  this  man  follows  his  master's 
example,  who  was  meek  and  lowly  of  heart, 
he  is  a  servant  of  God,  and  you  ought  to  obey 
him :  if  not,  his  claim  is  not  to  be  regarded  : 
let  Augustin  and  his  brethren  be  first  seated  iu 
the  place  of  meeting :  if,  upon  your  entrance, 
he  rise  up  to  salute  you,  honour  him  as  a  mes- 
senger from  God:  if  he  neglect  to  show  you 
this  civility,  reject  his  offers,  for  he  has  not 
taken  upon  him  the  yoke  of  Christ."  When 
the  British  bishops  and  monks  entered  the  hall, 
Augustin,  who  had  taken  the  chair,  received 
them  sitting.     They  followed  the  sensible  adr 


AUG 


(    473     ) 


AUG 


vice  of  the  hermit,  and  refused  to  comply  with 
any  of  the  proposals  which  were  made  by  this 
haughty  prelate:  they  disclaimed  all  subjection 
to  the  see  of  Canterbury,   and  virtually  to  that 
of  Rome.     If  we  are  to  admit  the  evidence  of 
a   manuscript,  copied  by   Sir  Henry  Spelman 
from  a   very  old  manuscript   in  the  hands  of 
Mr.  Peter  Mostyn,   a  Welsh  gentleman,  tliese 
Welsh  divines,  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh 
centuiy,  expressly  rejected  the  pope's  authority 
in  these  strong  terms  :  "  The  British  churches 
owe   brotherly    kindness    and    charity    to    the 
church  of  God,  to  the  pope  of  Rome,  and  to 
all  Christians  ;  but  they  know  of  no  other  obe- 
dience due  from  them  to  him  whom  they  call 
the  pope;   for  their  parts,   they  are  under  the 
direction  of  the  bishop  of  Caerleon  upon  Usk, 
who,  under  God,  is  their  spiritual  overseer  and 
director."   [Though  Caerleon  was  not  at  that 
time  a  bishopric,   the  see  having  been   trans- 
ferred to  Landaff,  yet  there  was  no  absurdity 
in  mentioning  that  place,  which  had  been  the 
ancient  metropolitan  see,  in  a  dispute    which 
turned  upon  the  ancient  right.]     This  spirited 
assertion   of  their  independence   mortified   the 
pride,   and  disappointed  the  ambition,  ot  Au- 
gustin,  who,  in  taking  leave  of  the  assembly, 
angrily  denounced  upon  the  British  clergy  this 
sentence :  "  If  ye  will  not  accept  of  peace  with 
your  brethren,  receive  war  from  your  enemies  ; 
jf  ye  will  not   preach  the  way  of  life  to  the 
English,  suffer  death  from  their  hands."    The 
event  corresponded  with  the  denunciation.    E- 
thelirid,  king  of  Northumberland,  soon  attcr- 
wards  marched  with  a  large  army  to  Caerleon, 
and   made    a   great  slaughter,    in  which    near 
twelve  hundred  of  the  monks  of  Bangor  were 
put  to  the  sword.     Nevertheless,  the  prediction 
was,  probably,  nothing  more  than  a  warm  ex- 
pression of  resentment,  and  a  probable  conjec- 
ture, founded  upon  the  present  posture  ot  affairs. 
The  memory  of  Augustin  has,  however,  been 
loaded  with  the  infamy  of  having,  to  satiate  his 
revenge,   fulblled  his  'own   prophecy.     Bishop 
Godwin    (IX-  Pra-sul.  Angl.  p.  43,  ed.   1616.) 
exclaims,  "  Excellent  i)roiihet !   who  could  pre- 
dict what  he  knew  so  well  how  to  accomplish  !" 
and  asserts,  upon  the  authority  of  an  anonymous 
manuscript,  and  of  an  old  French  annalist,  that 
Augustin,  in  resentment  of  his  rejection  by  the 
Welsh  bishops,  stimulated  Lthelbert  to  fall  upon 
them,  as  a  wolf  upon  a  flock  of  sheep,  with  a 
larj;e  army,   borrowed  in  part  from  Ethclfrid, 
and  that  the  bish(jp  himself  joined  the  army  ot 
Ethelfrid  at  Cliester,  and  assisted  him  to  gain  a 
complete   victory.     If    tiiis    account    be   true, 
Godwin  may   be  justified  in   the  observation, 
VOL.    I. 


that  such  proceedings  savour  too  much  of  that 
ainhition,  and  unbounded  thirst  after  power, 
which  the  sec  of  Rome  has  always  discovered. 
In  opposition  to  this  testimony,  it  is,  however, 
urged  bv  the  learned  Wharton  (Ice.  cit.),  on 
the  credit  of  an  ancient  book  cited  by  William 
Thorn,  that  Augustin  and  pope  Gregory  both 
died  in  the  same  year,  that  is,  as  is  certainly 
known  concerning  the  latter,  in  604;  whereas 
the  slaughter  of  the  monks  happened  (Goilwin, 
in  loc.  cit.)  in  605.  Bcde,  who  mentions  this 
battle  (lib.  ii.  c.  2.),  adds,  that  it  was  fought 
after  the  death  of  Augustin  ;  and  though  it  nas 
been  suspected  that  this  passage  has  been  inter- 
polated, no  better  reasons  have  been  assigned 
for  the  suspicion,  than  that  it  is  oinitttd  in 
Alfred's  Saxon  version,  though  found  in  all  tlie 
most  ancient  manuscripts;  and  that  Augustin 
signed  a  charter  with  Ethelbert  in  605,  whereas 
the  custom  of  signing  written  instruments  is  not 
older  than  the  year  700.  (Spelman,  Council, 
vol.  i.  p.  125.)  It  iTiay  be  difficult  to  decide 
with  ceitaintv,  whether  Aug'istin  actually  saw 
or  assi»ted  in  the  war  against  Wales  :  but  he 
cannot  be  easily  exculpated  from  the  charge  of 
having  entertained  sentiments  of  revenge  against 
them,  and  mav  be  fairly  suspected  of  having  at 
least  advised  the  hostilities  which,  in  the  issue, 
proved  so  fatal  to  the  monks.  After  nominat- 
ing Laurence  to  succeed  him  in  the  sec  of 
Canterbury,  Ai;gustin  died,  according  to  some 
in  604,  according  to  others  in  608,  or  614. 
Most  religious  care  has  been  taken  to  preserve 
the  remains  of  this  prelate,  first  in  the  mona- 
stery, and  afterwards  in  the  cathedral  of  Canter- 
bury. After  they  had  "  quietly  reposed"  5C0 
years,  an  abbot,  in  1091,  deposited  the  saint's 
head  and  some  of  the  bones  in  a  small  urn 
strongly  secuied  in  iron  and  lead,  and  hid  the 
deposit'  in  a  wall,  lest  the  pietious  treasure 
should  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Danes  and 
Normans.  After  another  century  had  elapsed, 
another  abbot  caused  what  yet  remained  of  the 
holy  skull  to  be  ornamented  with  goUl  and 
precious  stones,  and  rcposited  by  itself;  and 
again,  in  the  year  1300,  a  third  abbot— for  the 
passion  for  these  holy  relics  was  not  yet  evapo- 
,;Ht.,l — deposited  the  remaining  bones  in  a  mar- 
ble tomb  adonie.l  v,  ith  beautiful  carved  work, 
adding  to  the  former  inscription  this  jingling 
couplet,  expressive  of  great  affection  : 

Ad  tunnilum  laudi«  p»lri«  almi  Huctu»  tinorf , 
.f  l>hii  liuiic  luiiiuljin  Thrnnu.  dicuvil  liutn're 

Few  saints,  if  King  legends  might  be  credited, 
ha\e  ill  their  lite  time  pi.ilormed  such  woiidcis 
as  5t.  Austin.     Besides  the  miracle  of  icstoiing 


AUG 


(     474     ) 


AUG 


sight  already  mentioned,  he  is  said  (Chron.  W. 
'I'horii.  et  Chron.  y.  Bromtonj  to  have  left  tlie 
print  of  his  foot  on  the  stone  he  first  stepped 
upon  at  his  landing  in  the  isle  of  Thanet;  to 
have  caused  a  fountain  of  water  to  spring  up 
for  baptising ;  and  to  have  called  up  first  the 
dead  corpse  of  an  excommunicated  man  to 
make  confession  of  having  refused  the  payment 
of  tythes,  and  then  tliat  of  the  priest  wlio  had 
exccnimunicatcd  him,  to  give  him  absolution, 
in  the  presence  of  the  i)eople  ;  after  whicli  both 
returned  to  their  graves  !  Sucli  tales,  however, 
can  only  have  been  invented,  and  believed,  in 
ages  of  the  grossest  ignorance  and  superstition. 
With  respect  to  those  miracles  which  Au- 
gustin  himself  reported  to  the  pope,  and  which 
the  pope,  in  the  epistle  above  referred  to,  ad- 
mits with  such  apparent  confidence,  cautioning 
him  against  growing  vain  of  this  high  privilege, 
it  may  be  more  difficult  to  form  a  judgment. 
That  they  were  really  performed  cannot  be 
credited,  without  admitting  innumerable  other 
tales,  that  mock  belief.  Candour  might  wish 
to  embrace  the  supposition,  that  both  the  mis- 
sionary and  his  master  were,  in  some  unknown 
manner,  deluded,  as  well  as  the  people  whom 
they  deceived.  But  ic  is  altogether  impossible 
that  Augustin  should  believe  that  he  himself  re- 
stored a  blind  man  to  sight,  if  he  did  not ;  and 
it  is  not  very  probable  that  pope  Gregory  would 
give  him  credit  for  such  extraordinary  powers. 
Perhaps  the  easiest  explanation  of  this  matter 
is,  that  Augustin  thought  himself  justifietl  in 
making  use  of  any  expedient  by  which  he  could 
convert  an  ignorant  and  barbarous  people  to  the 
Chri.tian faith,  and  that  tlie  pope  felt  no  scruple 
in  lending  his  aid  to  a  deception  wliich  pro- 
mised so  much  advantage.  If  this  explanation 
be  thought  to  bear  hard  upon  the  characters  of 
saints  and  popes,  let  the  reader  try  to  satisfy 
himself  with  a  more  plausible  explanation  of  the 
undoubted  facts,  that  Augustin  professed  to 
work  miracles,  and  Gregory  to  believe  them. 

As  the  apostle  of  the  English,  Augustin  may 
deserve  to  be  remembered  with  honour,  as  the 
immediate  agent  in  the  dispersion  of  pagan  su- 
perstitions, and  the  introduction  of  a  purer 
system  of  religion  :  but  other  superstitions,  it 
must  be  confessed,  were  introduced  in  the  room 
of  those  wliich  were  removed,  and  the  people, 
under  tlie  dominion  of  Christian  priests  and 
monks,  stiil  remained  in  a  state  of  mental  vassal- 
age. The  personal  merit  of  this  missionary 
will  bear  no  comparison  with  that  of  the  first 
Christian  apostles.  While  Paul  and  his  bre- 
thren, in  their  purneys  for  the  propagation  of 
ihe  gospel,  exposed  themselves  to  innumerable 


perils,  without  any  prospect  of  temporal  advan- 
tage, this  apostle  travelled  under  the  protection 
of  princes,  enjoyed  the  support  and  assistance  of 
the  civil  power,  and  found  iiis  spiritual  labours 
the  direct  path  to  worldly  honour  and  emolu- 
ment. A  pope  was  his  master ;  a  king  was 
first  his  patron,  and  then  his  disciple ;  and  the 
sole  government  of  his  new  church,  with  all  the 
advantages  of  supreinacy  in  a  well-arranged 
hierarchy,  was  his  recompense.  That  which 
decisively  fixes  the  reproach  of  inordinate  am- 
bition upon  his  character  is,  tliat  he  not  only 
eagerly  seised  the  metropolitan  dignity  in  the 
English  church  before  it  was  well  formed,  but 
endeavoured  to  bring  the  ancient  and  indepen- 
dent British  churches  under  his  yoke ;  and  that, 
meeting  w  ith  more  resistance  than  he  expected 
from  the  free  spirit  of  the  ancient  Britons,  his 
haughty  teiT\per  could  not  brook  the  opposition, 
and  he  at  least  meditated  revenge.  We  can 
only  judge  of  the  character  of  this  apostle  by 
his  actions,  imperfectly  recorded,  for  none  of 
his  writings,  reinain.  Bede,  Hist.  Ecc.  Gent. 
Ang.  Huntington^  Hist.  fVarton.  Angl.  Sacra. 
Godwin.  Prissul.  Angl.  Chron.  W.  Thorn  ap. 
Decern  Script.  Cav.  Hist.  Lit.  Dupin.  Biogr. 
Brit.—E. 

AUGUSTULUS,  or  Romulus  Augus- 
tus, is  remarkable  in  history  only  as  be- 
ing the  last  of  the  Roman  emperors  of  the 
west.  He  was  the  son  of  the  patrician  Ores- 
tes, who,  after  effecting  the  deposition  of 
Julius  Nepos  by  means  of  the  troops  in  Gaul 
of  which  he  was  general,  chose  to  decline'  the 
imperial  rank  himself,  but  raised  his  son  to  the 
throne  in  the  year  476.  As  Augustulus,  how- 
ever, was  yet  very  young,  his  father  took  upon 
himself  the  administration  of  affairs.  One  year 
had  not  elapsed,  before  Odoacer,  chosen  by  the 
barbarians  who  served  in  the  Roman  armies  as 
their  leader,  marched  to  Italy,  of  which  he 
assumed  the  title  of  king.  He  took  Pavia,  and 
put  to  death  Orestes,  who  had  shut  himself  up 
in  that  city;  and  proceeding  to  Ravenna,  got 
possession  of  the  young  emperor,  whom  he 
stripped  of  all  the  imperial  ensigns,  and  obliged 
to  signify  his  own  resignation  to  the  Roman 
senate.  The  life  of  Augustulus  was  spared ; 
and  he  was  sent  by  the  conqueror  with  his 
family  to  reside  at  the  Lucullan  villa  in  Cam- 
pania, with  a  handsome  annual  appointment. 
Thus,  in  the  person  of  a  youth  who  united 
the  names  of  the  first  king  and  first  emperor  of 
Rome,  was  the  Roman  empire  finally  extin- 
guished about  507  years  after  the  battle  of 
Actium,  and  1324  from  the  foundation  of 
Rome.     Gibbon.  Univers.  Hit. — A. 


AUG 


(     475     ) 


AUG 


AUGUSTUS.  Caius  Julius  C.csar 
OcTAviANUS  Augustus,  originally  called 
Caius  Octavius,  was  the  son  of  a  father  of  the 
same  name,  andof  Atlia,  daughter  of  Julia,  the 
sister  of  Julius  Casar.  The  Octavian  family 
was  originally  settled  at  Vclitrse,  in  the  country 
of  the  Volsci.  That  branch  of  it,  from  which 
Augustus  sprung,  arrived  at  opulence  in  the 
equestrian  rank;  and  his  father  was  the  first 
member  of  it  who  was  raised  to  the  scnatorian 
order.  This  peison,  after  serving  tlic  office  of 
praetor,  was  sent  to  command  in  Macedonia, 
where  he  obtained  reputation  both  in  his  civil 
and  military  capacity.  Octavius,  of  whom  we 
are  writing,  was  born  during  the  consulate  of 
Cicero,  in  the  year  of  Rome  689,  R.  C.  62.  He 
lost  his  father  in  his  infancy,  and  his  mother 
contracted  a  second  marriane  with  Lucius  Mar- 
cius  Philippus.  By  the  care  of  his  mother  and 
father-in-law  he  received  a  very  liberal  educa- 
tion in  Rome;  and  such  was  his  proticience  in 
the  art  of  public  speaking,  that  he  pronounced 
the  funeral  eulogy  of  his  grandmother  Julia, 
when  only  twelve  years  old.  His  eaily  maturi- 
ty of  judgment  and  discretion  of  behaviour  ren- 
dered him  a  favourite  with  his  great-uncle  Julius 
Casar,  who  declared  his  design  of  ado])ting  him 
should  he  have  no  children  of  his  own;  and  in- 
tended to  have  taken  liim  into  Spain  to  learn  the 
military  art  under  himself  in  the  war  with  Pom- 
pey's  sons,  had  not  his  mother  detained  liim  on 
account  of  indisposition.  He  was  at  Apollonia 
in  Epirus,  studying  eloquence  under  Apollodo- 
rus  a  famous  Greek  rhetorician,  when  the  news 
reached  him  of  his  uncle's  tragical  end,  and  of 
his  own  adoption.  Contrary  to  the  timid  ad- 
vice of  his  friends,  he  set  sail  for  Italy,  to  disco- 
ver on  the  spot  the  real  state  of  parties,  and  to 
pursue,  as  occasion  pointed  out,  those  .schemes 
of  ambition  which  appear  from  the  first  to  have 
taken  possession  of  his  soul.  On  landing  at  a 
small  port  near  Brundusiuni,  he  was  waited 
upon  bv  a  deputation  from  the  soldiers  ot  his 
uncle  assembled  at  that  town,  and  was  brought 
to  it  with  triumph,  as  the  heir  and  avenger  of 
Cssar.  Here  he  solemnly  declared  his  adop- 
tion, assumed  the  name  of  his  uncle  with  the 
addition  of  Octaviavus,  placed  himselt  at  the 
head  of  the  veterans,  intcrce|ned  tor  his  own  use 
the  tribute  passing  from  the  transmarine  pro- 
vinces to  tlic  capital,  as  well  as  the  otiici  |)ublic 
monev  at  Brundusiuni,  and  then  took  his  route 
through  Campania  for  Rome.  Such  a  decided 
conduct  in  a  youth,  who  had  but  just  entered 
his  nineteenth  year,  seems  to  denote  that  fitness 
for  command,  which  renders  his  aftcr-sueccss  in 
jifc  not  less  a  natural  coni,cquciiCc  of  his.  talents 


and  excilions,  than  an  instance  of  the  peculiar 
good  fortune  which  has  been  supi^osed  to  have 
been  attached  to  him. 

At  Rome  two  panics  divided  the  state  ;  that 
of  the  republicans  headed  bv  the  conspirators 
against  Caesar  ;  and  that  of  Antonv  and  I.epi- 
dus,  preten<ling  to  be  Cse^ar's  avengers,  but  tc- 
ally  aiming  to  establish  for  themselves  a  power 
above  the  laws  The  latter  was  at  this  juncture 
triumphant,  and  the  consul  Antonv  ruled  wirfi 
almost  sovereign  sway.  Octavia'nus  paid  hi« 
first  visit  at  the  villa 'of  Cicero  near  Cum^, 
torcreeingthe  advantage  of  gaining  to  iiis  inter- 
est that  great  orator  and  statesman,  who  stood, 
as  it  were,  aloof  from  both  j)arties,  but  who  was 
at  that  time  principally  under  the  intluencc  of 
fear  and  distrust  of  Antonv.  VVlicn  Octavia- 
nus  approached  Rome,  he  was  met  by  most  of 
the  magistrates,  the  soldiery,  and  people  ;  but 
Antony  forbore  to  show  him  any  marks  of  at- 
tention. His  first  step  was  to  procure  the  legal 
ratification  of  his  adoption,  which  was  done  in 
the  most  public  and  solemn  manner.  He  then 
waited  upon  Antony,  and  after  proposing  a  mu- 
tual friendship,  demanded  ot  him  the  money  that 
Ca?sar  had  left  in  order  10  pay  his  legacies.'  An- 
tony, whose  pride  was  as  nuieh  piqued  by  the 
young  man's  spirit  as  his  avarice  and  ambition 
wxre  thwarted  by  his  pretensions,  treated  him 
with  much  haughtiness  ;  and  Tarious  occasions 
ot  ditlerencc  soon  occurred,  in  which  Ociavia- 
nus  constantly  gained,  and  Antony  lost,  tlie  fa- 
vour of  the  public.  'J'lie  friends  of  the  Cesa- 
rean family  mediated  a  rcconcilialioii  between 
them,  founded  on  their  common  interests  in  op- 
posing the  party  of  the  consjiirators  ;  but  as  fast 
as  one  breach  was  healed,  another  disclosed  it- 
self. Their  enmity  proceeded  to  such  a  length, 
that  Octavianus  was  charged,  and  not  without 
some  probable  ground,  with  attempting  to  pro- 
cure the  assassination  of  Antonv  ;  and  finding 
that  his  rival  was  drawing  together  an  armv,  lie 
went  into  Campania,  collected  a  large  l-idv  of 
Cxsar's  veterans  settled  there,  aiulnuiched  into 
Rome,  though  invested  with  no  public  charac- 
ter or  authority  whatsoever.  He  aftectcd  to  be 
much  governed  in  his  proceedings  by  ihc  coun- 
,sel  of  Cicero,  whom  he  ajipcars,  though  so 
young,  to  have  complcely  deceived  ;  and  per- 
ceiving the  scnatorian  party  to  be  very  power- 
ful, he  united  himself  witli  it,  and  ai  ceptcd  a 
command  against  Antony  whcndiclaicd  a  piib- 
lie  ei.cniy.  He  aecmnpanird  t'le  ainiics  of  the 
new  consuls  Hinius  and  Pan'^a  to  the  relief  of 
Decimus  Brutus  in  Mutina,  where,  in  the  tint 
b'.utlc  fought  between  the  consular  troops  and 
those  of  Antony,  he  ik  reproached  by  Amonjr 


AUG 


(    476    .) 


AUG 


with  having  behaved  in  a  verv  cowardlv  man- 
ner ;  in  the  second,  he  is  said  to  have  performed 
all  the  duties  of  a  general,  and  even  of  a  soldier. 
The  death  of  both  consuls,  which  left  Octa- 
vianus  master  of  the  whole  victorious  army, 
■was  so  fortunate  an  occurrence,  that  he  was 
Suspected,  though  apparently  without  reason,  of 
having  contributed  to  it.  Hirtius  was  killed  in 
the  held  ;  and  Pansa,  when  dying  of  lus 
Wounds,  showed  great  affection  for  Octavianus, 
and  earnestly  advised  him  to  agree  with  Antony, 
and  join  him  against  the  republican  partv,  as 
tlie  only  measure  of  safety  to  himself.  This 
advice  sank  deep  into  his  mind  ;  and  the  senate 
soon  after  impoliticly  treating  him  with  neglect, 
and  accumulating  honours  on  Decimus  Brutus, 
whom  he  hated  as  one  of  the  assassins  of  Cae- 
sar, he  determined  upon  a  reconciliation  with 
Antony.  This  leader,  after  having  been  driven 
out  of  Italy,  had  artfully  seduced  the  whole  ar- 
my of  Lepidus  in  Gaul  to  his  party  ;  and,  be- 
ing joined  by  PoUio,  Plancus,  and  Ventidius,  was 
at  the  head  of  a  very  numerous  army,  ready  to 
re-enter  Italy.  Octavianus,  meantime,  re- 
mained at  Bononia  with  a  body  of  troops  ;  and 
attempted,  through  the  means  of  Cicero,  to  ob- 
tain the  consulate,  but  without  success.  The 
senate,  however,  alarmed  at  the  accounts  from 
Gaul,  decreed  the  luanagement  of  the  war  to 
Octavianus  in  conjunction  with  D.  Brutus. 
But  Octavianus  had  already  made  a  treaty  v^ith 
Antony ;  and  he  employed  the  legal  command 
given  him  in  marching  his  army  to  Rome  to 
demand  the  consulate.  The  republicans  made 
some  preparations  for  resistance  ;  but  the  affec- 
tions of  tlie  soldiery  and  people  were  too  much 
on  the  side  of  Octavianus  to  give  any  chance 
for  success.  He  was  received  in  Rome  with 
the  loudest  acclamations,  and  was  unanimously 
declared  consul  by  the  people,  though  he  had 
not  yet  completed  his  twentieth  year.  One  of 
his  first  acts  in  his  consular  ofEce  was  to  pro- 
lurc  the  legal  condemnation  of  all  who  had 
been  concerned  in  the  death  of  Cssar.  He  then 
caused  the  decrees  against  Antony  and  Lepidus 
to  be  revoked,  and  invited  them  into  Italy.  As 
they  advanced  he  proceeded  to  meet  t!;em  ;  and 
the  place  of  interview  was  an  island  formed  by 
the  Rhenus,  now  Reno,  a  small  river  wliich  falls 
into  the  Po.  Here  was  planned  that  famous 
scheme  of  power  called  the  triumvirate,  the 
principle  of  which  was  an  equal  partition  of 
authority  for  five  ensuing  years  between  the 
three  chiefs,  who  were  to  new-model,  and,  as 
they  styled  it,  leform  the  commonwealth.  It 
was  cemented  by  the  detestable  proscription, 
which  was  to  cut  off  all  their  enemies  public 


and  private,  and  to  fill  their  treasury  by  confis- 
cations. Tliey  mutually  sacrificed  to  each 
other  some  of  their  nearest  friends  and  relations  ; 
and  the  chief  offering  made  by  Octavianus  was 
the  head  of  his  venerable  but  deluded  friend  and 
counsellor,  Cicero.  Another  sacrifice  which 
he  was  called  upon  bv  the  army  to  make,  was 
that  of  his  contracted  bride  Servilia,  whom  he 
liad  espoused  very  young,  and  was  obliged  to 
divorce,  in  order  to  strengthen  the  confederacy 
by  an  union  with  Clodia,  daughter  of  the  noto- 
rious tribune  Clodius,  by  Ful\  ia,  now  the  wife 
of  Antony.  This  marriage,  however,  was  ne- 
ver consummated.  The  triumvirs  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Rome,  where  they  put  in  execution 
their  abominable  policy,  and  tilled  the  city  with 
blood  and  rapine.  Octavianus  is  said  by  his 
biographer  Suetonius,  though  first  reluctant  in 
signing  the  fatal  decree,  to  have  been  more 
cruel  and  inexorable  than  the  rest  in  executing 
it ;  and,  after  the  proscription  was  declared  to 
be  at  an  end,  he  openly  pronounced  that  he  still 
reserved  to  himself  the  liberty  of  punishing  the 
guilty.  He  and  Antony  then  occupied  them- 
selves in  preparations  against  Marcus  Brutus  and 
Cassius,  who  had  made  themselves  masters  of 
most  of  the  provinces  in  the  east.  Transporting 
their  armies  to  Greece,  they  met  the  republican 
leaders  in  the  plains  of  Philippi,  where  the 
grand  contest  was  decided  in  two  battles.  A  well- 
timed  dream  of  the  physician  of  Octavianus, 
together  with  the  remains  of  a  icvtr,  gave  him  a 
plausible  pretext  for  absenting  himself  from  the 
first  combat,  in  which  Brutus  defeated  his  divi- 
sion of  the  army  with  great  slaughter,  while 
Antony  had  a  like  success  against  that  of  Cas- 
sius. In  the  second  battle,  the  wing  commanded 
by  Octavianus  was  equally  unfortunate ;  but  the 
whole  contest  was  ended  by  the  victory  of  An- 
tony and  death  of  Brutus.  The  body  of  this 
patriot,  after  being  treated  with  respect  by  An- 
tony, was  insulted  bv  Octavianus,  who  caused 
the  head  to  be  cut  off  in  order  to  be  thrown  be- 
fore CcEsar's  statue.  Other  instances  of  mean 
and  cruel  revenge  in  this  young-  leader  made  him 
appear  as  much  inferior  to  his  brother-triumvir 
in  generosity,  as  in  military  virtue.  Some  sto- 
ries of  his  cold-blooded  cruelty  are  truly  sliock- 
ing,  and  would  be  scarcely  credible,  had  not  his 
own  friends  apologised  for  them,  as  being  the 
acts  of  a  mind  participating  in  the  sickness  of 
the  body.  Indeed  his  health  was  so  injured  by 
this  campaign,  that  on  his  landing  at  Brundu- 
sium  his  life  was  despaired  of. 

On  returning  to  Rome,  he  had  the  hard  task 
of  satisfying  the  soldiery  by  distributions,  of  the 
forfeited  lands  ;  in  wiiich  business  he  incurred 


AUG 


(    477    ) 


AUG 


tome  serious  danf^ers,  which  nothing  but  great 
calmness  and  dissimulation  could  have  averted. 
He  was  involved,   too,   in  an  actual  civil  war 
through  the  violence  of  Fulvia,   and  Antony's 
brother  Lucius.     This,  however,  was  soon  tcr- 
ininated  by  tlie  activity  of  his  generals,  who  ob- 
liged Lucius  to  capitulate  with  his  forces  in  Pc- 
rusia.     Tliis  unhappy  town,  which  had  shown 
an  inviolable  attachment  to  Lucius,  was  punish- 
ed with  inhuman  barbarity  by  Octavianus,  who 
gave  it  up  to  plunder,  and  condemned  to  death 
all  its  senate,  in  number  three  hundred.    To  the 
supplications   and   remonstrances   of  some   of 
them,  he  answered  with  characteristic  insensi- 
bility, "  You  must  die."     Their  butchery  was 
a  pious  ofFcring  at  an  altar  erected  to  the  manes 
ot  the  deified  Julius.     Antony,  who  came  to 
support  his  party  in  this  short  war,  found  it  ter- 
minated ;  and  a  new  agreement  was  made  be- 
tween him  and  Octavianus,  in  which  they  shared 
between  them  the  Roman  empire,  leaving  to 
Lepidus  the  African  provinces.    Octavianus,  in 
this  partition,  had  Rome  and  the  west ;  and  his 
sister  Octavia,  by  marriage  with  Antonv,  was 
the  cement  of  their  union.     The  triumvirs  had 
then  a  war  to  maintain  with  Sextus  Pompev, 
who,  being  master  by  sea,  reduced  the  capital 
to  great  distress  for  want  of  corn.     An  accom- 
modation with  him,  therefore,  became  necessa- 
ry, which  took  place  under  circumstances  of 
apparent  friendship,  but  such   as  could  not  be 
durable.     In  the   interval    of  domestic    peace, 
made  more  welcome  by  the  permitted  return  ot 
most  of  the  proscribed  who  were  living.  Octavia- 
nus marched  into  Gaul,  where  he  easily  reduced 
some  revolted  nations.      When  he  came  back  to 
Rome,  lie  found  a  new  war  w  ith  Pompey  inevi- 
table, and  began  preparing  for  it.     In  the  mean 
time  he  was  captivated  by  the  charms,  pci-onal 
and  mental,   of  tlie  celebrated  Livia,  then  the 
wife  of  Claudius  Tiberius  Nero.     He  iiimself 
was  marrial  to  Scriboaia,  the  sister  ot  Scribo- 
nius  Libo,   whom  he  had  taken,  chieflv   from 
political  motives,  after  his  lepudiation  of  Clo- 
dia.     But  though  she  had  borne  him  a  daughter, 
and  Liwa  was  advanced  in  pregnancy,  so  little 
was  his  delicacy  and  so  imperious  his  tyraniiV, 
that  he  divorced  Scribonia ;  and,  causing  Livia 
to  be  divorced  from  her  husbai'd,  immediately 
married  her.     Witliin  tiirce  m')nths  she   was 
deliveicd  of  a  son  named  Tiberius,   attci  wards 
cmperur.     The  maritime  war  bctwi.  jn  Octavia- 
nus and  Pompey  was  in  the  beginning  disastrous 
to  the  first,  who  underwent  much  personal  dan- 
ger in  an  action  in  the  scraits  of  Messina,  and 
lost  several  fleets  by  shipwreck  and  defeat.     '  is 
able  and  faitliful  lieutenant  Agrippa,  however, 


retrieved  his  affairs ;  and  after  the  junction  of 
Antony's  force,  a  general  engagement  ensued, 
in  which  Pompey  was  entirely  defeated.  [See 
Marcus  Agrippa].  I^pidus,  who  had  unit- 
ed his  troops  to  those  of  Octavianus  in  Sicily, 
next  liad  a  difference  with  Iiis  colleguc  ;  but 
such  was  the  insignificance  of  his  character,  that 
his  whole  army  went  over  to  Octavianus,  who 
in  this  affair  displayetl  much  conduct  and  pre- 
sence of  mind.  Lepidus  was  deposed  from  his 
triumviral  authority  ;  and  so  contemptible  did 
he  appear,  that  he  was  suffered  to  live. 

The  Roman  world  was  now  governed  by  a 
duumvirate;  a  panncrship  of  authority  which,  it 
was  evident,  could  not  last  long.      VS'hile  Anto- 
ny, advancing  to  old  age,  acted  the  part  of  a 
heedless  dissipated  youth  enslaved  to  love  and 
pleasure,  the  youthful  Octavianus  was  the  cool 
and  prudent  statesman,  making  his  advantage  of 
every  false  step  of  his  collcgue,  and  playing  the 
game  of  ambition  with  the  skill  of  a  master.  He 
took  pains  to  ingratiate  himsvlf  with  the  people 
ot  Rome,  whose  gratitude  he  in  some  measure 
deserved  by  the  restoration  of  peace  and  i)lcntv  to 
all  Italy.     His  prudent  and  generous  action  of 
throwing  into  the  fire  unojiened  a  number  of 
letters  from   senators,  found  among  Pompey's 
papers,  seemed  an  earnest  of  a  milder  spirit  of 
government.     He   likewise   solemnly  declared 
his  intention  of  resigning  his  unconstitutional 
power  as  soon  as   Antony  should  return  from 
his  Parthian  war.  In  the  mean  time  be  accepted 
of  the  important  dignity  of  perpetual  tribune  of 
the  people,  which   rendered   his  person  sacred 
and    inviolable.     The  progress  of  those  diffe- 
rences with  Antony,  which  terminated  in  a  new 
civil  war,  has  been  related  in  the  life  of  that  tri- 
umvir [See  Marc  Antony],  and   it  will  be 
sufficient  at  present  to  touch  on  the  princip;il 
events.     After  Octavianus  had  excited  the  in- 
dignation of  the  people  against  Antony  by  va- 
rious charges,  and  particularly  by  the  recital  of 
his  will,   which  he  forcibly  took  from  the  cus- 
tody of  the  Vestal  virgins;  he  ptocurcd  a  decice 
of  war  against  Cleopatra  alone  ;  and,  raising  a 
forte  less    numerous  but    more  efTcciive  than 
that  of  Antony  by  sea  and  land,   he  proceeded 
to  the  decision  in  the  Ambracian  gulf.     In  the 
famous  battle  of  Actium,  fought  B.  C.  ^i,  Oc- 
tavianus  was    present,    and    commanded   one 
win",  but  the  victory  is  attiibuted  to  the  con- 
duct of  iiis  gicat  admiral  Agtippa.      It  was  this 
siJcces"-'  w!  ich  made  him  master  of  the  Roman 
w(  ild ;  (or,  though  Antony  retired  to  Egypt,  and 
still  maintained  a  countenance  of  resistance,  all 
the  rest  of  the  empire  was  abandoned  to  the  vic- 
tor.    Octavianus,  the  ensuing  year,  followed 


AUG 


(    478     ) 


AUG 


his  rival  into  Eg\-pt,  and  there  terminated  tlie 
war.  With  his  u<;ual  coolnos<!  he  derided  An- 
tony's proposal  of  finislimg  their  dispute  by 
single  combat,  telling  hira  "  that  he  miglit  find 
many  other  ways  to  die,"<and  he  trusted  to  his 
own  superiority  of  force,  and  the  treachery  of 
Cleopatra.  He  gave  a  magnificent  funeral  to 
this  distinguished  pair;  but  he  sacrificed  to  his 
own  security  the  eldest  son  of  Antony  bv  Ful- 
vi.-i,  and  C.Tsarion,  the  supposed  son  of  fulius 
Ciesar  by  Cleopatra.  He  received  the  rest  of 
the  Antonian  familv  to  favour  ;  and,  upon  the 
whole,  used  his  final  success  with  modera- 
tion. 

He  remained  in  the  east  two  years,  settling 
all  the  affairs  of  Egypt,  Greece,  Syria,  Asia 
Minor,  and  the  islands.  On  his  return  to  Rome 
he  triumphed  three  successive  days  with  great 
splendour.  And  now,  having  reached  that  sum- 
mit which  had  been  the  gre-it  object  of  his  am- 
bition, he  felt  himself  considerably  perplexed  in 
determining  upon  the  mode  of  his  future  autho- 
rity. That  he  really  entertained  thoughts  of  re- 
signing the  power,  to  the  acquisition  of  which 
he  had  sacrificed  so  much,  does  not  appear  pro- 
bable ;  yet  the  conference  on  this  subject  with 
his  confidential  ministers,  Maecenas  and  Agrip- 
pa,  mentioned  by  historians,  may  have  a  foun- 
dation in  truth.  The  generous  advice  of  Agrip- 
pa,  that  he  should  reinstate  the  republic,  and  re- 
turn into  the  rank  of  citizens,  was  not  likely  to 
be  followed  ;  and  the  counsel  of  Maecenas,  that 
he  should  retain  the  sovereign  authority  under 
some  title  that  might  not  shock  the  prejudices  of 
the  people,  and  preserving  as  much  as  possible 
the  semblance  ot  the  old  constitution,  was  inucli 
better  suited  to  his  character.  After  he  had  de- 
termined upon  the  latter  plan,  he  began  to  court 
and  amuse  the  people,  to  new-model  the  senate 
and  fill  it  with  his  creatures,  to  annul  the  severe 
laws  of  the  triumvirate,  to  beautify  the  city, 
and  to  reform  various  abuses,  as  a  preparation 
for  the  important  scene  he  Jiad  to  act.  At 
length,  in  his  seventh  consulate,  B.  C.  27,  the 
thirty  sixth  year  of  his  age,  he  went  to  the  se- 
nate-house, and,  in  a  studied  speech,  proposed 
to  abdicate  his  authority.  He  was  interrupted 
by  the  unanimous  entreaties  of  the  assembly, 
that  he  would  not  abandon  the  guidance  of  the 
commonwealth  ;  with  which,  after  a  due  af- 
fectation of  reluctance,  he  graciously  complied. 
On  the  motion  of  Munatius  Piancus,  a  new  ap- 
pellation vi-as  decreed  him,  which  might  express 
the  sacred  dignity  of  his  person  and  office.  It 
was  Augustus,  the  name  by  which  he  is 
henceforth  to  be  distinguished.  The  powers 
^'hich  he  united  in  himself  were  those,  1.  oilm- 


pcrator,  or  Emperor,  extended  to  signify  com- 
mander-in-chief of  all  the  forces  of  the  state, 
arbiter  of  peace  and  war,  and  uncontrouled  head 
of  the  executive  power,  as  well  over  the  citi- 
7,ens  as  the  soldiers;  2.  of  Proconsul,  giving 
him  the  legal  supremacy  in  every  province 
which  he  mightvisit ;  3.  of  Tribune,  rendering  his 
person  sacred,  and  conferring  on  him  the  right 
of  veto  on  all  public  proceedings  ;  4.  of  Censor, 
or  supcrintendant  of  manners  ;  5.  of  Supreme 
Pontiff,  or  the  head  of  religion.  6.  He  had  a 
diipensiition  (rom  observing  the  laws,  wlien  he 
should  think  fit  to  exercise  it.  To  the  ])receding 
privileges  of  an  absolute  prince,  was  added  the 
venerable  and  affectionate  character  oi father  of 
his  country,  implying  a  sort  of  paternal  relation 
towards  his  people.  All  these  honours  and 
powers,  however,  were  not  conferred  at  once, 
but  some  of  them  after  the  experience  of  several 
years.  Through  affected  moderation,  Augustus 
fixed  the  term  of  ten  years  for  the  possession  of 
his  authority,  leaving  its  renewal  to  the  opera- 
tion of  circumstances.  He  also  (lattered  the  se- 
nate bv  dividing  with  it  the  nomination  of  go- 
vernors of  provinces  ;  in  which  division  he  took 
care  to  reserve  to  himself  those  which,  on  ac- 
count of  their  exposure  to  foreign  enemies,  had 
the  largest  establishinent  of  military  force.  In 
general  it  was  the  spirit  of  his  policy  to  preserve 
as  closely  as  possible  ancient  names  and  forms, 
and  the  apparent  dignity  of  public  institutions, 
that  affairs  might  seem  to  go  in  their  usual  train, 
and  the  hand  that  directed  them  might  act  unob- 
served. Nor,  indeed,  were  the  senate,  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  officers  of  state,  without  a  portion  of 
real  authority  during  his  reign,  which  was  rather 
a  monarchy  than  a  despotism. 

As  it  is  not  here  intended  to  write  a  history 
of  the  period  but  of  the  man,  a  slight  view  of 
the  principal  public  events  will  suffice.  One 
stioke  of  the  adulation  lavished  by  the  senate 
upon  the  emperor  is  worth  mentioning,  since 
its  effects  remain  to  the  present  day — the  change 
of  the  name  of  the  month  Scxtilis  to  that  of 
y/«j«/?,  which  was  the  month  he  chose  to  bear  the 
honour  of  his  name,  as  that  in  which  he  took 
possession  of  his  first  consulate,  triumphed,  and 
put  an  end  to  the  civil  wars.  He  did  not  suffer 
the  attainment  of  his  wishes  to  sink  him  in  in- 
dolent repose ;  but  marching  into  Gaul,  with 
an  intent  of  undertaking  the  conquest  of  the 
British  isles,  he  was  summoned  into  Spain  by  a 
revolt  of  the  Cantabrians  and  Asturians,  and 
did  not  leave  the  country  till  he  had  completely 
subdued  those  warlike  nations.  The  Salassians, 
also,  a  people  at  the  fool  of  the  Alps,  were 
conqutied  by  his  generals :  and  their  lands  be- 


AUG 


(     479     ) 


AUG 


ing  liivide:'.  among  the  soldiers,  the  city  of  Au- 
gusta Prsetoria,  now  Aosta  in  Savoy,  was 
founded  as  llie  head  of  die  colony.  In  the  year 
B.  C.  25,  Augustus  mail ied  his  daughter  Julia 
to  his  nephew  and  destined  successor,  MarccUus, 
the  son  of  Octavia.  The  success  of  his  arms 
was  somewhat  interrupted  by  the  failure  of  an 
expedition  into  Arabia  under  ^lius  Gallus, 
who  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  army  by  disease. 
To  balance  this  misfortune,  Candace,  queen  of 
Ethiopia,  who  had  made  an  incursion  into  Up- 
per Egypt,  was  defeated  by  Petionius,  pursued 
into  her  own  country,  and  compelled  to  sue  for 
peace. 

The  year  B.  C.  23  was  distinguished  bv  a 
very  dangerous  illness  of  the  emperor,  who  was 
at  length  cured  by  his  physician  Antonius  Mu- 
sa,  who  deviated  from  common  practice  in 
employing  cold  baths  and  cold  drinks.  After 
this  attack  the  constitution  of  Augustus,  which 
liad  been  long  delicate,  became  stronger  than 
ever.  During  the  most  dangerous  period  of  his 
disease,  Augustus,  without  naming  a  succes- 
sor, gave  his  ring  to  Agrippa ;  a  preference 
which  was  the  source  of  much  displeasure  to 
Marcellus,  and  afterwards  occasioned  the  tem- 
porary secession  of  Agrippa  from  court ;  but 
this  young  prince  died  the  same  year,  to  the 
great  regret  of  the  emperor  and  people,  and 
Agrippa  returned  to  court,  and  ever  after  conti- 
nued the  most  confidential  friend  of  Augustus. 
Moderation  and  equity  now  appeared  to  be  the 
confirmed  principles  of  his  government  ;  and  he 
proved  how  much  he  had  risen  superior  to  a 
party  spirit,  by  substituting  to  himself,  for  the 
latter  part  of  his  eleventh  consulate,  L.  Sestius, 
who  had  been  qujestor  to  Brutus  at  PJiilippi, 
and  openly  declared  the  highest  veneration  for 
his  memory.  And,  observing  at  Milan  the  statue 
of  Brutus,  which  the  people  had  erected  as  a 
testimony  of  gratitude  to  him  for  his  conduct  as 
their  governor,  he  commended  them  tor  their 
attachment  to  a  friend  though  unfortunate,  and 
suffered  t!ie  statue  to  subsist.  Numerous  anec- 
dotes are  related  of  his  lenity,  and  the  familiar 
jTianncr  in  which  he  lived  witli  his  acquaint- 
ance and  the  people  at  large ;  and  in  the  respect  he 
paid  to  the  senate  andthe  courts  of  justice,  he  af- 
fected to  appear  no  more  tlian  a  private  citi/en. 
He  also  nobly  disregarded  libels  or  disrespectiul 
expressions  against  liimself;  and  lie  rejected  witii 
a  kind  of  horror  the  titles  of  lorj  and  tmutci , 
conceiving  thatthcy  implied  i/rti/r  as  th.circoun- 
ter|>art.  A  new  and  usurped  govcrnineiit,  how- 
ever, could  not  be  supposed  to  give  universal 
content  ;  and  a  consi)iracy  was  formed  against 
Augustus,  C.  C.  22,  at  the  head  of  which  were 


Fannius  Csepio,  and  Licinius  Murana.  It  was 
detected,  and  the  principals  v\eic  punished  ,  and 
no  more  severity  was  shown  on  the  occasion 
than  the  case  might  fairlv  justify.  Yet  it  gave 
rise  to  two  new  laws  of  additional  rigour  in  cri- 
minal justice — that  accused  persons  on  non-a|)- 
pearance  might  be  tried  and  condemned  as  if 
present — and  that  the  judges  in  criminal  cases 
should  vote  by  word  of  mouth  instead  of  ballot. 
Agrippa  was  about  this  time  raised  to  a  still 
neater  connexion  with  the  em|)eror,  by  a  mar- 
riage \\ith  Julia,  the  widow  of  Marcellus,  and 
daughter  of  Augustus. 

In  the  two  ensuing  years  the  emperor  visited 
his  eastern  provinces;  received  back  from  Phra- 
hates,  king  of  Parthia,  the  Roman  eagles  and 
captives  taken  from  Crassus — a  great  and  just 
subject  of  glory  to  Augustus  !  placed  Tigrancs 
on  the  throne  of  Armenia;  and  gave  audience 
to  embassadors  from  the  furthest  Indies,  and 
other  remote  nations.  His  renown  abroad,  as 
well  as  his  audiority  at  home,  were  so  firmly - 
established,  that  the  majesty  of  the  empire  never 
shone  more  conspicuously.  After  his  return,  he 
employed  himself  in  various  regulations  for  the 
perfection  of  the  government  and  correction  of 
abuses ;  most  of  them  manifestly  good  and  use- 
ful. He  reduced  the  number  of  senators  from 
one  thousand  to  six  hundred,  and  fixed  at  a 
liigher  rate  the  fortune  requisite  for  entering  that 
body.  A  very  essential  point  at  which  he  aimed 
was  the  reforination  of  manners,  particularly 
with  res]-)ect  to  the  nuptial  state  ;  though  it  must 
be  owned  that  rigour  in  this  point  ill  becainc 
him,  who  was  known  to  intrigue  with  the 
wives  of  several  men  of  rank,  and  had  taken 
great  licence  in  the  privilege  of  divorce.  Sump- 
tuary laws  aiid  regulations  respecting  the  puliiic 
s])ectacles,  and  the  suppression  of  riots  and  dis- 
orders among  the  spectators,  also  occupied  his 
attention.  In  the  year  of  Rome  735,  B.  C 
17,  he  celebrated  with  great  splendour  tlie  se- 
cular games,  on  wliieh  occasion  Horace  wrote 
an  ode,  preserved  in  his  woi  ks.  1  le  also  adopted 
his  two  graiidsdiis  Caius  and  l^iicius,  the  child- 
ren of  Agrippa  and  Julia.  The  CJcrmans 
causing  disturbances  on  the  frontiers  of  Gaul, 
Augustus  visited  that  country,  where  he  heard 
great  complaints  of  the  oppressions  and  exac- 
tions of  his  collector  of  the  tribute,  Licinius; 
but  the  crafty  minister  divencil  his  anger  by  pre- 
senting him  with  a  large  share  of  liis  ill-goileii 
spoils.  Drusus,  the  son  of  Livia,  B.  C.  15, 
made  an  expedition  against  the  Rlixtians,  (now 
the  Grisons)  and,  in  coi-juiKiion  wild  Tiberius, 
he  subdued  them  and  their  neighbours  the  Vin- 
dclicians.     Augustus  rcinaincu  in  Gaul  during 


AUG 


(    480    ) 


AUG 


this  war,  and  did  not  return  till  B.  C.  13.  The 
death  of  Lepidus  the  triumvir  this  year,  who 
had  never  been  deprived  of  his  office  of  supreme 
pontiff,  gave  Augustus  tlie  opportunity  of  as- 
suming it ;  and  his  first  act  in  that  character 
was  to  collect  all  the  pretended  books  of  divina- 
tion current  among  the  people  and  burn  them, 
reserving  the  Sibylline  books  only,  which  he 
Committed  to  the  custody  of  the  priests.  Dur- 
ing the  same  year  he  met  with  a  loss  which  af- 
fected him  nearly — that  of  his  faithful  and  ex- 
cellent friend  and  minister  Agrippa,  with  whom 
he  had  so  long  lived  in  the  closest  connexion. 
He  treated  his  memory  with  the  highest  honours, 
and  himself  pronounced  the  funeral  eulogy.  He 
caused  Tiberius  to  marry  the  widowed  Julia — 
an  act  of  tyranny  !  since  Tiberius  was  obliged 
to  divorce  a  wife  whom  lie  loved,  to  espouse 
one  with  whose  irregularities  he  was  well  ac- 
quainted. 

The  war  with  Germany  now  began  to  be 
pursued  with  ardour.  That  martial  people  had 
some  time  before  defeated  Lollius,  proconsul  of 
Gaul ;  but  Drusus  marching  into  their  country 
with  a  powerful  army,  obtained  great  successes 
against  some  of  their  confederate  tribes  in  four 
campaigns,  in  the  last  of  which  lie  carried  his 
arms  as  far  as  the  Elbe.  His  brother,  Tiberius, 
likewise  subdued  the  Pannonians  and  Dacians. 
But  the  joy  occasioned  by  these  victories  was 
damped  by  the  death  of  Drusus,  as  he  was  re- 
turning to  the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  A  peace 
soon  after  ensued  ;  and  the  temple  of  Janus 
was  again  shut  for  the  third  time  in  this  reign, 
in  which  state  it  continued  twelve  years.  Be- 
fore this  event  Augustus  had  lost  his  beloved  sister 
Octavia,  who  never  recovered  the  death  of  her 
«on  MarccUus  ;  and  soon  after  it  his  favourite 
minister  Maecenas  died,  who  had,  indeed,  for 
some  time  been  less  in  his  confidence  than  for- 
merly. The  emperor's  intrigues  with  Terentia 
the  wife  of  the  minister  are  alleged  as  the 
cause  of  their  coolness.  During  these  years 
Augustus  received  manv  warm  and  unequivocal 
demonstrations  of  the  affection  of  the  people  ; 
and  after  enjoying  the  imperial  authority  for 
twenty  years,  he  was  unanimously  requested  to 
accept  it  for  ten  years  more. 

The  young  Cjesars,  grandsons  to  the  empe- 
ror, now  began  to  come  forwards  on  the 
scene  ;  and  their  early  ambition  gave  him  some 
disquiet.  The  jealousies  that  arose  between 
them  and  Tiberius  so  disgusted  the  latter,  that 
he  desired  the  liberty  of  retiring  to  Rhodes, 
which  Augustus  reluctantly  granted;  but  he 
would  not  permit  him,  when  tired  of  his  situa- 
tion, to  return  to  Rome,  till  seven  years  after- 


wards.    In  order  to  grace  the  solemnity  of  the 
assumption   of   the    manly    robe   by   his   elder 
grandson,  Caius,  Augustus   accepted  the  con- 
sulate a  twelfth  time  ;  and  the  year,  before  its 
close,  was  rendered  memorable  by  the  birth  of 
Christ,  which  event  the   best  critics  date  four 
years  before  the  vulgar  ara.     Three  years   af- 
terwards   he    was  consul   the   thirteenth  time, 
when  Lucius  C^sar  took  the  manly  gown.    la 
this  year  his  domestic  peace  received  a  severe 
wound  by  the  discovery  of  the  scandalous  dis- 
orders of  his  daughter  Julia,  of  which  he  alone 
seems  to  have  been  long  before  ignorant.    The 
indignation  he  conceived  at  this  disgrace,  in- 
duced him  to  treat  with  great  severity  all  her 
gallants  and  confidents,  some  of  whom  he  put 
to  death,   and   banished    others-      Among   the 
former  was   Julius  Antonius,  the   son  of  the 
triumvir,   whom  he  had  distinguished  bv  many 
favours,  and  had  married  to  his  niece.     As  to 
Julia,  aftei    solemnly  divorcing   her  from  l"i- 
berius,  he  banished  her  to  the  isle  of  Pandataria, 
reduced  her   to  mere   necessaries,    and    would 
never  consent  to  her  recall.     Some  troubles  in 
Armenia  which  succeeded,  caused  Caius  Casar 
to  be  sent  into  the  east,    where   he  remained 
some  vears.     At  length,  A.  D.  3,  he  received 
a  wound,   the  consequences  of  which   proved 
fatal.     His  brother  Lucius  had  died  some  time 
before  at  Marseilles.     Thus  vanished  the  prin- 
cipal hopes  of  Augustus   of  perpetuating  his 
own    blood  on  the    imperial   throne.      He  re- 
called, though  with  reluctance,  Tiberius   from 
his  unhonoured  residence  at  Rhodes,  and  adopt- 
ed him  some  months  after  the  death  of  Caius. 
He   also  adopted  his  remaining  grandson,   A- 
grippa  Posthumus  ;  but  the  intractable  disposi- 
tion   and   gross    understanding    of    this   youth 
caused  him  afterwards  to  annul  the  adoption, 
and  send  him  into  exile.     A  truly  hopeful  sup- 
port  of  the   imperial   family  was  Germanicus 
son  of  Drusus,  whom  he  obliged  Tiberius,  his 
uncle,  to  adopt.     A  daughter  of  Julia,  of  the 
same  name,  followed   her  mother's    example, 
and  some  years  afterwards  was   similarly  pu- 
nished.    The  poet  Ovid  was  (as  some  suppose) 
in  an  unknown  manner  involved  in  her  crime, 
and  was  on  that  account  exiled  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Danube,  whence  all  his  adulation  could  not 
procure   his  recall.     These  unworthy  descen- 
dants were  the  source  of  bitter  affliction  to  Au- 
gustus, who  never  named  them  without  a  sigh, 
and  often  repeated  a  verse  from  Homer,  ex- 
pressing a  wish  that  he  had  lived  in  celibacy 
and  died  childless. 

The  year  four  was  distinguished  by  an  act 
of  clemency  which  confers  great  lionoui"  on  the 


AUG 


(    481     ) 


AUG 


character  of  Augustus.  Cinna,  grandson  of 
Ponipey,  a  man  of  rank  and  great  opulence, 
but  of  little  merit,  formed  a  conspiracy  against 
the  emperor's  life.  Every  thing  was  prepared 
for  its  execution,  when  die  whole  was  dis- 
closed by  one  of  the  persons  engaged  in  it. 
Augustus,  by  the  advice  of  Livia,  sent  for 
Cinna  to  his  closet,  and  after  enumerating  to 
him  all  the  favours  he  had  conferred  upon  liim, 
charged  him  with  the  ingratitude  of  his  design, 
at  the  same   time  repeating  so  many   circum- 


grce,  tliat  he  was  elevate*!  to  an  equal  sliarc  of 
the  imperial  authority.  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable of  the  remaining  acts  of  Augustus 
was  a  law  rendering  all  libels  and  defamatory 
writings  criminal,  and  subjecting  the  authors 
to  the  penalties  of  high-treason — a  law  appa- 
rently wtU  intended,  but  which  in  tlic  r(.igns 
of  succeeding  emperors  was  made  a  terrible 
engine  of  tvrannv  and  destruction.  He  also 
laid  a  foundation  for  future  dcspoii-.m  by  giving 
his  privy-council   the  same  authority  that  the 


stances  of  th.e  plot,  that  Cinna  could  not  doubt    senate  possessed,  and  by  diminishing  the  riglus 
of  its  discovery.     He  proceeded  to  say,    that    of  the  people  in  the  election  of  ma-'istratcs. 
being  still  more  desirous   of  having  him  for  a         His  advanced  age  and  declining  health  now 


friend,  than  punishing  him  as  an  enemy,  lie 
freely  forgave  him  for  all  that  was  past,  and 
should  rely  upon  his  future  fidelity.  Cinna, 
penetrated  \%ith  compunction,  and  overcome  by 
the  emperor's  goodness,  was  converted  into  one 
of  liis  most  zealous  friends.  Augustus  named 
him  consul  for  the  next  year  ;  and  Cinna,  at 
iiis  death,  appointed  the  emperor  his  sole  heir. 
Such  was  the  effect  of  this  truly  noble  conduct, 
that  this  was  the  last  conspiracy  foiined  against 
Augustus. 

Various  domestic  regulations,  and  war   re- 
newed in  Germany  and  Pannonia,  which  ex- 
ercised   the   military  talents    of  Tiberius    and 
Gcrmanicus,  are  the  principal  events  of  some 
succeeding  years.     The  encouragement  of  ma- 
trimony and  suppression  of  celibacy  was  a  poin: 
much  laboured  by  the  emperor  ;  and  a  famous 
law  called  tlic  Pa])ian-Popp:Ean  (from  the  con- 
suls of  the  year)  was  passed  for  this  purj)osc, 
appointing  great  privileges  and  exemptions  for 
the  married,  and   penalties  and  disabilities  for 
the  single.     The  year  nine  was  rendered  black 
in    the    Roman    annals   by   the  destruction   of 
Varus   and   three  entire  legions   in   Germany, 
where  Arminius  had  formed  a  powerful  con- 
federacy against  the   power   of   Rome.     The 
standards  and  two  of  the  eagles  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy,    who  took  a  pride  in  tram- 
pling upon  the  majesty  of  the  empire,  and  ag- 
gravating the  loss  by  every  species  of  insult  and 
indignity.     This   disaster  nearly  overcame   all 
the  fortitude  of  Augustus,  accustomed  to  glory 
and  jirosperity.      He  put  on  mourning,  sull'ered 
his  hair  and  heard  to  grow,  and  freciuenily  ex- 
claimed, in  a  paroxysm  of  grief  and  desjiair, 
"  Varus,  restore  me  my  legions  !"     The  .ser.se 
of  danger  from  a  martial  and  inveterate  foe  was 
added  to  that  of  disgrace.     Tiberius,  however, 
by  his  military  skill  repressed  the  ravages  of  the 
Germans,  and  in  great  measure  w  ipcd  cff  the 
ignominy.     Bv  his  conduct  he  obtained  the  ta- 
vour  and  confidcucc  of  Augustus  to  such  a  dc- 
VOL,  1. 


rendered  him   studious  of  nothing  r.o  much  as 
repose,  and  he  devolved  the  principal  cares  of 
empiie   upon   Tiberius.     It  is   said,  however, 
that  lie  manifested  a  returning  affevtion   to  his 
grandson  Agrijipa  Posihumus,  wliiiii  alarmed 
Livia  and  her  son;    and  Livia  has  iKtn   su- 
spected of  hastening  the  death  of  the  emperor, 
on  this  account,  by  poison.     But  the  pri)gre.>.s 
of  his  malady   is  a  .sufficient  refutation  of^ihis 
mere  suspicion.     A   weakness  of  his  siomacli 
and  bowels,  of  long  standing,  returned  with  in- 
creased violence,  fiom   which  he  sought  relief 
by  a  tour  to  Naples,  Bcneventum   and  the  deli- 
cious coast  of  Campania  and  its  neighbouring 
islands.     On  his  retrrii  towards  Ri  nic  he   was 
obliged  to  stop  at  Kola,   where  he  took  to  lii.s 
bed,  and  patiently  waited  ibc  approach  of  death. 
On  the  last  day  of  his  life,  he  called  for  a  mir- 
ror, and  caused  his  attendants  to  adjust  his  Iiair 
and  raise  his  sunken  cheeks  ;  then  ordering  his 
friends  to  be  summoned  round  his  bed,  he  asked 
them  "  if  he  had  tolerably  acted  in  the  panto- 
mime of  life?"     ^\'lu'n  tliey  had  .signified  their 
assent,  "  Then,"  added   he,  (using   the    form 
with   which  players   left  the  stage)   "  farewcl 
and  clap  your  hands."     After  they  had  retired, 
he  breathed  his  last  with  a   lender  adieu  in  the 
arms  of  Livia.     His  death  hap|M'nal  on  August 
19th  A.  D.  14,  in  the  year  of  Rome  765,  and 
tile  sevcnty-.sixth  of  his  age. 

To  the  preceding  recital  of  ]ii.  action.s  not 
much  riceds  Ik-  added  in  order  to  complete  his 
])ortr3iture.  He  was  a  remarkable  instance  of 
melioration  of  character  in  tl.ejirogrcss  ihiongh 
life;  and  the  features  of  the  blotxly  Ociu\iaiius 
arc  scarcely  to  be  recognised  in  the  mild  Au- 
gustus. Yet  the  cool  prudence  which  always 
adapts  means  to  cnd.s,  and  acts  rather  from  ge- 
neral views  of  expcdicnic,  than  ilic  influtme 
of  teini)orarv  feeling,  mav  bo  disicriitd  as  Ms 
giMiling  princij'le  through  all  ( hanges  of  cir- 
cumstances. As  a  caiulidatc  for  power,  and  the 
head  of  a  party,  be  was  cmftv,  dissembling. 


AUG 


(    482     ) 


A  V  1 


and  unrelenting ;    as   tlie    unresisted  sovereign 
of  a  miglity  empire,  whose  interest,  and,  doubt- 
less, his   pleasure,  too,  consisted  in  making  a 
people   happy    and  contented,  he  was  affable, 
generous,  humane,  forgiving,  and  in  many  re- 
spects a  model  of  a  wise  and  equitable  governor. 
He  healed  the  wounds  of  civil  war  by  showing, 
in  his  own  conduct,  a  superiority  to  party-dif- 
ferences.    As  a  compensation  for  liberty,    he 
gave  his  subjects  security,  ease,  prosperity,  and 
all  the  advantages  of  high  civilisation,  with  as 
little  as  possible  of  the  severity  of  restraint  and 
coercion.     He  filled  Rome  and  all  Italy  with 
improvements  of  every  kind  ;  made  highways, 
constructed   harbours,    raised  edifices    for   use 
and  convenience,  and  could  boast  that  he  re- 
ceived a  capital  built   of  brick,  and  left  one  of 
marble.     He  so  encouraged  letters,  that  one  of 
the  great  ages  of  excellent  human  productions 
takes   its   name  from   him.     Yet  in    this,    his 
good  sense  rather  than  his  genius  was  displayed  ; 
for  most  of  the  illustrious   writers  in  his  age 
were  formed  in  the  school  of  the  republic,  and 
he  had  only  the  easy  task  of  distinguishing  and 
rewarding  them.     They  repaid  his  liberality  by 
strains  of  adulation  which  perhaps  have  rather 
injured  their  reputation  than  served  his ;   yet  it 
does  not  appear  that  love  of  flattery  was  par- 
ticularly   his    foible.     In    private    life    he    had 
many  estimable  qualities  ;  and  his  affectionate 
attachment  to  his  family  and  friends,  liis  indul- 
gence without  weakness  to  his  dependents  and 
domestics,  his  simple  taste  in  expense,  his  so- 
briety and  frugality,  may  atone  for  some  early 
licentiousness,  and  for  a  disposition  to  gallantry 
which  continued  to  a  period  of  life  when  it  had 
lost  the  excuse  of  constitutional  warmth.     In 
most  of  his  actions  he  had  a  high  regard  to  de- 
corum ;  and  though  some  instances  of  irreligion 
are  related  of  his  early  years,  the  propensity  of 
his  mature  and  advanced  age  was  rather  to  su- 
perstition than  impiety.     He  bequeathed  to  his 
successors  the  important  advice  not   to  extend 
the  limits  of  an  empire  already  too  large ;  an 
advice  which  it  is  uncandid  to  attribute  to  envy. 
He  left  every  branch   of  the  administration  in 
perfect  order,  capable  of  going  on  regularly  in 
the  system  he  had  established.     On  the  whole, 
if  not  entitled  to  rank  among  the  greatest  and 
best  of  mankind,  he  will  be  ever  respected  as 
one  of  those  sovereigns  whose  personal  quali- 
ties had  a  great  influence  in  promoting  tlie  hap- 
piness of  the  people  he  governed. 

The  high  reputation  of  Augustus,"  and  his 
long  and  eventful  reign,  liave  rendered  him  the 
theme  of  many  writers,  of  whom  the  principal 
are  Suetonias,    Dio  Cassius,   Velleius   Pater- 


culus,  and  Tacitus.  Various  circumstances 
respecting  him  are  finely  recorded  in  the  poems 
of  Horace,  whose  panegyric  frequently  does 
not  pass  the  bounds  of  truth.  In  particular, 
his  introduction  to  the  first  epistle  of  the  second 
book  is  a  sober  and  judicious  summary  of  the 
emperor's  characteristic  merits : 

Cum  tot  sustineas  ct  tantancgotia  solus. 
Res  Ttalas  arinis  tuteris,  moribus  ornes, 
Legibus  emcndes ;  in  publica  commoda  pcccem. 
Si  longo  scnnone  murer  tua  tcuipora,  Cxsar. 

See,  also.  Odes  v.  and  xiv.   Book  iv. — A. 

AUGUSTUS,  king  of  Poland.     See  Fre- 
deric Augustus. 

AVICENNA,  or  Ebn-Sina,  an  Arabian 
philosopher  and  physician,  was  born  at  Assena 
near  Bochara,  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira  370, 
or  of  Christ  980.  He  possessed  a  ready  genius, 
and  a  wonderful  memory.  At  the  age  of  ten, 
he  had  made  a  great  progress  in  languages,  and 
could  repeat  the  whole  Koran  by  heart.  He 
was  put  under  the  care  of  a  celebrated  gardener 
who  had  the  reputation  of  understanding  per- 
fectly the  arithmetic  of  the  Indians,  astronomy, 
geometry,  and  the  other  branches  of  the  mathe- 
matics, and  soon  exhausted  the  whole  stock  of 
this  preceptor's  knowledge.  His  next  master 
was  Al-Abdallah,  a  philosopher,  whom  Avi- 
cenna's  father  engaged  to  instruct  him  in  his 
own  house.  Under  this  preceptor  he  studied 
logic  and  philosophy ;  but  soon  discovered, 
that  though  master  of  the  terms  of  logic,  Ab- 
dallah  was  unacquainted  with  the  principles  of 
the  art.  In  order  to  render  himself  a  more 
perfect  master  of  the  sublime  doctrines  of  phi- 
losophy, and  the  subtle  questions  of  logic, 
Avicenna  became  a  student  in  the  school  of 
Bagdat.  Here  he  prosecuted  his  studies  with 
indefatigable  industry,  but  not  without  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  a  fanatical  spirit.  When 
he  was  perplexed  with  any  logical  question,  it 
is  said  to  have  been  his  practice,  to  repair  to 
the  mosque,  and  pray  for  divine  illumination, 
after  which  he  fancied  that  he  received  the 
knowledge  he  had  sought  by  supernatural  com- 
munication. When  he  entered  upon  the  study 
of  theology,  he  began  with  reading  the  Meta- 
physics of  Aristotle,  which  he  read,  he  says, 
forty  times  without  understanding  it. 

Avicenna  united  with  the  study  of  philoso- 
phy that  of  medicine,  and  at  the  early  age  of 
eighteen,  having  completed  his  studies,  began 
to  practise  as  a  physician.  He  soon  acquired 
such  a  degree  of  reputation,  that  the  caliph 
consulted  him  with  respect  to  his  son  in  a  case 
which  perplexed  the  physicians  of  the  court. 


ABOALis  avicenne/mede'ci:^ 


A  V  I 


(    483    ) 


A  V  I 


flis  prescription  succeeded  ;  his  fame  Increased ; 
and  he  was  not  only  employed  as  a  physician, 
but  consulted  in  affairs  of  state.  Duriiig  this 
tide  of  prosperity,  Avicenna  had  no  small  de- 
gree of  influence  in  the  court  of  the  caliph,  and 
was  rapidly  increasing  his  possessions  ;  when 
an  unfortunate  occurrence  suddenly  removed 
him  from  the  court  to  a  prison.  The  sultan 
Jasoch-bagh  proposing  to  send  his  nephew  as 
his  representative  into  the  native  country  of 
Avicenna,  the  young  prince  obtained  per- 
mission to  take  Avicenna  with  him  as  his 
companion  and  physician  The  sultan  was 
not  long  afterwards  informed,  that  the  young 
prince  and  his  brother  were  meditating  a  rebel- 
lion. Upon  this,  he  immediately  sent  secret 
orders  to  Avicenna,  to  take  off  the  leader  of 
the  conspiracy  by  poison.  The  philosopher 
was  too  faithful  to  his  master,  to  fulfil  the  com- 
mission ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  thought  it  ex- 
pedient to  conceal  from  him  the  order  which  he 
had  received.  The  young  prince,  however,  by 
some  unknown  means  became  acquainted  with 
the  sultan's  design  against  his  life,  and  was  so 
highly  displeased  wiih  Avicenna  for  concealing 
from  him  so  important  a  circumstance,  that  he 
ordered  him  to  be  imprisoned.  Avicenna  fairly 
pleaded  in  his  justification,  that  the  conceal- 
ment \\as  necessary  for  the  prevention  of  great 
mischief:  but  the  prince  remained  inexorable, 
and  had  the  ingratitude  to  suffer  his  protector 
and  friend  to  remain  in  prison  till  his  death. 
Avicenna  is  said  to  have  hastened  his  end  by 
debauchery  :  he  died  in  the  year  1036,  at  the 
age  of  fiti:y-six  years. 

Avicenna  left  behind  him  many  writings,  but, 
notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  said  of  his  ge- 
nius and  learning,  contributed  little  to  the  im- 
provement of  philosophy.  His  metaphysical, 
logical,  and  physical  writings  are  iinperfcct  and 
obscure  representations  of  the  doctrines  of  Ari- 
stotle. Though  formerly  much  read,  not  only 
in  the  Saracen  but  the  Christian  sciiools,  they 
are  now  forgotten.  Ihey  consist  of  "  Twenty 
books  on  the  Utility  of  the  Sciences  ;"  "  The 
Heads  of  Logic  ;"  and  ])icccs  in  metaphysics  and 
morals.  Of  his  medical  works  the  principal  is 
entitled  "  Canon  MeJicinse,"  a  vast  compila- 
tion of  all  that  was  known  in  that  age  of  ana- 
tomy, botany,  patlioiogy,  thcrajieutics,  and 
surgery.  It  is  chiefly  borrowed  from  Galen 
and  otiicr  Greek  and  some  Arabian  writers,  and 
contains  very  little  from  the  author's  own 
sources.  Haller  speaks  of  it  as  most  intoleiably 
loquacious  and  diffuse ;  and  Freind  wonders 
that  it  should  have  acquired  so  much  esteem 
even  in  the  schools  of  Europe,  as  to  Ix;  the 


only  system  taught  in  them  till  the  revival  of 
letters.  The  number  of  epitomes  of  it  and 
commentaries  upon  it  has  been  very  great ;  and 
it  has  gone  through  a  variety  of  editions,  as 
well  in  the  original  Arabic  as  in  Latin  transla- 
tions. Several  smaller  works  of  Avicenna 
have  also  been  made  public  ;  as,  "  A  Treatise 
on  the  Heart  and  its  Faculties ;"  "  Canticum, 
or  a  Compendium  of  die  Medical  Art"  in  verse ; 
a  book  "  on  Regimen  ;"  another  "  on  Ace- 
tous Syrups;"  another  "on  Animals."  &c. 
Pope  Sixtus  IV.  ordered  the  works  of  this  phy- 
sician and  philosopher  to  be  printed,  in  the 
original  Arabic,  at  Rome,  in  1489.  A  Latin 
translation  of  them,  bv  Gerard  of  Cremona  ar.d 
others,  was  published  in  folio,  at  Venice,  in 
1595,  and  1658;  and  Vopiscus  Fortunatus 
published  a  new  translation,  with  notes  by  va- 
rious authors,  in  folio,  at  Louvain,  in  1658. 
Afassie  yit.  jfvicen.  apud  op.  renet.  1658. 
Leo  African,  c.  7.  Pococke,  Specim.  Hist.  j4ra/>. 
p.  362.  Herbelot,  p.  812.  N,  Anion.  Bib, 
Fi-l.  Hisp.  t.  ii.  p.  6.  D" Herbelot,  Btbt.  Orient. 
Fabricii  Bib.  Grtrc.  lib.  xiii.  c.  q.  Brucker, 
Moreri.  Freind' s  Hist,  of  Fhy.  Haller,  Bibl. 
Med.  Pract. — E. 

AVIENUS,  RuFus  Festus,  a  Latin  pocr, 
lived  towards  the  close  of  the  fourth  ccnturv, 
under  the  emperors  Gratian  and  Ihcodosius. 
The  works  attributed  to  him  are  translations  in 
Latin  verse  of  the  "  Plixnomena  of  Aratus," 
and  tiie  "  Pcriegesis  of  Dionvsius  ;"  a  descrip- 
tion in  iambic  verse  "  of  the  Maritime  Coasts ; 
.(Esop's  Fables"  in  elegiac  verse ;  "  the  Alle- 
gory of  the  Sirens;"  the  "  History  of  Livy" 
in  iambics  (a  strange  task,  mentioned  bv  Ser- 
vius  on  thc^neid) ;  and  the  "  Fables  of  Virgil," 
in  the  same  kind  of  veise ;  besides  a  few  other 
short  pieces.  Some  of  the  former  of  these  per- 
formances are  remaining,  and  show  him  to 
have  been  a  tolerable  versifier.  His  fables  have 
not  the  elegant  simplicity  of  Phxdrus,  nor  are 
very  fit  for  the  |>erusal  of  youth.  His  works 
were  edited  in  a  corrected  fonn  bv  Piihieus  in 
Paris,  T2mo.  1590.  The  best  cilition  is  that 
of  Cannegetier,  8vo.  1731.  Scarcely  any  thing 
is  known  of  the  autlu)r's  history,  and  even  hi* 
name  is  disputed,  some  MSS.  calling  him 
Anianus  and  Abidnus.  Vosiius  de  Port.  Lat. 
IJiiui  Gymld.     Hai^-ood,  Class. — A. 

AVILA,  GiLi.Fs  Gonzales,  a  Spanish 
ecclesiastic  and  historian,  Hourisluxl  the  I)cgin- 
ning  of  the  lyih  century.  He  was  a  native  of 
the  city  of  Avila,  trom  wlm'h  he  derived  his 
name.  He  studied  .nt  Rome,  and  acquired  .1 
great  knowledge  of  saclc^l  and  civil  historv.  On 
his  return  to  Spain,  he  was  appointed  to  aa 


A  V  I 


(     484     ) 


A  V  I 


ecclesiastical  benefice  at  S:ilamanca.  In  1612, 
he  was  called  to  Matlnd,  and  appointed  histori- 
ographer to  the  king.  He  died  in  1658,  aged 
ii|)\vards  of  eighty  years.  He  publislicd  in 
Spanish  "  The  History  of  the  Antiquities  of 
Salamanca,"  "  The  Theatre  of  the  Chinches 
of  the  Indies,"  Sec.  Morcr'i.  Nouv.  Diet. 
Hist.—F.. 

AVILER,  Augustin-Charles  d',  an 
eminent  French  architect,  was  born  at  Paris  in 
1653,  '"i"^!  from  his  early  youtli  addicted  liim- 
selt  to  the  study  of  architecture  Being  sent  by 
the  royal  academy  at  the  age  of  twenty,  to  jiur- 
suc  his  studies  at  Rome,  along  wilh  Antony 
Dcsgodets,  they  had  the  misfortune  of  being 
taken  by  an  Algerine  corsair,  and  carried  into 
slavery.  In  this  situation,  however,  he  did  not 
conceal  liis  talents,  hut  made  a  design  for  a 
grand  mosque  at  Tunis.  He  was  liberated  after 
a  captivity  of  sixteen  mondis,  and  pursued  his 
course  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  with  inde- 
fatigable ardour  for  five  years.  On  his  return, 
he  was  placed  under  Mansart,  first  architect  to 
the  king,  and  had  a  great  share  in  the  conduct 
of  all  public  works.  He  employed  his  leisure 
in  composing  a  "  Course  of  Architecture,"  the 
basis  of  which  was  tlie  work  of  Vignola  ;  but 
he  so  much  enlarged  that  wi  iter's  plan,  as  to 
render  it  a  complete  treatise  of  the  art.  It  is 
much  esteemed  for  its  method,  and  particularly 
for  the  definitions  of  architectural  terms  which 
have  been  adopted  into  the  best  Frencli  dictio- 
naries. The  first  edition  was  in  1 691,  2  vols. 
4to.  Several  successive  editions  of  this  work 
liave  been  published  at  Paris  with  additions. 
D'Aviler  had  before  published  a  translation  of 
Scamozzi's  architectural  works.  Not  choosing 
to  continue  in  a  suhaltern  station,  he  accepted 
an  invitation  from  the  city  of  Montpcllier  to 
superintend  the  construction  of  a  grand  trium- 
phal arch  to  the  honour  of  Louis  XIV.  He 
completed  the  work  to  universal  satisfaction, 
and  was  afterwards  appointed  architect  to  the 
province  of  Languedoc,  and  employed  in  a 
great  number  of  buildings  in  the  principal  towns 
there.  Among  the  rest,  he  built  the  archiejii- 
scopal  palace  at  Toulouse.  He  married  and 
settled  at  Montpellier,  where  he  died  in  1700. 
Aloreri. — A. 

AVIRON,  James  le  Bathelier,  a 
French  lawyer,  advocate  to  the  judicial  court 
of  Evrcux,  was  celebrated  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury for  his  knowledge  of  jurisprudence.  A  re- 
form having  been  made  by  Henry  III.  king  of 
France  in  the  provincial  laws  of  Normandy, 
Aviron  wrote  commentaries  upon  these  laws, 
which  were  much  admired.    Groulard,  the  pre- 


sident of  the  parliament  of  Normandy,  having 
obtained  the  manuscript  after  the  death  of  Avi- 
ron, published  the  work  without  the  name  of 
the  author :  being  upbraided  with  the  design  of 
appropriating  to  himself  the  credit  of  the  work, 
he  said,  "  The  work  is  so  excellent,  that  no 
one  will  doubt  whether  Aviron  or  Groulard 
was  the  author."  Aloreri.  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. 
— E. 

AVITUS,  Marcus  M.t.cilius,  emperor 
of  the  west,  was  a  native  of  Auvergne,  and 
descended  from  an  illustrious  family.  By  his 
virtues  and  talents  he  rose  in  the  reign  of  Va- 
lentinian  to  the  prsetorian  jirasfecture  of  Gaul  i 
and  after  retiring  from  the  troubles  of  the  time 
to  his  estate,  he  was  persuaded  to  undertake  an 
embassy  to  Theodoric  king  of  the  Visigoths,  in 
order  to  prevail  on  him  to  join  the  Romans 
against  Attila  ;  and  his  eloquence  proved  ef- 
fectual. Maximus,  the  next  emperor,  elevated 
him  to  the  chief  command  of  the  forces  in 
Gaul.  He  was  on  a  visit  to  Theodoric  II.  at 
Toulouse,  in  order  to  form  an  alliance  between 
him  and  the  Romans,  when  advice  came  of 
the  death  of  Maximus.  By  the  counsel  of 
Theodoric,  who  promised  to  support  him,  Avi  ■ 
tus  assumed  the  purple  from  the  representatives 
of  Gaul  in  455,  and  his  election  was  confirmed 
by  the  other  provincials,  though  reluctantly 
acquiesced  in  by  the  senate  of  Rome  and  the 
Italians.  He  was  recognised  by  Marcian,  em- 
peror of  the  east ;  and  proceeding  to  Rome, 
fixed  his  residence  there.  But  his  qualities,- 
though  respectable  in  peaceful  and  retired  life, 
were  not  suited  to  a  throne.  He  sunk  into 
luxurious  indolence,  and  even  indulged  in  plea- 
sures unbecoming  his  age,  so  that  the  Romans 
regarded  him  with  contempt  and  hatred.  Mean- 
time, count  Ricimcr,  a  distinguished  barbarian 
commander,  who  had  successfully  repelled  the 
Vandals,  returned  to  Rome  with  the  title  of  the 
deliverer  of  Italy.  It  was  his  pleasure  that  Avi- 
tus  should  reign  no  longer ;  with  wliich,  after 
a  short  struggle,  the  emperor  was  obliged  to 
comply,  having  worn  the  purple  only  fourteen 
mondis.  Ricimer  meant  no  personal  injury  to 
him,  and  permitted  him  to  be  ordiincd  bishop 
of  Placentia  ;  but  the  senate  insisted  upon  his 
death.  He  fled  towards  the  Alps,  meaning  to 
secure  himself  in  the  sanctuary  of  St.  Julian  at 
Brioude,  in  Auvergne ;  but  he  died  on  the  road, 
as  appears,  of  disease.  His  remains  were  in- 
terred in  St.  Julian's  church.  He  left  one  only 
daughter,  married  to  the  historian  and  poet, 
Sidonius  Apollinaris,  who  has  celebrated  his 
father-in-law  in  a  splendid  panegyric  now  ex- 
tant,    Univers.  Hist.     Gibban. — A. 


A  U  L 


(    485     ) 


A  U  L 


AVITUS,  Sextus  Alcimus  Ecdicius, 
a  Cfirisfian  divine,  bishop  of  Vienne,  in  Dau- 
phine,  brotlier  ot  ApoUinaris  bishop  of  Va- 
lencia, and  nephew  to  the  emperor  Avitus, 
flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  centurv. 
He  was  advai.ctil,  in  the  year  490,  to  the  see  of 
Vienr:C,  whit'i  liis  fatlicr  Isythius  Iiad  occu- 
pied. He  had  a  friendship  widi  Clo\is,  the 
first  Christian  king  ot  France,  and  contributed 
to  iiis  conversion.  This  prelate  was  a  7xalpus 
opponent  of  the  Arians.  He  brought  over 
Gondebaud,  king  of  the  Burgundians,  from 
this  sect  to  the  catholic  laitli,  and  obliged  him 
publicly  to  profess  his  conversion,  when  he  en- 
deavoured to  conceal  it  from  his  subjects.  He 
prccided  in  the  council  cf  Epaon  in  517,  and 
in  that  of  Lyons  in  523,  in  which  year  he  died. 
Avitus  wrotclctters,  sermons,  and  poems.  The 
letters  are  eighty-seven  in  number,  and  contain 
many  curious  particulars  respecting  the  disputes 
of  the  times.  The  only  homily  of  this  bishop 
which  remains,  is  on  the  Rogation-days,  in- 
stituted in  commenKjration  ot  the  deliverance  of 
Vienne  from  an  earthquake  and  fire  by  the 
prayers  of  St.  Mamertus.  The  pcems  are  on 
the  Mosaic  history,  aiid  in  praise  of  virginity. 
Neither  the  prose  nor  the  verse  of  Avitus  is 
entitled  to  much  praise  :  his  style  is  harsh,  ob- 
scure, and  intricate.  His  works  were  published 
by  Sirmond,  in  8vo.  with  notes  in  1643,  and 
afterwards  in  the  second  volume  ot  the  works 
of  Sirmond,  published  in  five  volumes  folio  at 
Paris  in  1696.  Luc  d'  Acheri  has  published,  in 
the  fifth  volume  of  his  Spicilegium,  the  confe- 
rence which  Avitus  had  with  the  Arian  bishops 
in  the  presence  of  Gondebaud.  The  poems  ot 
y\vitus  have  been  printed  separately  at  Franc- 
fort  in  1507,  at  Paris  in  1509,  and  at  lAons 
in  1536:  they  are  also  published  witli  those  of 
Marcus  Victor.  Isidore  dc  Fir.  Illust.  c.  13. 
Duf,in.  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  vol.  ii.  p.  463.  Morcri. 
Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

AULUS  GELLIUS,  called  also  by  some 
writers  Agcllius,  a  learned  Roman  grammarian 
and  critic,  flourished  at  Rome  his  native  city, 
in  the  second  century,  under  the  emperors  A- 
drian  and  Antoninus  Pius,  and  died  at  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurclius 
Antoninus.  [Much  more  pains  has  been  be- 
stowed upon  the  name  of  this  writer,  than  the 
question  deserves.  Thecriiical  leader  may  con- 
sult Lambecii  Cririca;  Lucubrationcs  :  Falslcr 
dc  Vit.  ct  Rtb.  Aul.  Gcll  :  Barthii  Adversaria 
lib.  XXXV.  c.  7  ;  Lips.  lib.  vi.  (liixst.  Episr. 
r.  8.  and  the  critical  and  elaborate  preface  to 
Pcloe's  translation  of  Noctcs  Attica*.]  He  stu- 
died grammar  lu.dcr  Sulpiciiis  ApoUinaris,  and 


rhetoric  under  Titus  Casiritius  and  Antonius 
Julianus.  In  his  youth,  he  visited  Athens,  and 
enjoyed  the  society  of  many  learned  men,  par- 
ticularly Calvisius Taurus,  Pcrcgrinus  Proteus, 
and  Herodes  Atticus.  To  gratify  a  laudable 
curiosity,  and  to  collect  literary  and  philoso- 
phical information,  he  travelled  through  a  great 
part  of  Greece.  On  his  return  to  Rome  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  and  jiracticc  of  the 
law,  and  was  appointed  a  judge.  He  was  con- 
versant with  the  ancient  writers  on  the  Roman 
law,  and  rankctl  among  his  friends  manv  re- 
spectable lawyers  of  his  own  time.  The  fre- 
quent citations  which  arc  made  ("rom  his  work 
by  writers  on  Roman  law  render  it  probable, 
that  he  possessed  a  considerable  share  of  pro- 
fessional reputation. 

The  "  Noctes  Atticx"  of  Aulus  Gcl!iu« 
may  be  justly  allowed  a  respectable  place  among 
the  treasures  of  antiquity.  The  author,  as  he 
himself  informs  us  in  his  preface,  gave  the 
name  of  "  Attic  Nights"  to  his  work,  from 
the  circumstance  that  a  great  part  ot  it  was 
written  vhile  he  resided  in  Athens,  and  fur- 
nished an  amusing  occupation  for  many  long 
winter  evening.s.  His  object  was,  to  provide 
his  children  as  well  as  himself  with  that  kind  of 
entertainment,  wiih  whicii  they  mip,lit  properly 
relax  and  indulge  themselves,  in  the  intervals 
of  more  important  business.  From  the  manner 
in  which  the  collection  was  made,  its  contents 
are  necessarily  miscellaneous,  and  ot  unequal 
value.  "  Whatever  book,"  savs  he,  "  came 
into  my  hand,  whether  it  was  Greek  or  Latin, 
or  whatever  1  heard,  that  was  cither  worthy  of 
being  recorded,  or  agreeable  to  my  fancy.  I 
wrote  down  without  distinction  and  without 
order."  These  minutes  Ijccorae  i)ie  basis  of 
this  woik,  in  which  the  author  takes  up  his 
collections  in  the  same  accidental  arrangement 
in  which  they  were  made,  and  comments  upon 
them.  The  work  consi'-ts  of  a  vast  varietv  of 
critical  observations  uiuni  authors,  of  historical 
and  biographical  anecdotes,  with  reflections  ;  of 
brief  discussions  on  various  topics,  grammati- 
cal, antiquarian,  moral,  philosophical,  ph\si- 
cal,  &c.  among  \Oiich,  if  many  things  be  tri- 
vial, or  uninteresting,  there  arc  also  much 
amusing  information,  and  many  ingenious  «.b 
scrvations  :  it  is  particularly  valuable,  as  a  large 
collection  of  fragments  of  ancient  authors,  iiot 
cl.sewherc  to  be  found.  Whatever  place  critics 
may  agree  to  assign  to  Aulus  Gcllius  among 
Roinan  aulhors  with  re  pcct  to  Laiiniiy.  he 
will  not  be  denied  the  praise  of  diligent  rcseareli, 
and  extensive  erudition.  This  work  was  first 
edited,  in  folio,  at  Rome  in  1469,  by  Swcin- 


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heim  and  Panartz,  and  notes  on  this  author 
were  published  the  same  year  at  Rome  by  the 
learned  John  Andreas,  bishop  of  Alcria.  The 
second  edition  was  pubHshed  in  1472  by  Jensen 
at  Venice ;  several  other  editions  appeared  in 
the  fifteenth  century.  Among  the  editions  of 
the  sixteenth  century  are  those  of  Aldus,  inSvo. 
at  Venice  in  1515  ;  at  Paris  with  the  notes  of 
Badius  Ascensius,  in  folio,  1519,  1524,  and 
1536  ;  at  Basil,  in  8vo.  with  the  notes  of  Mo- 
Sellanus,  in  1526  ;  and,  at  Paris,  with  the 
valuable  critical  researches  of  Henry  Stephens, 
in  8vo.  1585.  Later  editions,  worthy  of  no- 
tice, are,  in  8vo.  in  usum  Delphini,  168 1, 
in  i8mo.  by  the  Elzevirs,  at  Amsterdam,  1651 ; 
cum  Notis  Variorum,  at  Leyden,  1660 ;  by 
Gronovius,  in  4to.  1706;  and,  at  Leipsic,  in 
two  volumes  8vo.  by  Conradus,  in  1762.  A 
very  elegant  translation  of  tliis  amusing,  but  in 
many  parts  obscure  and  difficult  author,  with 
useful  notes,  was  given  in  English,  in  three 
volumes  8vo.  by  Mr.  Beloe,  in  1795.  Preface 
to  Beloe^s  Translalion.  Fabr'icti  Bib,  Lat.  lib. 
iii.  c.  I. — E. 

AUMONT,  John  d',  count  of  Chateau- 
roux,  tec.  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
captains  in  his  time.  When  young,  he  served 
under  the  marshal  Brissac  in  Italy.  He  was 
wounded  and  made  prisoner  at  St.  Quintin  in 
1557  ;  but  being  exchanged,  he  was  present  at 
many    considerable    actions    in    the   following 

J  ears,  where  he  signalised  his  valour.  Henry 
II.  made  him  a  marshal  of  France  in  1579. 
He  gave  this  prince  the  bold  and  generous  ad- 
vice of  causing  the  duke  of  Guise  to  be  pub- 
licly executed,  rather  than  assassinated  ;  but  it 
was  not  a  measure  for  such  a  court  to  adopt. 
At  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  d'Aumont  en- 
gaged with  zeal  in  his  party,  and  was  appointed 
by  him  to  the  government  of  Ciiampagne.  He 
served  the  king  very  essentially  at  the  battle  of 
Ivry,  and  elsewhere,  and  particularly  against 
the  duke  of  Nemours.  The  government  of 
Britany  was  afterwards  conferred  upon  him, 
and  he  made  himself  master  of  several  places  in 
that  province  ;  but  when  besieging  the  castle  of 
Comper,  near  Rennes,  he  received  a  musquet 
shot  in  his  arm  which  caused  his  death  in  I  595, 
aged  seventy-three.  His  character  was  that  of 
a  rough  blunt  soldier,  more  brave  than  politic, 
but  a  good  subject  and  citizen,  an  honest  and 
able  man. 

His  grandson,  Antony  d^ylumont,  was  like- 
wise a  military  man  of  some  distinction,  and 
commanded  the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Rhetel 
in  1650,  for  his  services  in  which  he  was 
created  a  marshal  of  France.     He  was  after- 


wards raised  to  the  rank  of  duke  and  peer,  and 
died  in  1669,  aged  sixty-eight.  A^loreri.  Nouv. 
Diet.  Hist.— A. 

AUNGERVILE,  Richard,  or  Richard 
of  Bury,  an  English  divine,  bishop  of  Dur- 
ham, was  horn  at  St.  Edmund's  Bury,  in  Suf- 
folk, in  the  year  1281,  (Pref.  to  his  Philobi- 
hlos.)  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  became  a 
Benedictine  monk  at  Duiham.  He  was  ap- 
pointed tutor  to  prince  Edward,  afterwards  Ed- 
ward 111.  by  whom,  on  his  accession  to  the 
throne,  he  was  loaded  with  honours  and  emolu- 
ments. In  1333,  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Durham  :  the  next  year  he  was  appointed 
high  chancellor,  and  in  1336  treasurer  of  Eng- 
land. 

Aungervile  was  a  learned  man,  a  great  pa- 
tron of  learning,  and  a  passionate  admirer  of 
books.  He  was  acquainted  with  the  most  emi- 
nent men  of  his  age,  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
He  corresponded  with  Petrarch  ;  and  some  of 
his  letters  to  that  celebrated  poet  remain  in  a 
volume  of  his  "  Epistles."  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  a  singular  performance,  entitled  "  Piii- 
lobiblos."  It  was  finished  at  Auckland,  when 
he  was  sixty-three  years  of  age,  in  1345,  and 
was  printed  at  Spires  in  4to.  in  1483;  at  Paris, 
in  1500;  at  Oxford  in  1599,  and  at  Leipsic  in 
1674,  at  the  end  of  "  Philologicarum  Episto- 
larum  Centuria  Una."  It  is  a  declamation  in 
praise  of  books,  with  advice  concerning  keep- 
ing and  using  them.  Aungervile  is  said  to 
have  possessed  more  books,  than  all  the  bishops 
of  England  together.  Besides  numerous  libra- 
ries, his  common  apartments  were  filled  with 
books.  He  employed  collectors  of  books  a- 
broad,  and  kept  writers,  illuminators,  and  bind- 
ers in  his  palaces.  He  apologises  in  his  Phi- 
lobiblos,  for  admitting  poets  into  his  collection: 
"  We  have  not  neglected,"  savs  he,  "  the  fables 
of  the  poets."  He  thought  the  laity  unwor- 
thy of  any  commerce  with  books.  He  regrets 
the  total  ignorance  of  the  Greek  language,  but 
adds,  that  he  has  provided  for  the  students  of 
his  libraries  both  Greek  and  Hebrew  grammars. 
He  founded  a  noble  library  at  Oxford  for  the 
use  of  the  students,  and  appointed  five  keepers, 
to  whom  he  granted  yearly  salaries.  Before 
die  art  of  printing  was  invented,  such  a  collect- 
or of  books  was  entitled  to  peculiar  gratitude,  as 
eminently  a  public  benefactor.  Aungervile  did 
not  content  himself  with  the  credit  of  possessing 
many  books  :  he  was  a  diligent  student ;  and  it 
was  his  custom  to  have  some  author  read  to 
him  at  meals,  and  afterwards  .to  converse  upon 
the  subject.  This  worthy  prelate  died  at  Dur- 
ham  in  1 345-.    Godwin  de  Prasul.     Bale  de 


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A  U  R 


Script.    Pits  de   Illustr.    Ang.    Script.     Wood, 
Hist.  Univ.   Oxon.     Biog.    Britan.     Tfartori' s 
Hist,  of  Poetry.     Pral.  Diss.  2. — E. 
-i  AUNOY,   (Mary-Catherine  Jumel- 

I.E  DE  Berneville,  Countess  of),  a  distin- 
guished writer  ot  fiction  and  romance,  in  the 
latter  part  of  tlie  sevcntecntli  century,  was 
niece  of  the  celebrated  madame  Desloges,  and 
•wife  of  the  count  d'Aunoy.  Slie  wrote,  with 
a  fluency  of  style  and  facility  of  invention,  se- 
veral works  which  have  been  well  received  by- 
readers  for  amusement  alone.  Her  "  Contes 
des  Fees"  [Fairy  Tales],  and  "  Aventures 
d'Hippolyte  Comte  de  Duglas"  [Adventures  of 
Hippolytus  Earl  Douglas],  are  still  read  with 
pleasure.  Some  of  her  other  pieces,  which 
unite  history  with  fable,  as  "  Historical  Me- 
moirs of  the  most  remarkable  Events  in  Europe 
from  1672  to  1679;"  "  Memoirs  of  the  Court 
of  Spain  ;"  "  History  of  John  of  Bourbon, 
Prince  de  Carencv,"  are  of  less  value,  as  tend- 
ing to  mislead  by  that  mixture  of  true  and  false, 
the  taste  for  which  has  done  so  much  mischief 
to  French  literature.  All  her  works  are  re- 
plenished widi  gallantry.  The  countess  d'Au- 
noy died  in  1705.  Aforcri.  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. 
—A. 

AURELIAN.     This  Roman  emperor  was 
among  the  number  of  those  who  were  indebted 
for  their  elevation  to  personal  merit  alone.    He 
was  the  son  of  a  peasant  in  the  territory  of  Sir- 
mium  in  lUyricum,  who  occupied  a  small  farm, 
part  of  the  estate  of  Aurelius,  a  rich   senator. 
The   active  and  robust   youth   soon  showed  a 
decided  inclination  for  a  military  life,  and  en- 
tered  as   a   common    soldier    in    the   imperial 
troops.     He  rose  through  all  the  stages  of  ad- 
vancement to  which  signal  valour  and  discipline 
could  entitle  him  ;  for  such  was  his  adventur- 
ous s))irit,  that  the   soldiers  distinguished  him 
from  another  officer  of  the  same  name  by  the 
appellation  of  "  Aiirelian  Sword-in-hand;"  and 
so  great  was  his  force  in  arms,  that  he  is   said 
on  one  day  to  have  killed  fortv-cight  Sarmatians, 
and  aftenvards  to  have  made  up  the  number 
950.    The  emperor  Valerian  conferred  on  him 
the  important  charge  of  inspector  and  reformer 
of  the  Roman  camps,  and  created  him  consul ; 
and  at   his  recommendation,  Ulpius   Crinitus, 
a  descendant  of  the  same   family  with  Triyan, 
adopted  him,  gave  him   his  daughter  in  mar- 
riage,   and  raised   him  to   opulence  from   the 
honourable  poverty  in  which  he  had  hitherto 
continued.     He  is  not  mentioned  in  the  inglo- 
rious reign  of  Gallienus  ;  but  in  that  of  Clau- 
dius II.  he  was-  brought  forwards  again,  and 
greatly  assisted  him  in  the  defeat  of  Aurcolus. 


In  the  Gothic  war  he  held  the  chief  command 
of  the  cavalry  ;  and  when  that  excellent  em- 
peror lay  on  his  death-bc-d,  he  recommended 
Aurelian  as  the  fittest  person  in  the  empire  to 
be  his  successor.  The  legions  of  lllvricum 
readily  complied  with  this  recommendation,  and 
raised  Aurelian  to  the  purple  in  the  year  270. 
In  the  mean  time,  however,  Quiniilius,  the  bro- 
ther of  Claudius,  who  commanded  a  body  of 
troops  at  A(juilcia,  had  unadvisedly  assumed 
tliat  dignity  to  himself;  but  hearing  of  the 
stronger  claims  of  his  rival,  he  closed  a  reign 
of  seventeen  days  by  opening  his  veins. 

After  a  short  visit  to  Rome,  in  order  to  cause 
himself  to  be  recognised  by  the  senate,  Aurelian 
returned  to  Pannonia,  where  the  Goths   were 
menacing  a  new  irruption.     They  had  crossed 
the  Danube,  when  the  emperor  met  them  at 
the  head   of  his  forces,  and  a  combat  ensued, 
which   was  only    terminated   by   night.     The 
success  in  the  field  was  dubious;  and  both  parties 
were  glad  to  conclude  the  long  war  between  the 
two  nations  by  a   lasting  peace.     The  Goths 
engaged  to  furnish  the  Roman  armies  with  a 
body  of  auxiliaries,  and  gave  hostages  for  their 
quiet  retreat.      Aurelian  withdrew  the  Roman 
troops  from  Datia,  and  tacitly  rclimjuished  that 
province  to   the  possession  of  the  Goths  and 
Vandals.     He  made  a  hasty  icturn  to  Iraly,  in 
order  to  repel  an   incursion  of  the  Allrmnnni 
and   other  German  tribes.     These   barbarians 
were  already  retreating  with  their  spoil,  when 
the  eiBiieror  followed  them  to  the  Danube,  and 
overtaking  a  part  of  them,  reduced  tlicm  to  sue 
for  peace,  which  he  would  not  grant  witliout 
unconditional  submission.     From  the  contused 
account  left  us  of  these  transactions,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  discover  how  it  happened  that  a  renewed 
incursion  of  the  Germans  should  be  so  success- 
ful as  to  give  them  entrance  into  the  nonhcrn 
part  of  Italv  ;  where  a  battle  fouglit  near  Pla- 
ccntia  proved  so  fatal  to  the  Romans,   that   tl>e 
instant   destruction  of  the  empire  was  appre- 
hended.    All  was  alarm   at  Rome,  and  every 
practice  of  superstition  was  resortctl  to  in  order 
to  divert  the  anger  of  the  gods.     The  Germans 
pushed  on  to  Fano  near  the  river  Mctaurus, 
where  Asdrubal   five  centuries   before  had  lost 
his   army  and  life.     The  place  again   proved 
fortunate  to  Rome,  and  the  empeior  defeated 
the   invaders  with   great  slaughter,  and  after- 
wards nearly  exterminated  the  sur\-ivors  in  an- 
odier  battle  near  Pavia. 

Having  finally  delivered  Italv  from  the  bar- 
barians, Aurelian  returned  to  Rome,  wlicic  he 
put  to  death  several  senators  susjKcted  of  being 
engaged  in  conspiracies  against  liim.     He  also 


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greatly  enlarged  the  circuit  of  the  capital,  and 
provided  for  its  security  by  a  new  inclosure  of 
walls,  which  bore  his  name,  though  the  work 
■was  not  finished  till  the  reign  of  the  succeeding 
emperor,  Probus. 

Upon  authorities  preferred  by  Mr.  Gibbon 
to  tlie  more  general  account,  it  was  about  ihi; 
time  that  Auielian  marched  into  Gaul  to  put  an 
end  to  tlie  usurpation  of  Tetricus,  who  had 
succeeded  several  other  governors  and  generals 
raised  to  the  purple  by  the  troops  in  the  Gallic 
provinces  letricus  himself,  tired  of  his  pre- 
carious sway,  which  he  could  not  safely  abdi- 
cate, had  invited  the  emperor  to  come  to  his 
deliverance ;  and  he  posted  his  army  in  such  a 
manner,  that  it  was  attacked  with  great  advan- 
'  tage  by  Aurelian^  and  almost  entirely  cut  in 
pieces,  near  Chalons  in  Champagne.  Tetricus 
surrendered  himself  to  the  victor ;  who  soon 
reduced  the  whole  of  Gaul  to  its  allegiance. 

In  272  Aurelian  engaged  in  the  exjiediiion 
which  lias  most  distinguished  his  reign,  that 
against  Zenobia  queen  of  Palmyra.  T  his  ce- 
lebrated woman  hail  added  to  the  dominions  of 
her  late  husband  Odenathus,  who  ruled  from 
the  Euphrates  to  Bithynia,  the  kingdom  of 
Egvpt ;  and  she  reigned  over  many  rich  and 
populous  territories  under  the  title  of  Queen  of 
the  East.  She  frequently  showed  her  three 
Bons  to  the  troops  arrayed  in  tlie  imperial  pur- 
ple, and  manifested  a  design  of  founding  a  mo- 
narchy independent  of  the  Roman  empire.  A 
general  of  Gallienus  who  had  been  sent  against 
her  w-as  obliged  to  return  vvitli  loss  and  dis- 
grace ;  and  Claudius,  employed  in  the  Gothic 
war,  had  left  her  unmolested.  Aurelian,  how- 
ever, resolved  to  assert  the  majestv  and  restore 
the  integrity  of  the  empire  ;  and  marching  with 
his  legions  into  the  East,  by  the  way  of  Illyri- 
cum  and  Thrace,  he  was  admitted  without  op- 
position into  Ancyra  and  Tyana,  where  the 
lenity  with  which  he  treated  the  inhabitants, 
and  the  strict  discipline  observed  by  his  troops, 
promoted  his  success  in  Syria.  Zenobia  at- 
tempted to  cheek  bis  progress  as  he  advanced 
to  Antioch  ;  and  a  battle  was  fought  near  that 
;netropolis,  which  ended  to  the  advantage  of 
Aurelian.  Another  combat  near  Emesa  proved 
decisive  of  die  war.  Zenobia  after  this  second 
idefeat  shut  herself  up  in  Palmyra,  and  for  some 
-time  resisfed  with  firmness  the  arms  of  the  em- 
.jjeior  v.ho  invested  the  city.  At  length,  at- 
tempting to  fly  into  Persia,  she  was  taken  bv 
xhe  light  troops  which  pursued  her,  and  brought 
xraptive  to  the  emperor.  She  diverted  his  anger 
from  herself  upon  the  counsellors  who  had  ad- 
vised her  resistance  ;  and  the  execution  of  the 


celebrated  Longinus,  among  others,  has  stained 
the  memory  of  the  victor.  Aurelian,  however, 
treated  with  clemency  the  city  of  Palmyra, 
which  surrendered  at  discretion.  Meantime 
Egvpt  had  been  reduced  to  the  obedience  of 
Rome  by  the  arms  of  Probus  ;  and  Aurelian 
was  enabled  to  take  the  road  for  Europe,  leav- 
ing all  the  dominions  of  Zenobia  re-united  to 
the  empire.  He  had  already  passed  the  Bos- 
phorus  with  his  army,  when  he  was  suddenly 
recalled  by  tlie  news  of  the  revolt  of  tlie  Palmy- 
renians,  who  had  massacred  the  Roman  garri- 
son, and  proclaimed  a  new  emperor.  Aurelian 
returned  with  a  speed  which  prevented  all  mea- 
sures of  defence  on  their  part,  and  took  a  most 
severe  vengeance  on  the  unfortunate  Palmyra, 
which  for  three  days  was  delivered  to  the  un- 
bridled rage  and  rapine  of  the  soldiers.  After 
this  dreadful  execution,  he  spared  the  poor 
remnant  of  the  inhabitants,  and  took  pains  to 
re  establish  in  all  its  splendour  the  magnificent 
temple  of  tlie  sun,  to  die  worship  of  which  lu- 
ininary  he  was  superstitiouslv  addicted.  Hence 
the  indefatigable  emperor  took  his  course  for 
Egypt,  where  Firmus,  an  ally  of  Zenobia,  had 
taken  possession  of  Alexandria,  and  assumed 
the  purple.  Aurelian  without  difficulty  extin- 
guished this  rebellion,  and  destroyed  its  author. 
After  this  final  success  in  the  east,  he  again 
proceeded  westward  ;  and,  (if  the  usurpation  of 
Tetricus  had  been  already  suppressed)  he  ar- 
rived at  Rome,  leaving  the  empire  in  a  state  of 
universal  tranquillity. 

His  triumph  was  one  of  the  most  splendid 
and  memorable  spectacles  which  Roman  victory 
had  afforded.  A  long  train  of  rich  spoils,  cu- 
rious animals,  gladiators,  embassadors  from  the 
remotest  parts  of  the  earth,  and  captive  nations, 
was  closed  by  the  deposed  sovereigns,  Tetricus 
and  Zenobia,  who,  according  to  the  haughty 
and  unfeeling  custom  of  Rome,  were  exhibited 
to  die  public  gaze,  to  contrast,  by  the  humili- 
ation of  their  greatness,  the  glory  and  exalta- 
tion of  the  victor.  Tetricus,  with  his  son,  ap- 
peared in  the  habit  of  Gallic  kings  ;  but  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  former,  who  was  a  Roman 
senator,  in  the  train  of  captives,  threw  a  gloom 
over  the  senatorian  spectators.  Zenobia,  con  - 
fined  in  fetters  of  gold,  and  almost  sinking 
under  the  weight  of  jewels,  was  a  more  grate- 
ful sight  to  Roman  pride.  After  the  emperor 
had  thus  employed  his  competitors  in  decorating 
his  triumph,  he  displayed  his  clemency  in  the 
manner  in  wliich  he  treated  them.  Zenobia 
was  presented  with  a  villa  at  Tibur,  where  she 
passed  her  days  with  honour  as  a  Roman  ma- 
tron.    Tetricus  and  his  son  were  restored  to 


A  U  R 


(    489    ) 


A  U  R 


dieir  rank  and  fortunes,  and  continued  among 
die  most  respectable  members  of  the  senatorian 
body. 

Aurelian  then  bent  his  cares  to  the  improve- 
ment and  regulation  of  the  capital,  and  the 
restoration  of  order,  and  reformation  of  abuses, 
throughout  the  empire.  He  disjilayed  great 
munificence  in  the  largesses  he  bestowed  on  the 
people  of  Rome,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  an 
object  of  importance  with  him  to  have  them 
well  fed.  He  is  indeed  supposed  to  have  rc- 
tainoJ  a  partiality  in  favour  of  the  plebeian 
order,  to  whicii  he  had  belonged,  and  to  have 
regarded  the  patrician  with  a  degree  of  jealousy 
and  distrust.  His  zeal  for  reform  was  marked 
by  the  rigour  and  severity  of  his  cliaracter  ; 
and  the  sternness  of  the  soldier  appears  through 
the  paternal  features  of  the  monarch.  A  se- 
dition in  Rome,  originating  from  the  workmen 
of  the  mint,  and  which  arose  to  such  a  height 
that  a  bloody  battle  was  fought  within  the  walls, 
with  the  loss  of  seven  thousand  of  the  emperor's 
Hoops,  gave  occasion  to  a  most  severe  chastise- 
ment, and  implicated  in  its  fatal  consequences 
many  senators  and  patricians,  represented  as 
innocent  victims  to  the  suspicions  of  the  so- 
vereign. 

A  visit  to  Gaul,  where  he  rebuilt  the  ancient 
city  of  Genabum,  and  called  it,  from  his  own 
name  "  Aurelianum"  [now  Orleans],  and  an 
expedition  against  the  barbarians  w^ho  had 
made  an  inroad  into  Vindelicia,  occupied  some 
of  tlic  concluding  months  of  Aurelian's  reign. 
These  were,  however,  only  preludes  to  a  great 
military  enterprise  he  had  planned  against  the 
Persian  empire  ;  and  he  had  begun  his  marcli 
for  the  east,  and  was  waiting  in  Thrace  for  an 
opportunity  to  cross  tlie  straits,  when  a  con- 
si)iracy,  artfully  fomented  bv  one  of  his  secre- 
taries whom  he  meant  to  call  to  account  for 
peculation,  and  headed  by  Muca])or,  a  general 
whom  he  trusted,  put  an  end  to  his  life  bv  as- 
sassination, at  Cxnophrurium,  between  Hera- 
dea  and  Byzantium,  in  Januarv,  275.  He 
had  leigncd  near  five  years,  and  left  behind  him 
an  onlv  daughter.  He  was  little  regretted,  e- 
specially  by  the  senate,  though  universally  ac- 
knowledged as  a  wise,  active  and  fortunate 
prince,  very  useful  to  the  empire  in  its  state  of 
danger  and  declension.  It  is  said  that  he  medi- 
tated a  severe  persecution  of  the  Christians  at 
the  time  of  his  death. 

The  historians  of  this  reign  are  Vophcus,  the 
Victors,  Polllo,  Zosimus,  and  Futrcpius.  From 
these,  Crcvicr  and  Gibbon  have  drawn  their 
narrations  whence  the  above  account  is  princi- 
pally taken.— A. 

VOL.  I. 


AURELIUS  VICTOR,  SEXTtrs,  a  Ro- 
man historian,  flourished  in  the  founh  century, 
probably  from  the  reign  of  Constantius  to  that 
of  Theodosius.  He  speaks  (Hist.  c.  28.)  of 
the  eleven  hundredth  year  from  the  founding  of 
Rome,  which  was  tlie  348ih  of  Christ,  or  the 
12th  of  Constantius,  as  passing  in  his  time 
without  any  public  celebration  :  and  lie  men- 
tions (c.  16.  and  c.  ult.)  an  eanhquake  which 
happened  at  his  time  in  Nicomedia,  in  tlic  con- 
sulship of  Cerealis,  that  is,  in  the  year  of  the 
city  1 1 10,  or  of  Christ  359.  Aurelius  Victor 
was  born  in  the  country,  (Aurd.  Vict,  in 
Severo.)  of  mean  and  illiterate  parents;  per- 
haps in  Africa,  for  in  his  writings  he  dwells  pa 
the  praise  of  Africa,  calling  it  the  glory  of  the 
earth  ;  and  a  treatise  "  On  tlie  Origin  of  the 
Roman  Nation,"  bears  the  name  of  ^'icto^ 
Afer,  together  with  that  of  Livius.  Notwith- 
standing the  meanness  of,  his  extraction,  hiii 
talents  raised  him  to  distinction.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  Julian,  in  361,  prxfcct  of  the  se- 
cond Pannonia  ;  and  for  his  meritorious  ser- 
vices he  was  honoured  with  a  bra/.cn  statue  ; 
he  was  long  afterwards  prefect  of  Rome  (Am- 
mian.  Marccll.  lib.  xxi.  c.  18.)  and  in  369 
consul  with  Valentinian.  This  was  probably 
in  the  reign  of  Theodosius  ;  for  an  inscription 
remains,  which  Sextus  Aurelius  Victor,  pra;- 
fect  of  the  city,  engraved  on  a  monument  in 
honour  of  Theodosius.  If  all  tliesc  passages 
refer  to  the  same  Sextus  Aurelius  Victor,  as  i» 
not  improbable,  he  was  placed  in  posts  of  higb 
distinction  under  a  succession  of  emperors,  and 
lived  till  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century. 

The  abridgement  of  the  Roman  history 
above-mentioned,  under  the  title  of  "  Libcllut 
de  Origine  Gentis  Romanac,"  promises  a  history 
of  the  whole  period,  from  the  uncertain  time 
of  Janus  and  Saturn  to  the  twelfth  consulship  of 
Constantius,  but  in  fact  ends  in  the  first  year 
of  the  city.  This  work,  though  it  bcirs  the 
names  of  Victor  and  Livius,  is  by  some  a- 
scrihcd  to  Ascopius  Pcdianus.  (Fab.  Bib.  Lat. 
lib.  iii.  c.  9.)  It  was  published,  together  with 
the  works  of  Dionysius  o\  Halicarnasstis,  at 
Francfort,  in  15S6  ;  and  with  a  collection  of 
ancient  historians  by  Gothofrcd,  in  i8mo.  at 
Lyons,  in  1591. 

Aurelius  Victor  is  commonly,  and  notwith- 
standing the  objections  of  sundry  writers,  not 
without  reason,  received  as  the  author  of  a  bii>- 
craphical  treati-e,  "  Dc  Viris  Illustribus  Urbij 
Romx."  This  work  commences  with  Prma, 
king  of  the  Albans,  and  ends  with  Pompey  :  it 
has  been  published  in  410.  with  the  notes  of 
Mathajxcus,    at  Lcipsic,    in  1516,   auJ  wiilt 


A  U  R 


(    490     ) 


A  U  R 


those  of  Lycostliencs,  in  folio,  at  Basil  in 
1563.  (Hanlcius,  in  his  treatise  "  De  Ro- 
jnanaruni  Reruni  Scriptoribus,"  Pars  i.  c.  29. 
art.  2.  has  observed  that  the  MSS.  of  this 
work  bear  tlie  name  of  Victor  ;  that  there  is 
no  ground  from  bimilaritv  of  style  to  ascribe  it, 
as  some  have  done,  to  Pliny,  Suetonius,  or 
Nepos  ;  and  diat,  with  respect  to  the  latter,  this 
treatise  contains  some  assertions  contradictory 
to  those  of  thai  biographer). 

"  The  History  of  the  C^sars  from  Augustus 
to  Constant! us,"  which  was  unquestionably 
wiitten  by  Victor,  was  first  published  by  Schu- 
rcrus,  in  8vo.  at  Strasburg  in  1505;  then  at 
Venice,  in  8vo.  by  Aldus  in  1 51 6. 

The  first  general  edition  of  all  the  writings 
of  Aurelius  Victor  was  in  8vo.  at  Antwerp, 
with  the  notes  of  Schottus  in  1579.  They 
were  published,  at  Hanau,  by  Gruter,  in  the 
second  volume  of  his  "  Historic  Augusta? 
Scriptores,"  in  folio,  1610.  An  elegant  edition, 
with  engraved  heads,  cum  not'is  variorum,  was 
printed,  in  8vo.  at  Levdcn,  in  167 1;  another 
by  Pitiscus,  at  Utrecht,  in  8vo.  in  1696;  and 
a  third,  by  Artnezius,  in  4to.   at   Amsterdam, 

in  1733- ,.       . 

Aurelius  \  ictor  is  an  industrious  historian, 

who  has  collected  a  great  variety  of  facts,  and 
appears  entitled  to  credit  for  fidelity  ;  but  he 
falls  short  of  that  elegance  of  style  which  is  so 
justly  admired  in  the  earlier  writers  of  the  Ro- 
man history.  Hankii  de  Rom.  Rer,  Script. 
lib.  i.  p.  1.  c.  29.  Fab.  Bib.  Lat.  lib.  iii  c.  9. 
Voiiii  de  Hist.  Lat.  lib.  ii.  c.  8. — E. 

AURENG-ZEBE,  Great  Mogul,  whose 
name  signifies  "  Ornament  of  the  Throne," 
was  third  son  of  Shah  Jehan,  and  was  born  in 
1618.  His  natural  disposition  was  serious  and 
thoughtful ;  and  in  order  to  prevent  those  su- 
spicions of  younger  brothers  which  always  pre- 
vail in  the  familiLS  of  eastern  despots,  he  af- 
fected all  the  austerity  of  a  religious  medicant. 
By  his  art  and  jirudence  he  gained  the  esteem 
of  his  father  ;  but  his  elder  brother  Dara,  who 
saw  through  his  hypocrisy,  was  used  to  say, 
♦•  Of  all  my  brothers,  I  fear  none  but  this  teller 
of  beads,"  Shah  Jehan,  thinking  it  safest  to 
remove  his  sons  from  court,  sent  Aureng-zebe 
to  govern  the  Decan,  where  he  made  an  at- 
tempt to  surprise  the  king  of  Golconda,  which 
however  did  not  succeed.  A  dangerous  sick- 
ness of  Shah  Jehan  set  all  his  sons  in  motion, 
who  levied  troops,  and  commenced  a  civil  war. 
Aureng-zebe,  gaining  to  his  party  his  brother 
RIorad,  advanced  against  Dara,  who  had  de- 
feated the  other  brother  Sujah,  and  gave  him 


battle  at  Samongher  near  Agra,  After  various 
fortune,  the  event  of  the  day  was  completely 
in  favour  of  Aureng-zebe  and  Morad.  They 
soon  after  took  possession  of  Agra,  where  Au- 
reng-zebe made  his  father  a  prisoner  of  state  in 
his  palace,  and  secured  the  interest  of  the  no- 
bles for  himself.  This  happened  in  1658. 
His  next  project  was  to  seise  die  person  ot  his 
brave,  but  rash  and  intemperate  brother  Morad. 
Tempting  him  with  a  large  bottle  of  Schiraz 
wine,  he  got  him  intoxicated,  put  him  in  fetters, 
and  then  removed  him  to  a  fortress  in  the  river 
at  Dehli.  He  next  pursued  his  two  other  bro- 
tiiers,  whom  he  obliged  to  retreat  to  a  distance 
for  safety  ;  and  his  own  son,  Mahmoud,  re- 
volting from  him,  he  sent  him  into  confinement, 
where  he  died. 

From  this  time  Aurehg-zebe's  reign  properly 
commenced.  The  civil  war,  however,  con- 
tinued ;  and  Dara,  being  treacherously  deliver- 
ed to  his  brother,  was  put  to  death  ;  Aureng- 
zebe  justifying  the  action  by  saying  that  he  was 
a  cafr,  or  infidel.  Dara's  son  and  grandson 
afterwards  shared  the  same  fate,  being  dispatch- 
ed bv  slow  poison.  Morad  was  openly  be- 
headed under  a  pretext  of  justice.  Sujah,  who 
was  the  only  remaining  brother,  took  refuge 
with  the  king  of  Arakan  ;  and  forming  a  plot 
to  surprise  the  king,  whom  he  suspected  of 
treachery  against  himself,  was  killed,  and  his 
whole  family  was  afterwards  extirpated.  Au- 
reng-zebe wished  to  be  openly  declared  sove- 
reign, but  the  chief  cadi  refused  his  concur- 
rence, on  the  ground  that  the  old  king.  Shah 
Jehan,  was  still  living.  The  cadi  was  removed, 
and  a  more  complaisant  one  substituted,  who 
performed  the  ceremonial  of  coronation  ;  but 
Aureng-zebe,  though  at  length  peaceable  pos- 
sessor of  the  throne,  could  not  stifle  remorse 
for  tlie  crimes  which  had  brought  him  thitjier. 
He  imposed  upon  himself  a  rigorous  penance, 
eating  only  barley  bread,  herbs,  and  fruits,  and 
drinking  nothing  but  water.  This  mode  of 
living  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  cause  of 
a  dangerous  illness  into  which  he  fell,  and 
which  occasioned  much  agitation  at  court,  and 
gave  him  an  occasion  of  displaying  all  that 
cool  resolution  and  presence  of  mind  for  which 
he  was  ever  distinguished.  His  treatment  of 
his  deposed  father  was  so  apparently  submissive 
and  respectful,  that  he  at  length  obtained  the 
old  man's  pardon  and  paternal  blessing,  though 
he  restored  him  none  of  the  royal  power.  Shah 
Jehan  died  in  1666  at  a  good  old  age;  and  it 
does  not  seem  probable  that  his  son,  after 
having  suflcred  him  to  live  so  long  in  quiet. 


A  U  R 


(    491     ) 


A  U  R 


lihould  have  committed  the  unneces'sary  crime, 
by  some  laid  to  his  charge,  of  hastening  his 
death  by  poison. 

Aureng-zebe  was  ambitious  to  aggrandise 
his  dominions  by  conquest,  and  undertook  se- 
veral expeditions  by  his  sons  and  generals  for 
that  purpose.  He  subdued  Visapour,  Golcoii- 
da,  and  the  Carnatic  to  tlie  soutli,  and  over- 
ran the  kingdom  of  Asem  to  the  north.  He 
reduced  Bengal,  over  which  province  he  made 
his  uncle  Shah  Hest  governor ;  and  then  clear- 
ed the  mouths  of  the  Ganges  from  the  Portu- 
guese pirates  who  had  long  infested  them.  His 
reputation  for  power  and  wealth  caused  em- 
bassies to  be  sent  to  him  from  all  the  neigh- 
bouring eastern  nations,  as  well  as  from  the 
European  powers,  who  wished  to  obtain  com- 
mercial advantages  in  his  dominions.  Through 
apprehension  of  the  hostile  designs  of  his  sons 
against  him  and  each  other,  he  passed  most  of 
his  time  in  his  camp,  which  was  in  reality  a 
moving  city,  and  is  described  by  the  curious 
traveller  Bernier,  who  followed  it  from  J)ehli 
to  Cashmeer.  The  guard  of  cavalry  consisted 
of  35,000  men  ;  that  of  infantry,  of  10,000. 
The  number  of  horses,  mules,  and  elephants 
in  the  camp  was  computed  at  150,000;  of 
camels  and  oxen  at  50,000  each  ;  and  of  per- 
sons, between  300,000  and  400,000.  Almost 
all  Dehli  followed  the  court,  whose  magnifi- 
cence supported  the  industry  of  its  traders  and 
artisans. 

All  his  precautions,  however,  could  not  pre- 
vent the  revolts  and  quarrels  of  his  sons,  of 
whom,  besides  Mahmoud  abovementioned,  he 
had  four ;  Mauzm,  also  called  Shah  Alum, 
Azem,  Akber,  and  Rambuksh.  Aureng-zebe 
had  resolved  to  destroy  all  the  Rajaputs,  or  na- 
tive Hindoo  princes,  whose  disaffection  he  had 
experienced,  and  with  whom  his  son  sultan 
Mauzm  held  a  treasonable  correspondence. 
Not  only  policy,  but  religious  bigotry,  seems 
to  have  invited  the  emperor  to  this  attempt,  and 
he  gave  orders  to  destroy  all  the  heathen  tem- 
ples in  Azmeer,  manv  of  them  buildings  of 
great  magnificence.  He  had  designed  a  general 
conversion  of  his  Hindoo  subjects,  but  was 
obligeil  to  suspend  its  execution.  His  favourite 
son  and  intended  successor  sultan  Akber,  re- 
belled against  him,  and  was  comj^elled  to  take 
refuge  in  Persia,  whence  he  never  returned. 

Aureng-zebe  died  at  Ahmednagar  in  Febru- 
ary 1707,  in  his  eighty-ninth  year.  By  his 
will  he  recommended  to  his  sons  a  division  of 
his  dominions  ;  and  he  enjoined  his  servants  to 
fcc  obedient  to  sultan  Azem,  who  was  present 


with  him.  He  directed  that  he  should  be  buried 
by  the  side  of  a  holy  dervis  whose  tomb  was 
near  the  city  where  he  died,  and  in  a  sepulchre 
equally  plain  ;  and  such  was  the  opinion  of 
sanctity  which  his  religious  zeal  inspired,  that 
many  Mahometans  pay  a  visit  lo  his  tomb,  as 
a  meritorious  pilgrimage. 

Aureng-zebe  was  one  of  the  most  splendid 
sovereigns  of  his  line,  and  possessed  many 
qualities  which  fitted  him  for  governing  a 
mighty  empire.  He  was  sober,  active,  aniT re- 
solute; and  though  he  scrupled  no  means  in 
acquiring  his  power,  like  Augustus,  he  exer- 
cised it  for  the  most  part  with  mildness.  He 
became,  indeed,  culpably  indulgent  towards  his 
governors  and  omrahs,  whom  he  suffered  with 
impunity  to  ojjpress  the  people,  saying  that  he 
was  not  a  God  to  do  as  he  pleased,  and  that 
God  would  in  his  own  time  punish  them  if  they 
did  evil.  But  this  sanctimonious  forbearaiKC 
was  suspected  of  an  interested  design.  He 
greatly  augmented  his  dominions  and  revenues, 
and  is  said  to  have  carried  the  latter  to  the 
amazing  annual  sum  of  near  thirty-eight  mil- 
lions sterling.  He  was  a  great  observ-er  of  all 
the  ceremonies  and  austerities  of  his  religion  ; 
affected  plainness  in  dress  ;  and  carefully  prac- 
tised the  injunction  of  working  with  his  own 
hands  for  his  living,  and  cmploved  his  leisure 
in  making  caps,  wliich  he  distributed  among 
the  great  lords  of  his  court.  He  assumed  the 
titles  of  Afohiodd'in,  or  Reviser  cf  Reli^'nn ; 
and  oi  Alem  Ghlr,  or  Conjueroi  of  the  IVoild, 
of  which  his  ignorant  vanity  led  him  to  believe 
that  he  possessed  three  parts  in  four.  The 
traveller  Gemclli  Carreri,  who  saw  him  in 
1695,  gives  the  following  description  of  hit 
person.  "  He  was  of  a  low  stiiure,  \\ith  a 
large  nose,  a  white  beard,  and  olive  complexion. 
He  was  slender,  and  stooping  with  age,  and 
supported  himself  on  a  staff;  yet  he  endorsed 
petitions  without  spectacles,  and  by  his  chear- 
ful  countenance,  seemed  pleased  with  doing 
business  at  a  public  audience."  Mod.  Univers. 
Hist.— A. 

AUREOLUS,  Manius  Acrttus,  one  of 
the  short-lived  com])etitors  for  the  Roman  em- 
pire, was  a  native  of  13acia,  and  in  his  youth 
followed  the  humble  occupation  of  a  shepherd  ; 
but  enlisting  himself  m  the  Roman  armv,  his 
valour  raised  him  from  the  ranks  to  the  com- 
mand of  a  body  of  horec,  with  which  he  per- 
formed great  service  to  the  cmi>eror  Gallitnus 
in  a  battle  against  the  rebel  Ingenuus.  After, 
wards,  being  commander  in  chief  in  Illyricum,  he 
defeated  Macrianus,  who  had  assumed  tlic  i»ur- 


A  V   R 


(     492     ) 


A  U  S 


pie,  and  incorporarccl  into  his  own  troops  the 
army  of  that  usurper,  which  first  put  to  death 
their  leader,  togtthcr  with  his  son,  Aureolus 
seems  for  some  time  to  have  maintained  a  par- 
tial fidelity  to  Gallienus,  and  to  have  assisted 
him  against  Posthiimius,  who  had  set  up  for 
himself  in  Gaul.  At  length,  tired  of  reigning, 
though  almost  independently,  in  Rtistia,  and 
on  the  banks  of  the  upper  Danube,  he  accepted 
openly  of  the  purple  offered  him  by  his  soldiers, 
and  with  a  strong  force  marched  into  Italv. 
Gallienus  met  and  defeated  him  near  Milan,  in 
which  city  Aureolus  took  refuge,  and  was  be- 
sieged by  the  emperor.  While  before  this  place, 
Gallienus  was  murdered  in  a  conspiracy  said  to 
have  been  fomented  by  the  art  of  Aureolus,  who 
scattered  in  his  camp  lists  of  officers  marked 
out  by  the  tyrant  for  future  execution.  The 
event,  liowever,  was  of  no  service  to  Aureolus; 
for  the  new  emperor,  Claudius  II.  rejecting  all 
terms  of  composition  from  him,  obliged  him  to 
deliver  up  the  city  and  himself  at  the  victor's 
discretion.  Claudius,  either  really  or  pretend- 
cdly,  attempted  to  save  his  life,  but  it  was  at 
length  sacrificed  to  the  demands  of  the  army, 
A.  D.  268. — Univers.  Hist.  Crevier.  Gibbon. 
—A. 

AURIA,  Vincent,  aa  Italian  historian, 
was  born  at  Palermo  in  the  year  1625.  After 
his  first  studies,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  pro- 
fession of  the  law,  and  was  admitted  Doctor  of 
Laws  at  Catania  in  1652.  He  for  some  time 
practised  at  the  bar,  but  soon  became  dissatisfied 
with  this  employment,  and  retired  from  public 
business  to  devote  himself  to  letters.  He  was 
Scantily  supplied  with  the  gifts  of  fortune,  but 
found  sufficient  compensation  in  the  pleasures 
of  study.  He  wrote  many  books  in  Italian, 
and  soine  in  Latin  :  they  chiefly  turn  upon  sub- 
jects of  history  and  antiquities.  Those  most 
esteemed  are,  "  An  History  of  the  Great  Men 
in  Sicily,"  printed,  in  4to.  at  Palermo  in  1704; 
and  "  An  History  of  the  Viceroys  of  Sicilv," 
published,  in  folio,  at  Palermo  in  1697."  AIo- 
reri.      Noiiv.  Diet.  Hist.—K. 

AVRIGNY,  Hyacinth  Robillard,  a 
French  historian,  was  born  at  Caen  in  1675, 
becaiTic  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Jesuits  in 
1 69 1,  and  died  in  his  own  country  in  17 19. 
He  has  left  in  French,  in  four  volumes  i2mo. 
"  Meinoirs,  chronological  and  dogmatical,  for 
ecclesiastical  History,  from  the  Year  1600  to 
the  Year  17 16,  with  Reflections  and  critical 
Remarks ;"  and  "  Memoirs  for  the  universal 
History  of  Europe,  from  1600  to  1716,  with 
Reflections  and  critical  Remarks,"  printed,  in 


four  volumes  i2mo.  at  Paris  in  1725,  and  re- 
printed with  additions  in  1757.  These  works 
are  much  valued  for  variety  of  materials,  accu- 
racy of  dates,  and  elegance  of  style,  but  have 
not  the  merit  of  perfect  impartiality.  Moreri. 
NoNV.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

AURISPA,  John,  a  learned  writer  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  bora  in  1369,  at  Noto 
in  Sicily.  With  Giiarino  and  Filelpho,  he 
went  to  Constantinople  to  study  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, and  to  collect  ancient  writings.  Upon 
his  return  he  enriched  Italy  with  upwards  of 
an  hundred  Greek  manuscripts,  chiefly  of  pa- 
gan writers,  which  it  was  found  easier  to  obtaia 
than  die  writings  of  Christians.  In  1423,  Au- 
rispa  returned  to  Constantinople  in  the  train  of 
the  emperor  John  Palacologus.  Returning  to 
Italy,  he  taught  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages 
at  Bologna,  and  afterwards  at  Florence,  and  at 
Ferrara.  Pope  Eugcnius  IV.  made  him  his 
secretary,  and  Nicholas  V.  continued  him  in 
the  same  office,  and  presented  him  with  bene- 
fices in  Sicily.  After  the  death  of  that  pontif 
Aurispa  returned  to  Ferrara,  where,  to  the  end 
of  his  life,  he  continued  to  teach  and  to  write. 
He  lived  to  the  advanced  age  of  91,  and  died  in 
the  year  1460.  He  translated  some  of  the 
works  of  Archimedes,  and  the  Commentary  of 
Hierocles  on  the  Golden  Verses  of  Pythagoras, 
and  published  Poems  and  Letters.  His  version 
of  Hierocles  was  piinted,  in  8vo.  at  Basil,  in 
1543.  Aforeri.  Landi  Hist.  Lit.  d'lta/.  lib. 
ix.  n.  29 — X.  n.  62. — E. 

AUROGALLUS,  Matthew,  a  gram- 
marian, a  native  of  Bohemia,  lived  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  He  was  professor  of  languages 
in  the  university  of  Wittemberg.  He  wrote  in 
Latin  a  "  Compendium  of  Hebrew  and  Chal- 
daic  Grammar,  printed  at  Wittemberg  in  1525, 
and  at  Basil  in  1539,  and  a  treatise  on  the 
geography  of  the  holy  land,  entitled  "  De  Ha;- 
breis  Urbium,  Regionum,  Populorum,  &c. 
Nominibus,"  printed,  in  8vo,  at  Wittemberg, 
in  1526,  and  at  Basil  in  1529.  Aurogallus 
assisted  Luther  in  translating  the  bible.  He 
died  in  1543.     Bayle.     Aforeri. — E. 

AUSONIUS,  Decius  (or  Decimus) 
Magnus,  a  distinguished  Roman  poet  of  the 
fourth  century,  was  born  at  Bourdeaux,  where 
his  father,  Julius  Ausonius,  was  an  eminent 
physician.  He  was  educated  with  great  care 
in  polite  literature,  in  which  he  attained  such 
excellence,  that  he  was  chosen  professor  of 
grammar  and  rhetoric  at  his  native  city.  So 
high  was  his  reputation,  that  the  emperor  Va- 
lentinian  called  hini  to  court,  and  made  hiin, 


A  U  T 


(     493     ) 


A  U  T 


preceptor  to  his  son,  Gratian.  In  this  post  he 
gave  great  satisfaction  both  to  the  fatlier  and 
die  son,  and  by  the  latter  was  raised  to  the 
office  of  praetorian  prefect  of  Gaul  and  Italy 
about  376,  and  to  tlie  consulship  in  379.  The 
emperor  Theodosius  hud  a  great  esteem  for  him, 
and  is  thought  by  some  to  have  created  him  a 
patrician.  The  religion  of  Ausonius  has  been 
a  subject  of  much  dispute  among  the  leariK;d, 
some  contending  that  he  was  a  Pagan,  others 
a  Christian.  It  he  were  the  former,  the  poems 
on  christian  topics  attributed  to  him  are  pro- 
bably supposititious.  The  lasciviousncss  of  se- 
veral of  his  pieces  is  a  presumption,  tliough  not 
a  proof,  against  his  being  tlic  latter.  It  is  not 
known  wlien  Ausonius  died;  Init  he  appears  to 
have  been  alive  in  392,  and  prubably  reached  to 
an  advanced  age. 

The  poems  of  Ausonius  consist  of  a  variety 
of  pieces  on  different  topics,  and  written  with 
different  degrees  of  care.  Tjiey  display  learning 
and  some  ingenuity,  and  are  not  without  fine 
passages,  yet  on  the  whole  they  have  received 
much  more  than  their  share  of  applause,  and 
they  are  strongly  marked  with  the  declining 
taste  and  genius  of  the  age.  The  poem  on  the 
"  Moselle,"  and  ttiat  on  "  Illusuious  Cities," 
are  among  the  most  valuable,  from  the  local 
information  they  afford.  One  of  the  most  com- 
plete examples  of  that  exercise  of  ingenuity 
called  a  Cento  is  given  in  the  "  Cento  Nupti- 
alis"  of  Ausonius,  entirely  formed  of  lines  and 
hemistichs  from  Virgil.  The  latter  part  of  it 
is  highly  censurable  for  its  obsccnitv.  His 
epigrams  arc  geneially  flat  and  insipid.  The 
best  editions  of  Ausonius  are  the  "  Variorum" 
of  1671,  and  the  "  Delphin"  of  173c.    Buyle. 


Fossl 


Ah 


-A. 


AUTKROCHE.Chappe  d'.  S.eCiiAPPE. 

AUTOLYCUS,  a  Greek  mathematician 
and  astronomer,  of  I'itane  in  .<-Eolia,  flourished 
about  320  years  before  Chri  t.  He  was  pre- 
ceptor in  mathematics  to  Arccsilaus,  who  was 
also  a  disciple  of  Theophrastus,  the  successor 
of  Aristotle.  The  personal  history  of  this  phi- 
losopher is  little  known,  but  two  works  of  his 
remain,  which  prove  him  to  have  been  an  emi- 
nent mathematician  :  the  first  a  treatise  "On 
the  Sphere,"  edited  by  Dasypodius  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  in  8vo.  at  Strasburg  in  1572;  and 
given  in  a  Latin  tran.slation,  in  the  "  Synopsis 
Mathematica"  of  Mersennus,  published  in  4to. 
at  Paris  in  1644;  the  second,  a  treatise  "  On 
the  rising  and  setting  of  the  Planets,"  edited 
with  the  former  work  by  Dasypodius.  Diogen. 
Laal.  apud  Fit.   Aiccsil.     Vosiiui  dc   Math. 


c.  43.     Fabric.  Bib.  Gi,gc.  lib.  ii.  p.  80.— E. 

AUTON,  JoH.M,  historiographer  of  Prance 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XII.  a  native  of  Sain- 
tonge,  was  abbot  of  Angle,  of  the  order  of 
St.  Augustin.  He  was  kept  in  the  train  of 
Louis  All.  on  purpose  to  write  the  private 
history  of  that  prince ;  and  he  produced  the 
work  under  the  title  of  "  The  History  of 
France  from  the  Year  1499  'o  ^^^  Year  I  508." 
The  author  died  in  1523;  but  his  work  was 
not  published  till  the  begiiming  of  the  next  cen- 
tury, and  then  only  in  part.  Seysscl  added 
the  two  last  years  of  Anton's  narrative  to  his 
"History  of  Louis  XII."  published  in  1615, 
and  Theodore  Godfrey  printed  the  four  first 
years  of  the  history  in  1620  :  the  other  three 
years  have  not  appeared  in  print.  Auton  has 
the  character  of  a  very  faithful,  but  very  di-y 
and  tedious  historian.  Morcii.  Neuv.  Diet. 
Hist.—K. 

AUTONINE,  Bernard, a  French  lawyer, 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  advocate  to  the  par- 
liament of  Bourdeaux,  was  born  at  Agenois  itt 
1587.  He  wrote  many  books  of  law,  of  which 
the  principal  are;  in  French,  "  A  Comparison 
of  the  French  with  the  Roman  Law,"  publisheil, 
in  folio,  in  1610;  and  "  A  Comnuntary  on 
the  provincial  Law  of  Bourdeaux,"  frequently 
reprinted,  of  which  the  best  edition  is  that  of 
Dupin,  in  folio,  1728.  He  also  wrote  in  La- 
tin, "  Censura  Gallica  in  Jus  civile  Romanum," 
printed  at  Paris,  in  8vo.  1615;  and  in  1607,  ^^ 
published  at  Paris,  in  two  volumes  8vo.  an 
eilition  of  Juvenal  and  Pcrsius,  with  copious 
notes  in  Latin.  Autoiiine  mav  be  called  an  in- 
dustrious, rather  tiian  a  judicious  writer.  A/»- 
reri.   Nctiv.  Diet,  Hist. — E. 

AU'IREAU,  James  d',  born  at  Paris,  in 
1656,  a  painter  by  profession,  and  a  poet  hy 
inclination,  was  an  unfortunate  example  of  the 
little  encouragement  attached  to  those  two  cha- 
racters when  not  aided  bv  the  talents  of  a  man 
of  the  world.  Singular  and  mls.mthropic  hj 
disjiosition,  little  esteeming  mankind  in  general, 
or  even  hiinselt',  he  lived  ui  obscurity,  and  died 
in  an  hospital.  As  a  painter,  if  not  eminent, 
he  produced  some  esteemed  pieces.  In  the  la« 
of  ins  works  he  jiractiscd  an  ingenious  device 
for  honouring  the  character  of  caidinal  FIcurv; 
representing  Uiogenes  with  a  lantliom  search- 
ing for  an  honest  man,  and  pointing  him  out  in 
a  portrait  of  the  ciirdinal.  D'Autreau  was  near 
sixty  when  he  took  to  writing  for  the  stage; 
and  the  sjiecies  of  composition  first  aJopled  by 
this  gloomy  solitary  was  light  and  humorous 
comedy.     He  ^vrotc  both  for  die  Italian  and 


A  U  X 


(     494     ) 


AYE 


French  theatre ;  and  his  "  Port  a  I'Anglois" 
was  the  tirst  piece  in  wliith  the  actors  of  the 
former  spoke  French.  Another  of  his  works, 
the  "  Amans  Ignorans,"  was  many  times  per- 
formed on  tiiat  theatre.  He  composed  some 
tragedies  and  serious  pieces  for  the  French 
theatre,  and  also  wrote  lyric  compositions  for 
the  opera.  The  plots  of  his  pieces  are  simple 
and  inartificial ;  but  the  dialogue  is  easy  and 
natural ;  and  some  of  his  scenes  contain  ge- 
nuine comedy.  Those  which  did  not  succeed 
on  the  stage,  may  yet  he  read  with  pleasure. 
This  poor  man,  notwithstanding  all  his  ex- 
ertions, died  in  extreme  poverty  at  the  Incu- 
rables in  Paris  in  1745,  aged  eighty-nine.  His 
works  were  published  together  in  four  volumes 
i2mo.  in  1749,  with  an  excellent  preface  by 
Pesselier.     Moreri.^K. 

AUVIGNY,  N.  Castres  de,  a  French 
historian,   was   born   at    Hainault  in  the  year 
17 12,  and  was  in  his  youth  for  some  time  resi- 
dent with  la  Fontaine.     Engaging  in  the  pro- 
fession of  arms,  he  entered  into  a  company  of 
light-horse  guards,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle 
of  Dettingen  in  1743,  at  the  age  of  thirty-one 
years.     He  was  a  man  of  genius,   and  fond  of 
letters,  and  has  left  several  works  which  entitle 
him  to  distinction  among  authors.     His  princi- 
pal performance  is,    "  The  Lives  of  illustrious 
Men  of  France,  from  the  Commencement  of 
the  Monarchy  to  the  present  Time."     Eight 
volumes  of  this  work  appeared,    in   i2mo.    in 
the  author's   life-time ;     two    posthumous    vo- 
lumes were  published  by  his  brother ;  and  the 
publication  has    been    since  continued  by  the 
abbe  Pereau  and  M.  Turpin.     Auvigny's  part 
of  these  biographical  sketches  is  written  with 
animation   and   elegance,    but   approaches   too 
near  the  borders  of  fiction  to  be  implicidy  relied 
upon  for  historical   truth.     A  small  historical 
work   was  drawn   up  by  Auvigny,    and  pub- 
lished in  two  volumes    i2mo.   which  may  be 
useful  to  young  people,  entitled  "  An  Abridge- 
ment of  the    History  of   France,   and    of  the 
Roman  History,  in  Qiiestion  and  Answer."  In 
J735  .this    writer   published,    in   five   volumes 
l2mo.   "  An  History  of  the  City  of  Paris,"  of 
which  part  of  the  fourth,  and  the  whole  fifth 
volume,   were  wiirten  by  M.  de  la  Barre.     Of 
his  works  of  imagination  the  principaf  is,  "Me- 
moirs   of  Madame   de   Barneveldt."     Moreri. 
Nouv.  Diet.  HIst.—E. 

AUXENTIUS,  a  Christian  divine  of  the 
Arian  sect,  a  native  of  Cappadocia,  flourished 
in  the  third  century.  In  the  contest  between 
the  Arians  and  Catholics,  he  was  advanced  by 
the  emperor  Constantius  to  the  see  of  Milan. 


He  was  accused  to  the  emperor  Vale^tinian,  by 
the  intolerant  Hilary,  bishop  of  Poitiers,  as  an 
enemy  of  Christ  and  a  blasphemer;  and  to  si- 
lence his  enemies,  made  a  declaration  of  his 
faith,  which  satisfied  the  emperor.  The  zealous 
catholics,  however,  were  not  satisfied  ;  and 
Auxentius,  in  a  council  held  at  Rome  in  368 
by  pope  Dainascus,  was  excommunicated.  He 
was  at  the  same  time  condemned  by  Athanasius 
and  die  prelates  of  Gaul.  Nevertheless,  he 
retained  possession  of  the  see  of  Milan  till  liis 
death  in  374,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Am- 
brose.     Hilar,  contra  Auscnt.     Morcr'i. — E. 

AUXENTIUS,  the  younger,  an  Arian  di- 
vine of  the  fourth  century,  a  native  of  Scythia, 
was  employed  by  the  Arian  party  to  oppose 
Ambrose  bishop  of  Milan.  Having  exchanged 
his  original  name  Mercurinus  for  that  of  the 
late  bishop,  he  Lhallenged  Ambrose  to  a  public 
disputation,  which  that  prelate  declined.  This 
happened  about  the  year  386.  Ambros.  Orat. 
in  Auxent.     See  art,  Ambrose. — E. 

AUZOUT,  Adrian,  a  French  mathema- 
tician of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  a  native 
of  Rouen,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Paris.  He  has  been  commonly 
said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  telescopic 
instrument  for  measuring  small  angles,  called 
the  micrometer ;  on  which  subject  he  published 
a  treatise,  in  the  transactions  of  the  acadciny  for 
1693.  (Divers  Ouvrages  de  Mathematique  et 
de  Physique  par  Messieurs  de  I'Academie  Royal 
des  Sciences,  1793.)  But  the  honour  of  this 
invention  has  been  claimed  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  England  in  favour  of 
Mr.  Gascoigne,  who,  many  years  before,  had 
invented  and  made  use  of  an  instrument,  in 
which,  by  the  approach  of  two  pieces  of  metal 
ground  to  a  very  fine  edge,  the  40,000th  part 
of  a  toot  might  be  measured.  The  invention 
was,  probably,  as  has  happened  in  many  other 
cases,  original  in  bodi  the  claimants.  The  in- 
strument has  since  received  much  improvement. 
Auzout  first  suggested  the  idea  of  applying  the 
telescope  to  the  quadrant,  which  was  afterwards 
pursued  by  Picard.  This  ingenious  astrono- 
mer died  in  1 691.  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  Hut- 
ton's  Math.  Diet.  art.  Micrometer. — E. 

AXIOTHEA,  a  female  philosopher  of 
Greece,  lived  in  the  time  of  Plato.  Her  thirst 
after  knowledge  was  so  ardent,  that  she  dis- 
guised herself  in  man's  clothes,  in  order  to 
attend  the  lectures  of  that  philosopher.  Menag. 
in  Diog.  Laert.  lib.  iii.  c.  48. —  £. 

AYESHA,  the  favourite  wife  of  Mahomet, 
was  the  daughter  of  Abubeker,  who  obtained  on 
her  account  the  name  by  which  he  is  known, 


AYE 


(    495     ) 


AYE 


signifying  the  Father  of  the  Vhg'in.  Aycslia 
was  the  only  one  of  Maliomtt's  numerous 
wives  who  came  a  virgin  to  liis  bed;  and  so 
gicat  was  tlie  prophet's  caution  in  this  respect, 
that  lie  espoused  her  at  seven  years  of  age,  and 
cohabited  with  her  at  nine.  She  had  no  child- 
ren by  him  ;  but  his  love  for  her  coniiniicd  to 
his  death  ;  and  when  lie  was  seised  with  his  last 
illness,  lie  caused  himself  to  be  conveyed  to  her 
house,  and  expired  in  her  arms.  She  had  not, 
however,  passed  though  the  nuptial  state  en- 
tirely without  suspicion  ;  for  once  accompany- 
ing Mahomet  on  a  march,  and  having  occasion 
to  alight  from  her  camel,  she  was  unaccount- 
ably left  behind,  and  next  morning  rejoined  the 
army  in  company  with  one  of  the  general  offi- 
cers. Her  enemies  on  this  occasion  brought 
against  her  a  direct  charge  ot  adultery  ;  and  the 
prophet  himself  was  staggered  ;  but  perceiving, 
on  reflection,  that  the  dignitv  of  his  own  cha- 
racter might  suffer  from  the  belief  of  such  an 
aspersion,  he  produced  a  timely  revelation  from 
heaven  to  attest  her  innocence,  and  punished 
her  accusers  as  calumniators. 

After  his  death,  she  was  regarded  with  great 
veneration  by  the  mussulmans,  as  being  tilled 
•with  an  extraordinary  portion  of  his  spirit. 
They  gavfeher  the  title  of  Mother  of  the  Faith- 
ful, aivl  consulted  her  on  important  occasions. 
Her  own  father,  when  caliph,  took  her  advice 
concerning  his  appointment  ot  Sacd  to  be  gene- 
ral, which  was  opposed  by  Omar;  and  Ayesha 
joined  in  opinion  with  Omar,  in  consequence 
of  which  Saed  was  displaced  for  Amru.  For 
some  reason  with  which  we  are  not  acquainted, 
she  entertained  a  great  aversion  for  the  caliph 
Othman  ;  and  she  made  use  of  her  growing 
authority  to  form  a  plot  for  his  dethronement, 
with  the  intention  of  placing  in  his  stead  her 
favourite  Telha.  She  had  gained  over  a  con- 
siderable partv,  when  Othman  was  assassinated 
in  a  sedition  by  another  enemy.  Ihe  succession 
of  Ali  was  strongly  opposed  by  Ayesha,  who 
had  never  forgiven  his  declaration  against  her 
at  the  time  she  incurred  the  suspicion  ot  infide- 
lity. Joined  by  Telha  and  Zobeir  at  Mecca, 
she  raised  a  revolt,  under  pretence  of  avenging 
the  minder  of  Othman,  in  wjiich  the  wjiole 
house  of  Ommijah  concurred.  An  army  was 
levied,  which  marched  towards  Bassora,  with 
Ayesha  at  their  head,  in  a  litter  borne  upon  a 
camel  of  great  strength.  On  arriving  at  a  vil- 
lage called  Jowab,  she  was  saluted  with  the  loud 
barking  of  the  dogs  of  the  place,  which,  remind- 
ing her  of  a  prediction  of  the  prophet,  in 
which  the  dogs  of  Jowab  were  mentioned,  so 
intimidated  her,  that  she  declared  her  icsolutioii 


not  to  advance  a  step ;  and  it  was  nor  till  a 
luimber  of  jjcrson;  had  been  suborned  to  swear 
that  the  village  had  been  wrongly  named  lo  her, 
and  till  the  artifice  had  been  employed  of  terri- 
fying her  with  a  report  of  All's  being  in  the 
rear,  that  she  was  prevailed  on  to  proceed. 
When  the  revolters  reached  Rassora,  they  were 
met  by  a  party  of  the  inhabitants,  whom  they 
defeated.  A  de|'uration  thi-n  came  from  the 
city  to  know  their  intentions,  which  Avtsha 
harangued  in  a  long  speech,  with  a  louJ  and 
shrill  voice,  but  scarcely  intelligible,  through 
passion.  One  of  the  Arabs  wisely  replied  to 
her,  "  O  mother  of  the  faithful,  the  murdering 
of  Odiman  was  a  thing  of  less  moment  than  thy 
leaving  home  on  this  cursed  camel.  God  has 
bestowed  on  thee  a  veil  and  a  protection ;  but 
thou  hast  rent  the  veil  and  set  the  protection  at 
nought."  She  met  with  other  reproaches  for 
her  conduct,  and  Bassora  refused  to  admit  her. 
In  the  end,  however,  her  tioops  gained  pos- 
session of  it.  In  the  mean  time  Ali  liad  assem- 
bled an  army,  with  which  he  marched  against 
the  revolters.  On  his  approach  Zobeir  had  a 
conference  with  him,  which  tended  to  an  ac- 
commodation. But  Ayesha  violently  opposed 
all  pacific  counsels,  and  resolved  to  proceed  to 
the  utmost  extremity.  Her  army  was  the  most 
niunerous,  though  that  of  Ali  was  superior  in 
military  skill.  A  fierce  batilc  ensued,  at  a 
]ilacc  cilled  Horaiba,  in  which  both  Telha  and 
Zobeir  w  ere  slain.  The  combat  still  raged  about 
Ayesha's  camel,  and  an  Arabian  writer  says, 
that  the  hands  of  70  men,  who  successively 
held  its  bridle,  were  cut  otV,  and  that  iicr  litter 
was  stuck  full  of  darts,  so  as  to  resemble  a  por- 
cupine. The  camel  (from  which  this  day's 
tight  takes  its  name)  was  at  length  hamstrung, 
and  y\yesha  became  a  prisoner.  Ali  had  a 
conference  with  her,  which  conuncnccd  with 
mutual  re|)roaches ;  at  length  he  dismissed  her 
with  great  ci\ility,  and  sent  lier  to  Mcdir.a 
under  the  protection  of  his  two  sons,  only  re- 
quiring her  to  live  peaceably  at  home,  and 
never  more  intermeddle  with  state  affairs — a 
[Jtohibition  which  one  of  her  character  would 
probably  consider  as  a  great  scvirity.  Her 
resentment  afterwards  appeared  in  lier  refusal  to 
sutler  Hassan,  the  unfortunate  son  of  Ali.  to  be 
buried  near  the  tomb  of  the  piuphet,  wlinh  was 
in  her  property.  She  seems  to  have  n  gr'.ineJ 
her  influence  in  the  reign  of  the  uiiiph  Moa- 
wiyah,  who  had  a  long  conftreme  with  her 
concerning  the  succession  of  hii  son  Yr/id. 
She  died  soon  after,  in  the  58th  year  of  the 
Hegira,  A.  D.  677,  aged  sixtv-scvcn;  having 
constantly  experienced  a  high  degree  of  rtsjxct 


A  Y  L 


(    496     ) 


A  Y  L 


■from  the  followers  of  Mahomet,  except  at  the 
time  of  Iier  imprudent  expedition  against  Ali. 
Mod.  Univcrs,  Hist.  Marigtiy,  Hist,  des 
Arahei. — A. 

AYLIN,  John,  an  Italian  liistoriau  of  the 
fourteentli  century,  was  the  author  of  an  his- 
tory of  Friuli  from  the  year  1366  to  the  year 
I3§8.  His  work,  which  is  a  curious  and  use- 
ful collection  of  facts,  may  be  seen  in  the  third 
volume  of  Muratori's  "  Antiquitates  Italicse 
medii  ^vi,"  printed  in  folio  at  Milan,  in  1740. 
Moreri. — E. 

AYLMER,  or  iELMER,  John,  an  Eng- 
lish divine,  bishop  of  London,  the  younger  son 
of  parents  of  distinction,  resident  at  Aylnier 
hall  in  Norfolk,  was  born  in  the  year  1521. 
Under  the  patronage  of  Henry  Grey,  marquis 
of  Dorset,  afterwards  duke  of  Suffolk,  he  was 
educated  at  Cambridge.  Having  finished  his 
Studies,  the  marquis  engaged  him  to  become 
private  tutor  to  his  children,  and  among  the 
rest  to  Lady  Jane  Grey.  This  lady  became, 
under  his  instruction,  so  great  a  proficient  in 
both  the  Greek  and  Ladn  languages,  as  not 
only  to  be  able  to  read  them  with  facility,  but 
to  write  them  with  elegance.  In  an  interview 
■which  Roger  Ascham  had  with  her,  she  ex- 
pressed great  respect  for  her  preceptor.  "  Mr. 
Elmer,"  says  she,  "  teacheth  me  so  gently,  so 
pleasantly,  with  fair  allurements  to  learning, 
that  I  think  all  the  time  nothing  while  I  am 
with  him." 

In  his  clerical  capacity,  Aylmer  showed 
himself  a  steady  and  zealous  friend  to  the  re- 
formation. In  his  preaching  he  strenuously 
inculcated  the  doctrines  of  the  reformers ;  and 
when,  in  consequence  of  his  preferment  to  the 
archdeaconry  of  Stow,  he  obtained  a  seat  in 
the  convocation  held  soon  after  the  accession 
of  Mary,  he  courageously  opposed  the  design 
of  returning  to  popery,  and  with  five  others 
disputed  against  its  fundamental  tenets.  This 
rendered  him  so  obnoxious  to  tlie  new  govern- 
ment, that  he  thought  it  adviseable  to  relinquish 
his  archdeaconry,  and  v^ithdraw  into  a  foreign 
country.  On  his  passage,  he  fortunately  es- 
caped discovery  from  his  pursuers,  though  they 
came  in  search  of  him  into  the  ship  on  which 
he  was  embarked.  While  his  enemies  were 
drinking  wine  out  of  one  end  of  a  large  wine 
cask  with  a  partition  in  the  middle,  he  sat 
concealed  in  the  other.  He  resided,  first  at 
Strasburg,  and  afterwards  in  Zurich  in  Swit- 
zerland, and  visited  most  of  the  universities  of 
Italy  and  Germany.  Towards  the  end  of  his 
exile  he  seasonably  employed  himself  in  writ- 
ing an  answer  to  John  Knox's  book  "  against 


the  government  of  women."  This  work  was 
written  with  vivacity  and  learning,  and  was  on 
the  whole  well  calculated  to  gain  the  favour  of 
Elizabeth,  who  now  ascended  the  throne  ;  yet 
it  contained  some  passages  savouring  of  puri- 
tanism,  particularly  one  exhorting  the  bishops 
to  be  content  with  moderate  incomes,  and  a 
portion  "  priest-like  not  prince-like."  When 
afterwards  urged  with  this  passage,  he  fairly 
replied,  "  When  I  was  a  child,  1  spoke  as  a 
child,  and  thougiit  as  a  child,"  &c. 

Aylmer  returned  to  his  own  country  soon 
after  Elizabeth's  accession,  and  was  one  of  the 
eight  divines  who  disputed  at  Westminster 
with  as  many  popish  bishops.  In  1562  he  was 
made  archdeacon  of  Lincoln  through  the  favour 
of  Secretary  Cecil,  and  sat  in  the  synod  holden 
that  year  for  the  settling  of  the  reformed  church- 
He  seems,  however,  to  have  been  averse  at 
this  time  from  interfering  much  in  ecclesiastical 
disputes,  aware  of  the  suspicions  under  which 
he  laboured  from  both  parties ;  and  he  attended 
more  to  his  duties  as  a  justice  of  the  peace,  and 
an  ecclesiastical  commissioner.  In  1573  he 
was  made  a  doctor  of  divinity  at  Oxford  ;  and 
in  1576  his  long-expected  promotion  to  a  mitre 
took  place,  on  the  removal  of  Dr.  Sandys  from 
London  to  York.  Dr.  Aylmer  succeeded  his 
old  friend  and  fellow-exile  Sandys  in  his  see  of 
London,  and  incurred  some  censure  on  account 
of  a  suit  against  him  for  dilapidations,  which 
he  immediately  commenced,  and  prosecuted  for 
some  years.  Indeed,  a  prudent  regard  to  his 
wordly  interest  was  a  conspicuous  part  of  this 
bishop's  character;  and  in  consequence  he  ac- 
cumulated a  large  property  for  the  times,  though 
he  lived  with  a  good  deal  of  magnificence.  It 
seems  unnecessary  to  enter  into  many  particu- 
lars concerning  his  episcopal  life,  which  was 
rather  that  of  a  man  of  business  than  a  deep 
theologian.  He,  indeed,  made  use  of  the  plea 
of  business  to  the  treasurer  Burleigh,  in  order 
to  excuse  himself  from  undertaking  the  task  of 
answering  the  Jesuit  Campion.  He  seems  to 
have  been  active  in  the  discharge  of  his  dutv, 
and  to  have  exerted  great  vigilance  in  preserving 
the  churcli  from  die  attacks  of  papists  and  puri- 
tans ;  whom,  especially  the  latter,  he  treated 
with  sufficient  rigour,  so  much  so,  as  not  only 
to  acquire  their  hatred,  but  occasionally  to  in- 
cur admonition  from  the  ruling  powers.  He 
was  involved  in  a  variety  of  disputes  with  re- 
spect both  to  the  temporalities  of  his  see,  and 
his  exercise  of  its  spiritual  jurisdiction  ;  so  that 
his  life  was  not  a  very  tranquil  one,  though  his 
spirit  carried  him  tlirough  its  difficulties.  His 
natural  courage  was  great;  of  which  two  sin- 


Doctor  Nauarrus   Mairtimii  dh^Azpilcuetg' 


A  Z  A 


(    497    ) 


A  Z  P 


gtilar  instances  are  related  ;  one,  that  of  his 
sitting  down  to  have  a  tooth  drawn,  in  order  to 
encourage  queen  Elizabeth  to  subitiit  to  the 
same  operation  ;  the  other,  that  of  sending  for 
his  son-in-law,  with  whom  he  had  a  difference, 
to  his  closet,  and  there  giving  him  a  sound 
cudgelling.  Bishop  Aylmer  died  at  Fulham  in 
J  594,  at  the  age  of  seventy-three,  and  was 
buried  in  St.  Paul's  cathedral.  His  character 
perhaps  stands  high.er  in  point  of  learning  and 
ability,  than  of  moral  merit.  He  appears  to 
have  been  sincerely  zealous  in  religion,  but  a 
lover  of  power  and  of  money,  and  possessed 
with  a  haughty  persecuting  spirit.  A  remark- 
able passage  from  his  book  against  Knox  has 
been  quoted  to  prove  the  liberal  ideas  enter- 
tained at  that  time  of  the  limited  nature  of  the 
English  monarchy,  contrary  to  the  represen- 
tations of  Hume.  It  is,  indeed,  a  strong  and 
decisive  one ;  but  it  was  written  when  he  was 
an  exile  among  republicans,  and  when,  as  he 
said,  "  he  thought  as  a  child."  Stiype's  L'lfe 
of  Bishop  Jyltner.     Biogr.  Brltan. — A. 

AYMAR,  James,  an  impostor,  born  at 
St.  Veran  in  Dauphine,  attracted  much  atten- 
tion, in  France,  towards  the  close  of  the  17th 
century,  by  his  delusions.  He  boasted,  that  he 
was  possessed  of  a  divining  rod,  by  means  of 
which  he  could  discover  hidden  treasures,  find 
metallic  mines,  detect  thieves,  adulterers,  &c. 
The  ignorant  vulgar,  of  all  ranks,  suffered 
themselves  to  be  deceived  by  these  pretensions  : 
but  being  invited  from  Lyons  to  Paris,  the 
frauds  which  he  practised  were  laid  open,  and 
he  was  obliged  to  confess,  that  he  had  only  used 
his  rod,  to  draw  money  from  the  pockets  of 
the  credulous.  The  traud  being  detected,  the 
deceiver  returned  to  his  native  obscurity  :  and 
the  only  wonder  was,  that,  after  the  detection, 
a  man  of  letters  could  be  found,  who  would  at- 
tempt an  apology  for  the  diviner.  De  Valle- 
mont,  a  man  of  more  science  than  discernment, 
published  a  treatise  "  On  the  hidden  phy.-^ical 
Powers  of  the  Divining  Rod."  Ncuv.  Diet. 
Hht.—E. 

AZARIAH,  or  UZZIAH,  one  of  the  kings 
ofjudah,  succeeded  Aniaziah  about  8 lO  years 
before  Christ.  He  was  in  the  early  part  of  his 
reign  pious,  and  victorious  over  his  enemies ; 
but  at  last  he  became  an  idolater,  and  died  of  a 
leprosy.  Several  persons  in  the  Jewish  history 
bear  the  name  of  Azariuh.  2  Kings,  c.  xv. 
— E. 

AZARIAS,  a  learned  Italian  rabl)i,  an  histo- 
rical writer,  lived    in    tlie    16th   ccntuiy.     He 
published  at  Mantua,  in  the  year  1 1574,  a  He- 
brew work  entitled  "Meor  en  Ajim,"  [the  Light 
VOL.  I. 


of  the  Eyes]  which  treats  of  many  particular! 
in  history  and  criticism.  It  discovers  more  eru- 
dition, and  more  knowledge  of  Christian  bookf, 
than  is  commonly  found  among  tlie  Jews.  The 
author  examines  many  facts  respecting  rhrono- 
logy.  The  work  also  contains  a  Hebrew 
translation  of  the  book  of  Aristeas  on  tlic  Scp- 
tuagint.      Biixtorf.  Bihliolft.     Mirer'i. — E. 

AZliVEDO,  Ignatius,  a  Portuguese  Je- 
suit, was  born  at  Porto,  in  1517.  He  was  of 
an  illustrious  family,  and  as  eldest  5on  heir  to 
a  large  fortune,  which  he  resigned  in  favour  of 
the  second  son,  and  devoted  himself  to  religion 
in  the  society  of  the  Jesuits  at  Coimbra.  After 
studying  in  several  schools,  and  fulfilling  for 
many  years  tlie  ordinary  duties  of  t!ie  pro- 
fession with  great  reputation,  A7evedo  became 
a  missionary.  He  was  deputed  from  Rome  on 
a  mission  to  the  Indies  and  Brazil,  under  tlic 
title  of  procurer-general  for  those  countries. 
After  one  successful  expedition,  of  which  he 
returned  to  give  an  account  to  the  general  at 
Rome,  he  set  out  upon  a  second  voyage  with 
a  larger  number  of  missionaries.  As  his  ship 
was  sailing,  in  1570,  towards  the  island  of 
Palma,  it  was  attacked  and  taken  by  corsairs, 
who  put  the  whole  company  of  missionaries  to 
death.  Azcvcdo  and  his  thirty-nine  associates 
have  been  honoured  as  martyrs  in  the  church  of 
Rome;  and  the  history  of  their  mission  and 
martyrdom  was  published  by  Beauvais,  a  Jesuit, 
in  1744.     Aforcri. — E. 

AZPILCUETA,  Martin, surnamed  Na- 
vARRi:,  a  Spanish  lawyer,  was  boin  in  1494  at 
Verasoa  near  Pampeluna.  He  wjs  esteemed  one 
of  the  most  learned  lawyers  of  his  time.  He  was, 
successively,  professor  of  jurispnidencc  at  Tou- 
louse, Salairianca,  and  Coimbra,  and  was  consult- 
ed from  all  parts  as  an  oracle  of  law.  His  friend 
Bartholomew  Caranza,  archbishop  of  Toledo, 
being  summoned  to  the  inquisition  at  Rome  on  a 
charge  of  heresy,  Azpilcueia  \vrnt  to  Rome  at 
eighty  years  of  age,  to  plead  for  him.  At  iliis 
advanced  age,  he  retained  the  full  vigour  of  his  fa- 
culties, and  his  house  at  Rome  was  the  resort  of 
learned  men.  Pope  Gregory  XIU.  was  fr«|ucnt- 
ly  in  the  number  of  his  visitors.  He  was  so 
charitable  to  the  poor,  that  he  seldom  passed  a 
beggar  without  giving  him  an  alms.  It  is  said, 
that  the  mule,  on  which  he  commonly  roile, 
would  stop  of  his  own  accord,  when  ho  saw  a 
beggar.  This  celebrated  lawyer  died  at  Rome, 
in  1586,  at  the  great  age  of  ninety-two  years. 
A  collection  of  the  works  of  doctor  Navarre 
was  printed  at  Lyons  in  six  volumes  folio  in 
1597.  and  at  Venice  in  1602.  Niol.  jtiitsni* 
Biblioth.  Hiipan.     Ahrni.  —  E. 


hZZ 


(  498  ) 


AZ  Z 


AZZO,  PoRTius.an  eminent  Italian  lawyer, 
was  a  Bolognesc,  and  held  the  professorship  of 
jurisprudence  in  that  city  from  1 1 90  to  iiis 
death,  wliich  probably  happened  not  long  after 
1220.  He  was  the  disciple  of  Bassiano,  but 
far  surpassed  the  fame  of  his  master.  It  is  said 
that  the  great  number  of  his  scholars  obliged 
him  to  lecture  in  the  square  of  San  Stephano  ; 
and  that  in  his  time  Bologna  possessed  10,000 
students.  He  was  extremely  assiduous  in  at- 
tendance on  his  school,  and  so  fond  of  his  em- 
ployment, that  he  said  he  was  never  ill  but  in 
the  vacations.  He  was  prone  to  passion,  and 
did  not  exercise  moderation  in  confuting  his 
opponents.  A  story  has  been  current,  that 
once  in  the  heat  of  debate  he  threw  a  candle- 
stick at  the  head  of  his  antagonist,  and  chanced 
to  kill  him,  and  that  he  was  capitally  punished 
in  consequence  of  this  rash  action ;  but  this 
circumstance  is  not  mentioned  by  the  writecs 


nearest  his  time,  and  seems  to  be  an  idle  tale.- 
Neither  docs  there  appear  to  be  any  foundation 
for  the  opinion  that  he  for  a  time  left  Bologna, 
and  was  professor  at  Montpellier.  Azzo  was 
the  author  of  a  "  Summary  of  the  Code  and 
the  Institutes,"  of  which  there  have  been  many 
editions.  This  work  was  so  much  valued  near 
his  time,  that  no  one  could  obtain  the  degree  of 
jurisconsult  who  had  it  not  in  his  possession ; 
and  at  a  later  period,  the  learned  Gravina  says 
of  it,  "  The  Summary  of  Azzo  is  a  work  so 
ingenious  and  profound,  that,  although  written 
in  a  barbarous  age,  we  cannot,  even  with  all 
our  present  erudition,  be  safely  without  it." 
(De  Orig.  Jur.  vol.  I.  p.  93.)  There  has  be- 
sides been  printed  the  "  Introduction  to  the 
Code,"  collected  by  one  of  his  scholars;  and 
several  of  his  writmgs  remain  in  manuscripts 
P.  Sarti  de  Profess.     Bonon,     tiraboschi. — A». 


BAB 


(    499    ) 


BAB 


B. 


JlSaADIN,  Mahomet  Gebet  Amali, 
■a  celebrated  Persian  doctor,  was  the  editor  of 
an  abridgment  of  civil  and  canon  law,  entitled, 
**  The  Siimmary  ot"  Abbas,"  because  it  was 
written  by  the  command  of  Abbas  the  Great. 
This  work  consists  of  twenty  books,  five  of 
which  were  written  by  Baadin,  the  rest  by  one 
of  his  disciples  under  his  direction.  CJiai din's 
TravcU.     Aloreri. — E. 

BABA,  a  famous  impostor  of  Turcomania, 
appeared  among  the  Mahometans,  in  the  city 
of  Amasia,  in  the  year  of  the  hegira  638,  or  of 
Christ  1240.  He  required  from  his  followers 
this  profession  of  faith  :  "  There  is  but  one 
God,  and  Baba  is  his  messenger."  The  Ma- 
hometans, enraged  to  see  their  prophet  thus  sup- 
planted, made  every  effort  to  sieze  the  person 
of  Baba,  but  in  vain ;  for  his  followers  were  so 
numerous,  that  he  was  soon  able  to  raise  a 
large  army,  with  which  he  ravaged  and  pil- 
laged a  great  part  of  Natolia.  At  last,  however, 
the  Mahometans  calling  in  the  assistance  of  the 
Europeans,  pursued  him  with  such  vigour, 
that  he  was  entirely  routed,  and  his  sect  di- 
spersed.     D'Hcrbelct,  Blblioth.  Oriaitale. — E. 

BABIN,  Francis,  born  at  Angers  in  1651, 
the  son  of  aai  advocate  in  that  city,  was  esteem- 
ed a  skilful  canonist,  and  a  profound  theologian. 
He  was  elected  professor  of  divinity  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Angers  at  twenty-five  ycar.s  ot  age, 
and  read  lectures  to  numerous  classes  tor  twen- 
ty years.  Being,  in  1706,  appointed  by  the 
bishop  of  Angers  one  of  his  grand  vicars,  he 
was  em))lovcd  by  that  prelate  to  reduce  into 
form  the  minutes  of  the  conferences  ot  the  dio- 
cese. The  work  was  published  in  eighteen 
volumes,  lamo.  and  is  much  esteemed  for  its 
clear  method,  and  the  e.isy  .simplicity  of  its 
style.  In  1697,  Babin  published  in  4to.  with- 
out the  name  of  the  author  or  printer,  "  A 
Narrative  of  what  passed  in  the  Universit;^  of 
Angers  on  the  Subjects  of  Janieni:,m  and  Car. 
tesianism."  He  received  from  Louis  XIV,  a 
pension  of  2000  liv res,  and  was  appointed  to 
several  honourable  and  lucrative  ofEces,  which 
he  enjoyed  till  his  deaili,  in  1734.  »'  'he  age  of 
righty-thrce.     Bubin  was   so  highly  esteemed 


for  his  accurate  knowledge  and  sound  judg. 
ment,  that  he  was  frequently  consulted  on  ec- 
clesiastical questions  and  cases  of  conscience, 
and  he  retained  his  faculties  in  their  full  vigour 
to  the  last.  'Journal  de  Trtvoux^  '743'  Mt- 
rer'i. — E. 

BABINGTON,    Gf.rvase,    an    English 
bishop,  born  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury, was,  according  to  some,  a  native  of  Not- 
tinghamshire (Fuller's  Abel  Rcdivivus,  p.  455, 
and  his  Church  Hist.  p.   56.),    according   to 
others,  of  Devonshire.   (I/.ackc's  Catalogue  ot 
Bishops  in  Antiquities  of  Exeter ;  and  Prince'* 
Worthies  of  Devon,  p.  87.)    He  was  educated 
in   Trinity  College,  at  Cambridge,  where  he 
became  a  celebrated  preacher.   He  was  domestic 
chaplain  to  Henry  Earl  of  Pembroke,  president 
of   the   council    in    the   marches    of    Wales. 
While  he  was  in  this  station  he  is  said  (Brief 
View  of  the  State  of  the  Church  of  England, 
by    Sir  J.    Harrington,    Lond.     i2mo.    1653, 
p.  128.     Wood's  Athcn.  Ox.  Col.  704.    Bal- 
lard's Memoirs  of  Britisli  Ladies,  second  edit, 
p.  184.)  to  have  assisted  the  Ladv  Mary  Sid- 
ney,   countess   of   Pembroke,   in   lier    English 
metrical  version  of  the  psalms  of  David  ;    and, 
whatever  were  that  lady's  learning,  or  poetical 
talents,  it  was  no  discredit  to  her  to  receive  as- 
sistance from  the  bishop,   in  giving  ar»  exact 
version    of   difficult   passages.      Through    the 
intercr.t  of  his  patron,  Dr.  Babingion  was  ap- 
pointed treasurer  of  the  church  of  Lund.itf,  and 
was  afterwards,  in  1591,  advanced  to  that  bi- 
shopric, whciice  he  was  successively  translated 
to  the  sec  of  Exeter,  and  of  Worcester.    Alter 
remaining  in  the  latter  diocese  thirteen  years, 
he  died  in   1610 ;  but,  though  he  bad  repaiird 
tlic  cathedral,  and  left  to  it,  as  a  legacy,  hi* 
valuable  library,  lie  was  buried  wiihuut  a  mo- 
nument.   He  IS  highly  extolled  fc-r  his  learning 
and  piety,  and  for  his  freedom  from  indulemc, 
pride,  and  covetousniss  .   but  unl'orTjnatLlv  for 
his  character  in  the  latter  respect,  it  is  rtcmdcvl 
(Prince's  Woithics  of  Devon,  p.  88.)  that  he 
did   an  irreparable   injury  to  the  bishopric    o*' 
Excicr,  by  alicnatine  from  it  the  rich  rtianor  of 
Crcditon,  ill  Dcvoushirc.     Bishop  Babingtou  i» 


BAB 


(    500    )■ 


BAG 


said  to  Iiave  been  a  pathetic  preacher.  Speci- 
mens of  his  talents  are  preserved  in  his  works, 
published  in  1615  and  1637,  containing,  "Com- 
lortable  Notes  on  the  Pentateuch  ;"  an  "  Expo- 
sition of  the  Creed,  Commandments,  and 
Lord's  Prayer  ;"  a  "  Conference  between 
Man's  Frailty  and  Faith ;"  and  "  Three  Ser- 
mons." These  pieces  arc  written  in  the  quaint 
style  of  the  times,  and  are  more  to  be  respected 
for  thtir  piety  than  admired  for  their  literary 
merit.  FuUer.  Godwin  de  PrasuUbus.  Biogr. 
B'itan. — E. 

BABYLAS,  a  Christian  bishop  and  martyr, 
flourished  in  the  third  century  under  the  em- 
peror Gorc^ian.  He  was  chosen  to  the  see  of 
Antioch  in  the  year  238,  and  governed  that 
church  about  thirteen  years,  when  he  fell  in  the 
persecution  of  Decius.  Ancient  writers  are 
not  agreed  concerning  the  manner  of  his  death. 
Eusebius  and  Jerom  assert  that  he  died  in  pri- 
son ;  Chrysostom,  who  has  celebrated  his  me- 
mory, says  that  he  was  brought  out  of  prison, 
and  conducted  to  capital  punishment.  Epi- 
phanius,  Sozomen,  and  Theodoret,  only  men- 
tion him  in  general  terms  as  a  martyr.  Chry- 
sostom extols  his  courage  in  refusing  entrance 
into  the  church  to  an  emperor,  who  had  stained 
his  hands  with  the  blood  of  a  king's  son,  whom 
he  liad  received  as  an  hostage,  and  supposes  that 
this  refusal  was  the  cause  of  his  death  ;  and  this 
is  supposed  to  refer  to  the  emperor  Philip,  who 
put  the  young  Gordian,  his  coUegue,  to  death. 
In  confirmation  of  this  supposition  it  is  ob-i 
served,  that  Eusebius  speaks  of  a  bishop,  who 
would  not  permit  Philip  to  enter  into  tire  cliurch, 
till  he  had  confessed  his  sins,  and  placed  himself 
among  the  penitents.  But  Chrysostom  does 
not  mention  the  emperor  to  whom  this  hap- 
pened, nor  Eusebius  the  bishop  who  treated 
him  in  this  manner.  It  is  also  doubtful,  whe- 
ther the  emperor  Philip  was  a  Christian,  and 
still  more,  whether  he  ever  submitted  to  public 
penance.  The  whole  story,  therefore,  rests 
upon  uncertain  ground.  The  tomb  of  Babylas 
having  been  removed  from  Antioch  to  the 
grove  of  a  temple  of  Apollo,  and  a  church 
erected  over  his  remains,  the  oracle  was  si- 
lenced, by  the  presence,  as  was  supposed,  of 
this  saint's  body,  but  more  probably,  as  Van 
Dale  conjectures  (De  OracuHs,  p.  441.),  by  an 
apprehension  of  the  priests,  that  the  Christians, 
■who  daily  visited  the  tomb  of  the  martyr,  would 
tletect  their  imposture.  Julian  soon  afterwards 
tlemolishcd  this  church,  and  the  Christians  re- 
moved the  relics  of  their  saint  in  triumph  to 
Antioch.  The  night  following,  the  temple  of 
ApoUo  was  consumed,  and  the  Christians  of 


Antioch  asserted,  that  through  the  prayers  of 
St.  Babylas  the  edifice  had  been  struck  with 
lightning.  Julian,  however,  imputed  tlie  fire 
to  the  Christians,  and  treated  them  with  seve- 
rity. Eustb.  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  vi.  c.  2C),  39. 
Chrysost.  torn.  ii.  p.  66g.  orat.  48.  Julian. 
Misopogon,  p.  361.  jimmianus  Mar.  lib.  xxii. 
c.  12,,  13.  Bayle.  Morcri.  Gibbon'' s  Hist. 
ch.  23. — E. 

BACCHINI,  Benedict,  a  learned  Italian 
monk  of  the  17th  century,  was  bom  at  Borgo 
San  Donino,  in  the  duchy  of  Parma,  in  the  year 
1 65 1.  He  received  his  early  education  at 
Parma,  and  at  sixteen  years  of  age  entered  into 
the  order  of  St.  Benedict  in  the  monastery  of 
Mount-Cassin,  where  he  studied  so  intensely 
as  to  injure  his  health.  Being  chosen  secretary 
to  Arcioni,  abbot  of  the  Benedictines  of  Fer- 
rara,  he  accompanied  him  to  Arezzo,  Venice, 
Padua,  and  other  cities,  where  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  many  learned  men.  Settling  at 
Parma,  he  resigned  his  office  of  secretary,  and 
devoted  himself  to  study.  Here  he  published  a 
periodical  literary  journal,  in  which  he  disco- 
vered great  learning  and  judgment,  but  which 
created  him  numerous  enemies,  some  of  whom 
had  sufficient  interest  with  the  duke  of  Parma 
to  procure  from  him  a  sentence  of  banishment 
from  his  territory.  Bacchini  retired  to  Mode- 
na ;  and  the  duke  of  Modena  soon  afterwards 
took  him  under  his  patronage,  and  made  him 
his  historiographer  and  librarian.  In  the  former 
capacity,  he  investigated  the  genealogy  and 
history  of  the  house  of  Este,  and  collected  large 
materials,  which,  upon  his  resigning  this  station 
to  take  the  abbacy  of  the  Benedictines  of  Mo- 
dena, he  transferred  to  his  illustrious  successor, 
Muratori.  In  1705,  he  founded  at  Modena 
an  academy  of  ecclesiastical  literature.  After 
some  other  changes  of  situation,  he  was  elected 
professor  of  ecclesiastic  history  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Bologna,  where  he  died,  at  the  age  of 
seventy,  in  die  year  1721.  Bacchini  was  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  scholars  of  his  age :  his 
learning  was  universal,  and  his  taste  refined. 
In  his  youth,  his  eloquence  was  much  admired, 
and  he  would  have  been  one  of  the  first  preacli- 
eis  of  the  asje,    had    not    his   vi'ant  of  health 

•  •       •  T  T 

obliged  him  to  quit  tlie  mmistry.  He  ^^•as  a 
great  theologian  and  canonist,  and  was  deeply 
read  in  every  branch  of  ecclesiastical  pliilology: 
he  possessed  great  skill  in  deciphering  ancient 
manuscripts ;  and  he  was  esteemed  an  exact 
and  penetrating  critic.  Beside  the  journal  al- 
ready mentioned,  whicli  commenced  at  Parma 
in  1686,  and  was  continued  to  1690,  and  which 
was  afterwards  resumed  at  Modena  from  1691 


B  A  C 


(    501     ) 


BAG 


to  1697,  and  remains  in  nine  volumes  410. 
Baccliini  wrote,  in  Italian,  "  The  History  of 
the  Benedictine  Monastery  of  Polironi,"  and  in 
Latin,  "  De  Sistrorum  Figuris  ac  DifFcreniia," 
4to.  Bononiae,  1691 ;  and  rcprintL-d  at  Utrecht, 
4tOi  1696,  with  remarks  by  Tollius:  "  De 
Ecclesiastics  Hierarchic  Originibus,"  4to. 
Modcnas,  1703  ;  with  other  small  pieces. 
Journal  de  Vcnise,  torn.  viii.  Bibliotheque  Ital. 
torn.  viii.      Tiyabouh'i.     Morer'i. — E. 

BACCHYLIDES,  a  Greek  poet,  nephew 
of  Simoaides,  was  a  native  of  the  i^lalld  of 
Ceos,  and  flourished  in  the  82d  Olympiad, 
about  B.  C.  452.  He  is  reckoned  the  last  of 
the  nine  famous  lyric  poets  of  ancient  Greece ; 
not  in  merit,  for  king  Hiero  is  said  to  have  pre- 
ferred his  compositions  to  those  of  Pindar. 
They  consisted  of  hymns,  odes,  and  epigrams. 
They  abounded  in  moral  sentiment,  with  the 
purity  of  wliich  the  emperor  Julian,  according 
to  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  was  so  much  de- 
lighted, that  he  was  frequently  accustomed  to 
repeat  his  verses.  Horace  is  said  to  have  imi- 
tated him  in  some  of  his  pieces,  particularly  in 
the  prophecy  of  Nereus,  which  was  suggested 
by  the  Greek  poet's  vaticination  of  Cassandra. 
Nothing  remains  of  Bacchylidcs  but  some 
fragments.  Fossius  de  Poet.  Grac.  LUius  Gy- 
raldus. — A. 

BACCHYLUS,  a  Christian  divine  in  the 
second  century,  bishop  of  Corinth,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  controversy,  which  in  this  early 
age  of  the  church  arose  concerning  the  time  of 
celebrating  the  festival  of  Easter.  He  wrote  a 
letter  upon  this  subject  in  the  name  of  the  bi- 
shops of  Achaia,  which  Jerom,  who  says  that 
this  writer  flourished  under  the  emperor  Seve- 
rus,  calls  an  elegant  book.  Eusebius  mentions 
Bacchylus  togetlier  with  Polycrates,  bishop  of' 
Ephcsus,  Serapion  bishop  of  Antioch  and 
others,  who  "  had  left  testimonies  of  the  ortho- 
doxy of  their  fiith  in  writing:"  his  works  are 
lost.  Euscb.  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  v.  c.  22,  23.  Hi- 
tron.  de  Fir.  III.  c.  44.  Dupin.  Lardner. 
— E. 

BACH,  a  very  eminent  musical  family  in 
Germany,  which  has  furnished  a  succession  ot 
great  performers  and  composers  for  more  than 
two  hundred  years.  The  following  individuals 
of  it  are  worthy  of  biographical  commemo- 
ration. 

John  Sebastian  Bach,  son  of  John  Am- 
brose Bach,  musician  to  the  court  and  senate  of 
Eisenach,  was  born  in  that  city  in  1685.  He 
wa^  carlv  laught  tlie  practice  <)f  the  harpsichord 
by  his  eldest  brother  John-Crristoplier,  and  at 
the  age  of  cigiitcen  was  appointed  first  organist 


of  the  new  church  of  Arnstadt.  In  1708  he 
settled  at  Weimar,  and  became  chamber-mu- 
sician and  court-organist  to  the  duke  ;  and 
afterwards  his  concert-master.  During  his  re- 
sidence at  Weimar,  the  celebrated  French  or- 
ganist, Marchand,  arriving  at  Dresden,  after 
having  vanquished  all  the  performers  of  that 
class  in  France  and  Italy,  offered  to  play  with 
any  German  whom  the  king  of  Poland  should 
nominate.  No  Dresden  organist  choosing  to 
enter  the  lists,  Sebastian  Bach  was  sent  for  from 
Weimar,  who  came  immediately,  and  obtained 
a  decisive  victory  o\  er  the  challenger.  He  be- 
came, in  17  1 7,  chapel-master  to  the  prince  of 
Anhalt  Cothen  ;  in  1723,  music -director  at 
Leipsic,  and  chapel-master  to  the  duke  of 
Weissenfels.  As  a  pei  former  on  the  organ  he 
was  the  rival  of  Handel,  and  has  been  reckoned 
even  superior  to  him.  His  compositions  for 
the  harpsichord  and  organ,  and  his  canons, 
have  given  him  the  character  of  many  great 
musicians  in  one:  profound  in  science,  fertile 
in  fancy,  and  fond  of  all  that  was  new  and 
difficult  in  harmony.  He  died  at  Leipsic  in 
1754,  and  left  behind  him  a  school  comprising 
all  the  pnncipal  organists  of  Germany,  and 
four  sons,  all  musicians  of  great  excellence. 
Hawkins.  Burney's  Hist,  of  Aiusic,  and  Musi- 
cal Tour  in  Germany,  t^c. — A. 

Charlf.s  Philip  Emmanuel  Bach,  se- 
cond son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Weimar 
in  17  14.  He  was  originally  designed  for  a  ci- 
vilian, and  studied  the  law  at  Leipsic  and 
Frankfort  on  the  Oder;  but  his  natural  pro- 
pensity to  music  was  so  decided,  that  his  father 
consented  that  he  should  make  it  his  profession. 
While  studying  at  Frankfort,  he  cou'poscd  and 
directed  the  music  at  the  academy  tlicre,  and  at 
all  public  musical  exhibitions.  He  went  to 
Berlin  in  1738,  where  his  talents  obtained  the 
notice  of  the  prince-royal  (the  great  Frederic), 
who,  on  his  accession  in  1740,  took  him  into 
his  service.  At  Berlin  he  composed  a  great 
number  of  works,  chiefly  for  the  harpsichord, 
in  which  he  displayed  a  style  of  liis  own.  rich 
in  invention,  taste  and  learning,  and  ctowdcd 
with  new,  and  sometimes  far-fctchcd  ij,.i'.. 
He  continued  near  thirty  years  at  Berlin,  tlir'  j;!» 
the  king  was  himself  attached  to  a  diflVunt 
style  of  music,  and  did  not  rank  him  according 
to  his  merit.  But  he  was  married  in  that  capi- 
tal; and  his  wife  and  children  being  reckoned 
subjects  of  Prussia,  and,  according  to  its  slavish 
maxims,  not  capable  of  leaving  it  without  the 
king''  permission,  it  was  not  till  1767  that  be 
was  allowed  to  remove  with  his  family  to  Ham- 
burg, where  the  place  of  miisic -director  was 


15  A  C 


(     502    )' 


B  A  C 


A«fc 


confencd  upon  Iiim.  Dr.  Biirney  found  Iiim 
there  in  1773,  and  was  favoured  by  liini  with 
■some  performancer.  on  the  clavicliord,  which 
he  animated  with  the  enthusiasm  of  genius. 
*'  During  this  time"  (says  the  writer)  "  he 
grew  so  animated  and  possessed,  that  he  not 
only  played  but  looked  like  one  inspired.  His 
eves  were  fixed,  his  under  lip  fell,  and  drops  of 
ctFervcscence  distilled  from  his  countenance. 
He  said,  if  he  were  to  be  set  to  work  frequently 
in  this  manner,  he  should  grow  young  again." 
Bach  was  then  fifty-nine.  Dr.  Burney  charac- 
terises him  as  not  only  one  of  the  greatest  com- 
posers that  ever  existed  for  keyed  instruments, 
hut  the  best  player  in  point  of  expression. 
Biiinef's  Mus.  Tour  in  Germany,  and  Hist. 
Muiic,  IV.— h. 

John  Christian  Bach,  another  of  tlie 
sons  of  John-Emanuel,  was  a  scholar  of  his 
"brother  Emanuel,  and  became  a  fine  performer 
on  keyed  instruments.  He  went  to  Italy,  and 
■raised  himself  a  great  reputation  by  his  dramatic 
compositions  in  music.  The  empress-queen 
appointed  him  organist  to  the  duomo  of  Milan. 
He  came  over  to  England  in  1763,  and  com- 
posed operas,  which  were  highly  admired  by  all 
true  judges,  for  the  richness  of  the  harmony, 
the  ingenious  texture  of  the  parts,  and  the  natu- 
ral elegance  of  die  melody.  He  was  the  first 
composer  who  seems  to  have  observed  the  law 
of  contrast  as  a  principle,  having  generally, 
after  a  rapid  and  noisy  passage,  introduced  a 
slow  and  soothing  one.  He  was  particularly 
original  in  hrs  symphonies,  and  in  the  accom- 
paniments of  his  pieces.  Buntcy  Hist.  AIus. 
IV.— h. 

BACHOVIUS,  Reinier,  a  German -civi- 
lian, born  at  Cologne  in  1544,  resided  at  Leip- 
fiic,  where  he  suffered  persecution  for  his  reh- 
gious  priiiciples.  Having  for  many  years  ex- 
ercised his  profession,  and  occupied  pulilic 
offices,  with  credit,  he  was  compelled  to  relin- 
•quish  them,  bccau  e  he  cliose  to  profess  the 
doctrines  of  Calvin  rather  than  those  of  Lu- 
ther. Finding  himself  under  the  necessity  of 
ieaving  Leipsic  on  account  of  the  popular  odium 
which  his  religious  tenets  biought  upon  him, 
he  went  into  the  Palatinate,  where  he  found  in 
■the  elector  a  generous  patron.  At  Heidelberg 
he  enjoyed  several  honourable  and  profitable 
posts  till  his  dcatlx,  which  happened  in  1614. 
He  wrote  a  theological  tract,  entitled  '*  The 
Catecliism  of  the  Palatinate,"  in  which  he 
Jargely  cited  the  writings  of  the  fathers  in  de- 
fense of  Calvinism.  Melchior  Adam.  Vit.Ju- 
risc.   Germ.     Bayle.     AIoreri.—F.. 

JJACHOVIUS,  RxiNiER  or  REiNHAao, 


the  son  of  the  former,  was  professor  of  civil 
law  in  the  university  of  Heidelberg,  and  obtain- 
ed distinction  among  the  civilians  of  his  time. 
His  contemporaiies  pass  high  encomiums  upou 
his  talents,  and  particularly  remark,  that  he 
excelled  more  in  overthrowing  the  opinions  of 
others,  than  >in  supporting  his  own.  After  oc- 
cupying tl»e  professorial  chair  with  credit  for 
upwards  of  twenty  years,  when,  in  1622, 
Count  Tilly  took  Heidelberg,  and  the  Elector 
Palatine  dissolved  the  university,  Bachovius  left 
the  city.  Having  corresponded  with  the  learned 
Cunaeus,  professor  at  Leyden,  lie  applied  to 
"him  to  obtain  for  him  permission  to  read  lec- 
tures in  that  university,  but  without  success. 
He  made  an  attempt  equally  unsuccessful  to 
establish  himself  as  a  lecturer  in  Strasburg. 
Returning  to  Heidelberg,  after  having  met  widi 
much  vexation  and  numerous  disappointments, 
chiefly  owing  to  his  protestantism,  he  thought 
it  his  duty,  or  found  it  convenient,  to  return 
into  the  bosom  of  the  catholic  church  :  the 
elector  re-established  the  university  ;  and  Ba- 
chovius was  restored  to  his  office,  with  it's 
emolumeiKS.  The  particulars  of  his  fife  from 
this  period  are  unknown.  His  works  are, 
"  Exercitatioiies  ad  Partem  posteriorem  Chi- 
liados  Fabri,"  published,  in  folio,  in  1624: 
"  De  Actioiiibus,"  i6'26;  "  De  Pignoribus  et 
Hvpothecis,"  1627  ;  '■  Disputationcs  de  variis 
Juris  civiii^-i  Mattriis,"  8vo.  Heidelberg,  1604. 
"  In  In'^tiiutionum  Juris  Jusdniani  Libros  qua- 
tuor  Commentarii,"  410.  Traiicf.  1628;  and 
other  law  tracts.  Bayle.  Aifsreri.  Nouv.  Diet. 
Hist.—E. 

BACICI,  a  painter,  whose  real  name  was 
Gio  Baptista  Gauli,  was  born  at  Genoa 
in  1639.  '^'^  parents,  who  were  of  mean 
condition,  died  of  tiie  plague,  and  left  him  at  an 
early  age  quite  destitute.  Coming  one  day 
with  his  port-folio  under  his  arm  out  of  the 
workshop  of  Borgonzone,  he  saw  a  galley 
ready  to  depart  for  Rome  with  the  envoy  of  the 
republic.  He  requested  to  be  admitted:  and  on 
the  captain's  refusal,  he  applied  to  the  envoy 
himself,  who  ordered  him  a  place  among  his 
domestics.  Arriving  at  Rome  about  the  age  of 
fourteen,  he  was  placed  by  die  envoy  with  a 
picture-merchant,  where  he  became  known  to 
the  celebrated  Bernini.  This  artist,  admiring 
the  proofs  he  gave  of  genius,  patronised  him, 
and  procured  him  employ  as  a  portrait-painter, 
in  which  branch  he  greatly  excelled.  He  was 
enabled  to  take  a  house  and  maintain  himself 
with  credit;  and  at  twenty  he  painted  his  first 
history-piece,  which  was  much  noticed,  and 
procured  him  an  advantageous  marriage.     H« 


BAG 


(    503    ) 


B  A  C 


soon  rose  to  the  highest  credit  in  his  art.  Ber- 
nini introduced  him  to  pope  Alexander  VII. 
who  sat  to  him,  and  gave  him  free  admission 
to  his  palace.  He  was  preferred  to  several  ca- 
pital painters  for  the  great  work  of  the  dome  of 
the  Jesuit's  church,  which  he  was  five  years  in 
finishing,  but  which  gained  liim  universal  ap- 
plause. Sonnets  were  made  in  his  praise,  and 
his  company  was  generally  sought  after,  to 
■which  the  strong  sense  and  vivacity  of  his  con- 
vcrsation  much  contributed.  He  seems  to  have 
been  fully  sensible  of  his  own  value,  and  set  a 
high  price  on  his  performances  ;  and  if  any 
dispute  or  hesitation  arose  in  the  payment,  he 
was  apt  to  fly  into  transports  of  impatience. 
He  was  invited  to  his  native  city  in  order  to 
paint  the  hall  of  the  town-house,  but  the  price 
he  demanded  caused  the  work  to  be  given  to 
another.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  employ- 
ment pressed  on  him  from  all  quarters,  which 
he  executed  with  wonderful  quickness  and  dex- 
terity. An  extraordinary  proof  of  his  skill  is 
mentioned ;  that  of  painting,  at  the  request  of 
the  marquis  Lorenzo  Centurioni,  his  uncle 
Hippolito,  general  of  the  gallics  of  Genoa, 
who  had  been  dead  twenty  years,  and  whom 
he  had  never  seen.  By  repeated  attempts  and 
alterations,  from  the  nephew's  description,  he 
made  a  portrait  so  like  as  to  be  recognised  by 
all  the  Genoese  who  were  acquainted  with  the 
original.  Bacici  had  a  domestic  misfortune 
which  caused  him  for  some  time  to  lay  aside 
the  pencil.  Finding  his  son  Lorenzo  one  day 
amusing  himself  with  his  companions  instead 
of  going  to  his  business  at  the  office  of  an  ad- 
vocate, he  gave  him  a  box  on  the  car  ;  which 
the  young  man  took  as  such  a  heinous  affront 
that  he  went  and  threw  himself  into  the  Tiber. 
Bacici's  rapidity  of  execution  at  length  in- 
jured both  his  health  and  reputation.  Wlicn 
at  the  age  of  sixty-seven,  he  painted  in  two 
months  the  dome  of  the  church  of  the  Santi 
Apostoii.  Tlirec  years  afterwards,  lieatlng  him- 
self with  placing  the  cartoons  for  the  mosaics 
in  the  little  cuj)oIa  of  St.  Peter's,  he  fell  into  a 
fever,  which  carried  him  off  at  the  age  of  se- 
venty, in  April  1709.  His  character  as  an 
artist  is  that  of  a  strong  but  irregular  genius, 
indefatigable,  a  good  colourist,  skillful  in  the 
art  of  fore-sliortning,  whence  his  figures  have 
wonderful  relief,  and  seem  to  come  out  ot  the 
canvas,  but  often  incorrect  in  the  drawing, 
heavy  in  his  outline,  and  a  mannerist  in  the 
drapery.  His  original  strong  manner  was  lat- 
terly changed  by  the  advice  of  Bernini  to  a 
clearer  tone  of  colouring,  but  to  the  injury  of 
his- peculiar  excellence.     His  forte  was  in  por- 


trait, of  which  he  painted  a  vast  number  > 
among  them,  seven  popes  and  all  the  cardinals 
of  his  time.  His  history-pieces  are  almost  all 
in  churches  in  Rome.  The  four  angles  of  the 
cupola  of  saint  Agnes,  and  the  dome,  angles, 
arcade,  and  tribune  of  the  Jesuits'  church,  arc 
some  of  the  principal.  D'Jrgcirjille,  Via  des 
Pei/itrcs. — A. 

BACON,  Robert,  sometimes  confoimded 
with  Roger  Bacon,  an  English  divine,  flou- 
rished in  the  13th  century.  Having  first  stu- 
died at  Oxford,  and  afterwards  completed  his 
education,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  times, 
at  Paris,  he  settled  at  Oxford,  wlicre  he  read 
divinity  lectures,  and  became  a  famous  preach- 
er. He  is  chiefly  memorable  for  a  sermon 
which  he  preached  before  Henry  III.  at  Oxford 
in  1233.  That  prince  having  given  great  of- 
fence to  the  English  nobility  and  clergy,  by  the 
confidence  which  he  placed  in  Peter  de  Rupi- 
bus,  bishop  of  Winchester,  and  by  tJie  indul- 
gence, which,  under  the  influence  of  that  pre- 
late, he  gave  to  foreigners,  particularly  the 
Poictc?vins,  he  called  a  parliament  at  Oxfonl, 
at  which  the  barons,  though  repeatedly  sum- 
moned, refused  to  attend.  Robert  Bacon,  who 
was  appointed  to  preach  before  the  king,  freely 
reproved  him  for  his  partiality  to  strangers,  and 
plainly  told  him,  that  the  public  discontent 
could  only  be  removed  by  dismissing  from  his 
councils  Peter  de  Rupibus.  The  king  is  said 
to  have  been  so  much  impressed  by  this  addre!K<:r 
as  to  discover  a  disposition  to  listen  to  the 
complaints  of  his  nobles.  Robert  Bacon  en- 
joyed the  friendship  and  patronage  of  Edmund 
Rich,  called  St.  Edmund,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, and  after  his  decease  in  1240,  wrote 
his  life.  He  was  also  the  author  of  sundry 
commentaries,  sermons,  and  lectures.  He  i* 
said  by  some  writers  to  ha\c  been  the  brother 
of  Roger  Bacon,  but  that  celebrated  nun  was 
born  in  12 14,  and  Rolieit  died  in  1248  at  aiv 
advanced  age ;  whence  there  nuist  liuve  Ucn 
about  forty  years  ditTerencc  in  the  times  of  their 
birth,  and  it  is  hardly  crniilik  tlia:  they  could 
have  been  brothers.  Tlieic  are  few  names 
concerning  wbith  there  is  more  confusion 
among  our  English  hLstuiians  than  the  Bacuits 
of  the  thirteenth  centurv.  Pits  dt  lUuit.  Ang. 
Sn:  p.  318.  y1/.  Pa>!s.  liiit.  \o\.  ii.  p.  747.. 
ed.  1640.   fol.     Bio  jr.  Bn:.  —  E. 

BACON,  Ror.hR,  a  celebrated  English 
monk  of  the  1  Vanciscan  order,  for  ihc  time  iu 
which  he  lived  a  prodigy  of  knowledge,  was 
born  in  the  year  12 14  at  Ilchcster  in  Somerset- 
shire. In  order  to  discover  how  far  this  splen- 
did luminary,  which  da/dcd  tlic  feeble  sight  lA 


BAG 


(     504    ) 


BAG 


the  age  in  wliich  it  appeared,  shone  with  bor- 
rowcil  light,  it  will  be  necessary  to  inquire  par- 
ticulailv  concerning  the  early  sources  of  his 
knowledge.  The  university  of  Oxford,  in 
■whicli  Roger  Bacon  received  the  rudiments  of 
learning  and  science,  was,  notwithstanding  the 
general  ignorance  of  the  times,  adorned  with 
several  learned  incn,  who  extended  their  in- 
tjuiries  beyond  the  subtleties  of  Aristotelian  lo- 
gic, and  scholastic  theology.  Even  classical 
learning  was  at  this  period  more  cultivated  than 
some  have  imagined.  (See  Diss.  ii.  prctixedto 
Warton's  History  of  English  Poetry.)  Among 
the  learned  men  who  directed  their  attention 
to  these  studic:,  was  Robert  Greathead,  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  Bacon's  great  friend  and  patron. 
To  this  distinguished  scholar  he  was  probably 
indebted  for  early  instructions  and  impressions 
which  served  to  expand  his  mind,  and  enlarge 
the  sphere  of  his  juvenile  studies  ;  for  he  speaks 
of  him  in  his  writings  as  one  of  the  few,  who, 
at  that  time,  distinguished  between  real  useful 
knowledge,  and  that  kind  of  unprofitable  study 
which,  for  want  of  true  discernment,  bore  the 
name  and  carried  away  the  praise  of  learning. 
(Opus  Mag.  p.  64.)  Bacon  was  also  indebted 
to  Edmund  Rich,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
who,  residing  much  at  Oxford,  afforded  him 
great  kindness  and  assistance  in  his  early  stu- 
dies; to  William  Shirwood,  chancellor  of  Lin- 
coln, whom  he  celebrates  as  eminently  skilled 
in  mathematical  learning ;  (Tract,  de  Laud. 
Math,  apud  Leland  de  Script.  Brit.  p.  261.) 
and  to  Richard  Fishacre,  who  distinguished 
himself  by  his  learned  lectures  in  the  sciences 
both  at  Oxford  and  at  Paris.  The  latter  city 
being  at  that  time  an  eminent  and  much  fre- 
quented seat  of  letters.  Bacon,  after  laying  the 
first  foundation  of  learning  at  home,  repaired 
thither  to  prosecute  Ills  studies  under  the  cele- 
brated professors  of  that  university.  Here  he 
pursued  various  branches  of  knowledge  with 
indefatigable  industry,  and,  having  acquired  ex- 
traordinary reputation  for  extensive  and  pro- 
found learning,  received  the  degree  of  doctor 
in  theology.  While  he  was  in  France,  or 
soon  after  his  return  to  England,  in  the  year 
1240,  he  took  tliC  monastic  habit  in  the  order 
of  St.  Francis. 

Fixing  his  residence  at  Oxford,  Bacon  de- 
voted himself  to  study,  and  applied  himself 
chiefly  to  useful  researches  into  the  properties 
of  natural  bodies.  His  attempts  to  advance 
this  kind  of  knowledge  by  experiment  were  as- 
sisted by  generous  contributions,  which  enabled 
him,  in  tlie  course  of  twenty  years,  to  expend 
two  thousand  pounds — at  that  time  a  very  large 


sum — in  constructing  instruments,  collecting 
books,  and  making  experiments  of  various 
kinds.  It  has  been  doubted,  whether  these  ex- 
periments were  made  at  Paris,  or  at  Oxford  ; 
but  the  probability  is  in  favour  of  the  latter 
opinion :  for  the  earliest  of  Friar  Bacon's 
works,  in  which  he  gives  the  largest  account 
of  experiments,  was  addressed  to  \V'illiam  of 
Paris,  and  therefore  was  written  elsewhere ; 
and  Bale  relates,  that  he  incurred  the  vulgar 
imfiutation  of  magic  by  the  extraordinary  things 
which  he  performed  while  he  resided  at  Brazen - 
Nose  Hall.  (Bale  de  Script.  111.  p.  1 14.  ed. 
1558.  foL) 

The  new  discoveries  and  surprising  per- 
formances of  this  diligent  and  successful  in- 
quirer into  the  secrets  of  nature,  while  they  at- 
tracted universal  admiration,  excited  envy  and 
jealousy  among  the  monks  of  his  fraternity.  A 
report  was  industriously  circulated,  that  he  held 
converse  with  evil  spirits,  and  practised  magical 
arts.  This  rumour  was  conveyed  to  the  pope; 
and,  under  the  pretence  that  he  was  attempt- 
ing to  introduce  innovations  which  might  dis- 
turb the  peace  of  the  church,  he  was  forbidden 
to  read  lectures  to  the  students  in  the  university, 
and  was  even  kept  in  close  confinement,  and 
neither  permitted  to  see  his  friends,  nor  allowed 
a  sufficient  supply  of  food.  (Bacon.  Epist.  ad 
Clem.  IV.)  The  cause  which  Bacon  assigns 
for  this  treatment  was,  that  they  were  afraid 
lest  his  writings  should  extend  beyond  the  li- 
mits of  his  convent,  or  be  seen  by  any  beside 
themselves  and  the  pope.  But,  perhaps,  the 
true  reasons  were,  that  Bacon  enjoyed  the  in- 
timate friendship  of  Robert  Greathead,  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  who  had  reproved  Innocent  IV. 
by  letter,  and  made  no  scruple  of  declaring  it 
as  his  opinion  that  the  pope  was  Antichrist ; 
and  that  he  had  himself,  in  his  writings,  severely 
censured  the  ignorance  and  immorality  of  the 
clergy,  and  had  even  written  a  letter  to  the 
pope  on  the  necessity  of  reformation. 

The  persecution,  inflicted  upon  him  by  ig- 
norant and  bigoted  monks,  was  not  able  to 
suppress  this  great  man's  growing  reputation. 
The  sensible  and  worthy  cardinal  bishop  of 
Sabina,  pope's  legate  in  England,  adtnircd  his 
genius  and  merit,  and  wrote  him  a  letter  re- 
questing from  him  a  complete  copy  of  his 
writings.  This  the  friar  at  first  declined,  be- 
cause the  chief  persons  of  his  order  had  forbid- 
den him  to  communicate  any  of  his  works  to 
any  person  whatever  :  but,  when  he  found  that 
the  cardinal  was  raised  to  the  pontifical  dignity 
under  the  name  of  Clement  IV.  he  signified  to 
his  holiness,  by   letter,  that  he  was  ready  to 


BAG 


(    505    ) 


B  A  C 


obey  his  commands,  and  tlie  pope  in  return 
assured  liim  of  his  protection.  Accordiiiglv, 
Jie  immediately  set  about  collecting,  arranging, 
and  improving  his  former  productions;  and, 
having  digested  them  into  one  volume  under 
the  tiHe  of  "  Ojjus  Majus"  [The  Greater 
Work],  he  transmitted  it  to  the  pope,  by  the 
hands,  as  some  write,  of  John  of  London, 
(Pits,  p.  367.)  but  more  probably  of  John  of 
Paris,  (Jebb's  Pref.  to  Bacon's  Opus  Majus)  a 
favourite  pupil,  whom,  while  lie  was  writing 
the  work,  he  had  instructed  in  all  the  know- 
ledge of  which  it  treats  :  upon  which  experi- 
ment, bv  the  vvay,  Bacon  makes  this  singular 
observation,  "  Tliat  there  is  no  room  to  con- 
ceive high  notions  of  the  perfection  of  human 
wisdom,  when  it  is  possible,  in  a  year's  time, 
to  teach  a  young  man  nil,  that,  with  the  ut- 
most industry  and  application,  a  zealous  in- 
quirer after  knowledge  is  able  to  acquire  or 
discover  in  the  space  of  twenty  or  even  of 
forty  years.  (Opus  Majus,  p.  29.)  This 
Icarnea  work  procured  Bacon  great  favour  \\ith 
the  pontif,  and  some  encouragement  in  the 
prosecution  of  his  studies.   (Hist.  Antiq.  Oxon. 

P-  138-) 

1  he  tranquillity  which  this  pliilosopher  of 
nature  enjoyed  under  the  patronage  of  an  en- 
lightened and  liberal  pope,  was  of  short  duration. 
In  1278,  under  the  pontificate  of  Nicholas  111. 
the  general  of  the  Franciscan  order,  Jerom  de 
Esculo,  prohibited  the  reading  of  his  works, 
sentenced  him  to  im)Misonment,  and  obtained 
from  the  pope  a  confirmation  of  the  sentence. 
The  ground  upon  which  he  was  subjected  to 
this  severe  punishment  is  not  distinctly  known. 
Some  late  writers  mention  tracts  on  Necroman- 
cy, Astrology,  and  Alchymv,  which  were  cen- 
sured ;  (Collect.  Anglo-Miiior.  p.  116.  Hist. 
ct  Antiq.  Oxon.  p.  158.)  but,  whatever  was 
the  pretext,  the  true  cause  of  liis  persecution 
probably  was  the  dread  of  innovation,  v\hich 
his  attempts  for  the  improvement  of  science  ex- 
cited in  the  minds  of  bigoted  or  interested  men. 

After  remaining  in  prison  ten  years,  upon 
the  advancement  of  the  general  ot  his  order, 
Jerom  de  Esculo,  to  the  papal  see.  Bacon,  in 
hopes  of  conciliating  his  favour  bv  giving  him 
a  proof  of  the  innocence  and  usetidness  of  his 
studies,  addressed  to  In'm,  under  his  new  title 
of  Nicholas  IV.  a  treatise  "  On  the  Means  of 
avoiding  the  Infirmities  of  Old- Age."  It  does 
not,  however,  ajipear  that  the  pope  was  more 
inclined,  than  the  general  had  been,  to  counte- 
nance innovators  :  it  was  not  till  towards  the  lat- 
ter end  of  the  pontificate,  that  the  Friar,  through 
the  intercession   of  «omc    English   noblemen, 

VOL.  I. 


obtained  liis  liberty.  Returning  to  O.tfordr 
he  wrote,  at  the  request  of  his  friends,  and, 
as  appears  from  internal  evidence,  about  the 
year  1291,  "A  Compendium  of  Theolo- 
gy-" As  several  additions  appear  to  have  been 
afterwards  made  to  this  work,  of  wliich  a  copy 
is  still  jireserved  in  the  royal  libraiv,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  author  lived,  at  least,  til!  the 
year  1292,  the  seventy-eighth  of  his  age.  Tlic 
learned  editor  of  the  "  Opus  Majus"  places 
tlie  date  of  his  death  in  1294:  (Jebb's  Pref.  to 
OpusMaj.)  manuscript  authority  is,  however, 
produced  for  fixing  it  to  the  I  ith  of  June  1292. 
(Hist,  ct  Antiq.  Ox.  p.  13S.  Frcind's  Hist. 
ot  Physic,  vol.  i.  p".  235.)  He  died  in  tran- 
quillity, in  the  college  of  his  order,  and  wa*. 
buried  i-i  their  church.  Tradition  long  pre- 
served the  remembrance,  at  Oxford,  of  Friar 
Bacon's  study,  a  small  retirement  to  which  he 
often  withdrew,  when  he  was  harassed  by  his 
enemies. 

The  extraordinary  powers  and  attainments 
of  this  philosopher  astonished  his  contempora- 
ries, and  led  them,  after  the  custom  of  the  age, 
to  give  him  the  appellation  of  "  The  Wonder- 
ful Doctor."  AVith  what  propriety  this  title 
was  bestowed,  will  be  best  seen  from  a  brict 
account  of  his  works.  Of  these,  numerous 
titles  are  given  by  different  writers.  Tlie  in- 
dustrious Bale  speaks  of  upwards  of  fourscore 
hooks  written  by  Friar  Bacon,  of  which  he 
had  hiiTiself  seen  near  one  half:  and  Dr.  Jcbb 
has  digested  a  still  larger  number  luider  the 
distinct  heads  of  Grammar,  Mathematics,  Phy- 
sics, Optics,  Geography,  Astronomy,  Chrono- 
logy, Chemistry,  Alagic,  Medicine.  Logic,  Me- 
taphysics, Ethics,  I'hcology,  Philology,  and 
Miscellanies.  The  truth  ajipears  to  he,  that 
diffeient  coi>ies  of  the  same  treatise  have  been 
often  dispersed  under  different  titles,  and  that 
the  titles  of  several  chajitcrs  of  his  work  have 
been  taken  for  titles  of  distinct  treatises.  At 
least  eleven  of  these  pieces  will  be  found  in  the 
work  entitled  "  Epi^tola  Fratris  Roger!  Ba- 
conis  de  Secrctis  OjKribus  Artis  ct  Naturx,  ft 
de  Nullitate  Magix-"  [An  Epistle  of  Brother 
Roger  Bacon  on  the  Secret  AN'orks  ot  Art  and 
Nature,  and  on  the  Nullity  of  Magic]. 
This  epistle,  published  in  4to.  at  Paris,  in  1 542, 
in  8vo.  at  Basil,  in  1^93,  in  8vo.  at  Hamburgh 
in  1608  and  1 61 8,  and  to  be  found  in  the 
"  Bibliotheca  Cbcmica"  of  Mangctus,  altounds 
with  curious  physi.  al  facts  and  (d)scrvations, 
and  expo>^cs  the  futility  of  the  various  practice* 
of  necromancy,  ihaims,  divination,  and  magic. 
The  "  Ojnis  Shijus,"  wiiiicn  in  the  foim  of 
an  epistle  or  aUdrcss  to  pojic  Clement  IV.  i<. 
;  1 


BAG 


(    506    ) 


BAG 


professedly  a  tligest  of  the  author's  former  \vrit- 
ings.  In  this  curious  and  valuable  work,  Ba- 
con «lescribes  the  iinpeilimcnts  which  hinder 
men  from  arriving  at  true  and  useful  know- 
ledge ;  illustrates,  at  large,  the  usefulness  of 
the  studies  of  grammar,  mathematics,  and  per- 
spective ;  explains  the  nature  and  value  of  ex- 
periment in  philosophy,  and  earnestly  exhorts 
the  pontif  whom  he  addresses,  to  give  all  possi- 
ble encouragement  to  science  in  general,  and 
jiarticularly  to  the  study  of  nature.  This  work, 
which  affords  abundant  proofs  of  the  author's 
superior  talents,  and,  considering  the  time  in 
which  he  lived,  of  his  wonderful  knowledge, 
long  remained  buried  in  obscurity,  and  never 
appeared  in  print  till,  in  1735,  Dr.  Jehb,  from 
various  collated  manuscripts,  sent  from  the  press 
ot  William  Bowver  a  correct  and  beautiful 
edition  in  folio.  Bacon  wrote  many  chemical 
tracts,  most  of  which  may  be  found  in  "  The-, 
saurus  Chemicus,"  printed  in  8vo.  at  Francfort, 
1603,  1620:  others  may  be  seen,  in  MS.  in 
the  University  library  of  Leyden.  His  treatise 
"  On  the  Means  of  avoiding  the  Infirmities  of 
Old  Age,"  in  which,  beside  a  regular  course 
of  life,  he  recommends  the  use  of  certain  secret 
and  extraordinary  medicines,  was  first  printed 
at  Oxford  in  1590,  and  afterwards  translated 
into  English,  with  notes,  by  Dr.  Richard 
Browne,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Cure  of 
Old  Age,  and  Preservation  of  Youth,"  8vo. 
1683.  Several  tracts  of  Friar  Bacon,  yet  un- 
published, remain  in  manuscript :  a  piece  bear- 
ing the  title  of  "  Liber  Naturalium,"  a  treatise 
en  chronology,  entitled  "  Computus  Rogeri 
Baconis,"  and  the  "  Compendium  of  Theolo- 
gy," are  to  be  seen  in  the  king's  library  ;  and 
Iwo  other  works,  which  the  author  called 
"  Opus  Minus,"  and  "  Opus  Tertium,"  re- 
main in  the  Cotton  library ;  and  other  pieces 
might,  probably,  be  found  by  diligent  search. 

In  the  present  state  of  physical  science,  and 
of  the  mechanical  and  chemical  arts,  it  would 
jierhaps  be  unreasonable  to  expect  much  addi- 
tion to  the  general  stock  of  knowledge  from 
the  publication  and  study  of  Friar  Bacon's 
works :  yet,  as  a  wonderful  example  of  the 
productive  power  of  the  human  intellect,  and 
as  an  important  part  of  the  history  of  know- 
ledge, these  works  certainly  ought  to  be  pre- 
served  and  known. 

In  order  to  give  the  reader  a  just  idea  of  the 
extent  and  variety  of  knowledge  possessed  by 
tills  eminent  philosopher,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  enumerate  some  particulars,  which  are 
liunished  from  his  writings.  Besides  an  ac- 
curate  acguauitante    with    subjects    of   meta- 


physics and  theology,  which  Bacon  possess- 
ed in  common  witii  his  contemporaries,  and 
a  degree  of  skill  in  languages  fur  above  the 
usual  standard,  he  was  a  great  master  of  every 
branch  of  mathematical  and  physical  science. 
In  mechanics,  he  speaks  of  wonderful  inven- 
tions ot  vessels  and  chariots  moved  by  ma- 
chinery, and  of  machines  for  raising  vast 
weights,  lor  diving,  and  for  various  other  pur- 
poses, all  which  he  had  himself  seen  and  ex- 
perienced. Of  optics  he  largely  contributct! 
to  the  improvement,  both  in  the  theory  and 
ths  practice.  At  a  time  w  hen  this  science  was 
so  little  understood,  that  no  lectures  hud  bccji 
read  upon  it  at  Paris,  and  it  had  been  twice 
only  lectured  upon  at  Oxt'onl,  and  that  only 
three  persons  had  any  skill  in  it,  (Opus  Tert. 
MS.  Cotton.  Tib.  c.  5.  fol.  6.)  he  bestowed 
much  labour,  and  expended  considerable  sums 
for  its  improvement.  He  very  accurately  de- 
scribes the  nature  of  convex  and  concave  lenses, 
and  the  eiiccts  of  the  refraction  of  rays  of  light 
in  passing  through  them  to  increase  or  diminish 
the  apparent  magnitude  of  objects :  he  also 
speaks  of  the  apjjlication  of  spherical  glasses  to 
the  purposes  of  reading,  and  of  viewing  distant 
objects  both  terrestrial  and  celestial  ;  (Opus 
Maj.  p.  236.  Pcrspect.  Pars  iii.  dist.  2,  3. 
Epist.  ad  Paris,  c.  5.)  whence  it  has  been  in- 
ferred, (Plot's  Nat.  Hist,  of  Oxfordshire,  p. 
1215.)  with  every  appearance  of  probability, 
that  Friar  Bacon  is  to  be  considered  as  the  in- 
ventor or  improver  of  the  telescope.  In  his 
writings  are  also  found  descriptions  of  the  cri- 
mcra  obsciira,  and  the  burning  glass.  (Com- 
pend.  Theol.  IVIS.  P.  ii.  c.  i.  p.  5.  Freind, 
Hist.  Phys.  vol.  ii.  p.  236.)  From  that  part  of 
the  "  Opus  Majus"  which  treats  of  geography  ^ 
it  appears  that  he  was  acctiratcly  acquainted 
with  this  subject,  and  that  he  spared  no  pains 
to  make  himself  master  of  the  i)cw  discoverie.r 
which  that  age  afforded :  a  curious  passage 
concerning  the  countries  between  the  Danube 
and  the  eastern  extent  of  Tartary  is  copied  from 
this  work  in  Hackluyt's  Collection  of  Voyages 
and  Travels.  (Vol.  iii.)  In  astronomy  Bacon 
gave  a  proof  of  his  skill,  which  is  justly  styled, 
by  Dr.  Jebb,  "  one  of  the  ntiblest  efforts  of 
human  industry."  Without  any  other  assist- 
ance than  his  own  astronomical  knowledge,  he 
discovered  and  demonstrated  the  errors  whicli, 
in  his  time,  existed  in  the  calendar.  In  a  letter 
to  pope  Clement  IV.  he  clearly  lays  open  the 
causes  of  the  mistakes  ;  and,  with  a  degree  of 
exactness  nearly  approaching  the  truth,  points 
out  the  proper  method  of  correcting  them  :  he 
afterwards  framed  a  corrected  calendar,  a  copy 


BAG 


(    S07     ) 


BAG 


of  wfiich  is  presen'cd  in  the  Bodlciaa  library 
(No.  2458.  F.  9.  Cod.  5.  N.  3.)  As  a  che- 
mist, Roger  Bacon  possesses  a  distinguished 
iiame  :  and,  though  it  must  he  owned  that  he 
prosecuted  this  art  with  a  considerable  portion 
ot  the  superstitious  and  visionary  spirit  whitli 
marked  the  alchemic  school,  he  was  certainly 
acijuainted  with  numerous  facts,  and  made 
several  discoveries,  in  tliis  branch  of  science, 
lu   pursuing   the    philosopher's  stone,    or    the 

transmutation  of  the  inferior  metals  into  gold 

ihc  ignii  faluiis  which  at  that  period  seduced 
many  from  the  path  of  true  science — Bacon 
went  through  many  curious  processes,  which 
led  hiiTi  to  an  intiiiiare  knowledge  of  the  pro- 
perties and  actions  oi  natural  bodies.  If  his 
notion  concerning  the  medicinal  virtues  of  tlie 
aurum  potabiky  or  tincture  of  gold,  was  empiri- 
cal, and  his  description  of  a  secret  charm  fi.r 
renewing  the  native  heat  of  old  men  be  ludi- 
crous ;  it  may,  nevertheless,  be  clearly  gather- 
ed from  his  writings,  that  he  possessed  chemi- 
cal secrets  of  real  value.  He  sjieaks  of  a  kind 
of  unextinguishable  tire  prepared  bv  art,  which 
was  probably  a  species  of  phosphorus  :  and 
there  is  little  room  to  doubt  that  lie  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  ingredients  and  etFects  of  gun- 
powder, the  invention  of  which  has  been  com- 
monly ascribed  to  a  German,  of  a  later  period. 
"  From  salt-petre  and  other  ingredients,"  he 
says,  "  we  are  able  to  form  an  artificial  fire, 
^hich  will  burn  at  any  distance  we  please." 
(Dc  Secret.  Op.  Nat.  et  Artis,  c.  6.)  Speak- 
ing of  the  effects  of  this  fire,  he  observes : 
"  Sounds  like  thunder  and  lightning  may  be 
produced  in  the  air,  and  even  with  a  more  ter- 
rible effect  than  those  which  happen  naturally  ; 
for  a  small  portion  of  matter,  about  the  size  of 
the  thumb,  properly  disposed,  will  make  a 
dreadful  sound,  and  exhibit  a  vast  coruscation, 
—by  which  a  city  or  army  may  be  destroyed  :" 
and,  in  another  place,  (Ibid.  c.  11.)  he  further 
divulges  this  secret,  not  entirely,  but,  in  an 
anagram,  in  which  the  letters  of  the  two  words 
are  transposed.  "  Sed  tanien  salis  ])ctrx  lurii 
none  rap  ubre  ct  sul|)huris :  ct  sic  far ies  to- 
nitrum  ct  coruscationcm,  si  scias  artificiuni :" 
that  is,  converting  the  anagram  into  carhonum 
fulvere,  "  With  salt-petre,  sulphur,  and  char- 
coal, you  mav,  if  you  know  the  art,  make 
thunder  and  lightning."  This  is  the  explana- 
tion given  of  the  passage,  yet  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  the  supposed  anagram  does  not  make 
out  a  grammatical  sentence.  Of  Bac4)n's  medical 
knowledge,  proofs  remain  in  his  "  Treatise  on 
Old-Age,"  which,  though  it  contains  obscure 
»nd  fanciful  things,  Dr.  Frcind  i)runounces  to 


be  very  fa4-  from  being  ill  written. — If  lie  so  far 
j)artook  of  the  superstition  of  the  age,  as  tn 
place  some  confidence  in  judicial  astrology,  he 
was,  however,  an  enemy  to  the  ani  of  necro- 
mancy and  magic.  He  wrote  several  pieces 
l)urposely  to  expose  their  futility,  and  10  con- 
vince tlie  world  that  they  were  all  cither  idle 
delusions  or  fraudulent  impositions.  No  ca- 
lumny was  ever  more  unjust,  thnii  that  which 
accused  him  of  Inring  a  magician  ;  nor  any 
story  more  ridiculous,  than  that  of  the  brazen 
head,  which,  after  seven  years* preparation,  was 
to  speak,  and  tell  whether  the  British  island 
might  not  be  inclosed  within  a  wall  o»'  bra^s, 
but  wliich,  not  being  rcgardid,  when  it  first 
spoke,  ar,(l  said  •'  Time  is,"  upon  its  speaking 
again,  and  saying,  "  Time  was."  fell  in  pieces. 
Similar  talcs  are  related  of  Greathead,  Alk-rr. 
and  other  philosophers  of  this  [x-riixl,  but  were 
certainly  never  Mievcd  but  among  the  lowest 
and  most  ignorant  vulgar. — On  the  whole,  it 
cannot  be  questioned,  that  Friar  Bacon,  if  not, 
as  his  ])ancgyrists  have  called  him,  "  the 
brightest  and  most  univeisal  genius  whicli  the 
world  ever  saw,"  is  entitled  to  eternal  remem- 
brance as  a  great  philosopher,  and  a  wonderful 
man.  If  knowlcdi^e  is  now  too  far  advanced,. 
lor  the  workl  to  di-rive  much  information  from 
his  writings,  respect  ought  never  to  fop.akc  the 
memory  ot  the  man  who  knew  more  than  any 
of  his  conteinporarits,  and  who,  in  a  dark  age, 
aildcd  new  brightness  to  the  lamp  of  scictKc, 
I'eHiajis,  too,  an  important  Ir!><in  may  still  be 
leanK-d  frotn  his  example  ;  and  it  may  still  be 
necessary  to  enforce  the  study  of  nature,  as  the 
surest  method  of  extirpating  suptistition  and 
folly.  Lcland,  de  Script.  Brit.  Rule,  Script. 
Illuit.  Pits,  de  III.  Angl.  Cave,  Hiit.  Lit.  Jtbbh 
Preface  to  Bacon's  Opm  Afiijus. — E. 

BACON,  Sir  Nicholas,  an  eminent  law- 
yer, and  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  was  descended  trnm  an  an- 
cient family  in  Suffolk,  and  bom  at  Chiilchurst 
in  Kent,  in  1510.  He  was  sent  at  an  early 
age  to  Corpus  Christi  or  Bennet  college  Cam- 
bridge ;  and  having  (lasscd  with  reputation 
through  the  studies  of  the  place,  he  finished  hit 
education  by  travelling  into  France.  On  bis 
return  he  entered  at  Ciray's  Iim,  and  applicil  to 
the  study  of  the  law,  in  which  he  soon  distin- 
guished himself  He  acquired  the  favour  of 
Henry  Vlll.  so  far  as  to  obtain  a  grant  of  v.iri- 
ous  maiiors  in  Suffolk,  on  the\lissolution  of  the 
monastery  of  St.  EdmundN-buiy,  and  to  he  ap- 
pointed attorney  in  the  court  <4'  w-atds.  In 
this  office  li«  was  continued  during  the  rc-ign  of 
Edwaid  \'l.     By  his  prudence  and  moderaiicxK 


B  A  C 


(    508     ) 


B  A  C 


he  steered  safely  through  the  dangerous  times 
of  Mary.     Elizabeth,  soon  after  her  accession, 
conferred  on  him  the  honour  of  knighthood ; 
and  in  1558  gave  him  the  custody  of  the  great 
seal,  and  appointed  him  of  her  privy  council. 
He  was  trusted  by  that  wise  princess  in  many 
important  affairs,    and  was    particularly   con- 
cerned in  the  settlement  of  religion,  which  nice 
business  he  managed  so  as  to  give  no  personal 
oiFence  to  cither  partv.     Notwithstanding  the 
cautious  prudence  by  which  he  was  governed, 
he  was  near  being  involved  in  disgrace  in  tlie 
debates  concerning  the  succession.     For,  being 
of  the  party  adverse  to  the  title  of  the  queen  of 
Scots,  which  was  supported  by  the  great  favour- 
ite, Leicester,  and  incurring  some  suspicion  of 
having  been  concerned  in  a  book  wherein  this 
title  was  impugned,  the  queen  was  for  a  time 
really  or  in  appearance  so  alienated  from  him, 
that  he  was  forbidden  the  court  and  council, 
and    confined   to   the    proper   business    of   the 
chancery  alone.     At  length  the  interposition  of 
Cecil  with  difficulty   restored  him  to   favour  ; 
but  it  is  probable  that  in  the  succeeding  part  of 
her  reign  the  jealous  queen  did  not  like  him  the 
less  for  his  supposed  hostility  to  her  rival's  title. 
She  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  commission 
appointed  in  1568,  for  hearing  the  disputes  be- 
tween Mary  and  her  rebellious  subjects  ;  and  he 
again    acted    in   the    same   capacity   in    1571. 
Henceforth  he  took  a  leading  part  in  Elizabeth's 
counsels  ;  and  being  reckoned  one  of  the  most 
determined  supporters  of  the  protestant  cause, 
he  incurred  t!ie  odium  of  the  popish  faction  in 
common  with   her   other    principal    ministers. 
He  still,  however,  adhered  to  his  prudent  system, 
and  was  thought  to  confirm  his  mistress  in  the 
favourite  plan  of  her  reign,  of  keei)ing  parties 
well  balanced.  His  private  conduct  was,  equally 
■with  his  public,  distinguished  by  great  discre- 
tion, and  a  moderate  use  of  fortune.    He  strictly 
adhered   to  his    motto    Aiediocrla  firma ;    and 
Avhen  queen   Elizabeth,  visiting  him  at   Red- 
grave, told  him  his  house  was  too  little  for  him,- 
"  Not  so,  madam,"    (he  replied  with  courtly 
modesty)   "  but  your  majesty  has  made  me  too 
big  for  my  house."     He  somewhat,  however, 
indulged  liis  taste  for  building  and  gardening,  in 
his  fine  place  of  Gorhambury,  a  manor  taken 
from  the  ancient  abbey  of  St.  Albans.     Hav- 
ing retained  his  higli  office  for  more  than  twen- 
ty years   with  universal  reputation  for  wisdom 
and  ability,  he  died  of  a  sudden  illness  in  Feb. 
1579,  the  sixty-ninth  year  of  his  age.     To  the 
general  felicity  of  liis  life  was   added  the  hap- 
piness of  being  father  of  Francis  Bacon,  Lord 
VerulaiD. 


Sir  Nicholas,  though  not  the  author  of  any 
printed  work,  left  behind  him  in  MS.  several 
discourses  on  -political  and  legal  topics,  and  a 
commentary  on  the  twelve  minor  prophets. 
Biogr.  Britan. — A. 

BACON,  Francis,  baron  of  Verulam, 
viscount  of  St.  Albans,  and  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.  lord  higli  chancellor  of  England,  one 
of  the  most  illustrious  ornaments  of  his  age, 
and  among  the  rnoderns  the  first  great  reformer 
of  philosophy,  was  born  in  London  on  tlie 
2  id  of  January  1561.  He  was  the  son  of  sir 
Nicholas  Bacon,  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal, 
and  of  Anne,  daughter  of  sir  Anthony  Cook, 
tutor  to  Edward  VI.  His  childhood  alFordeJ 
strong  indications  of  a  vigour  of  intellect  above 
the  common  level.  When  queen  Elizabeth 
asked  him  how  old  he  was,  he  readily  and 
smartly  replied,  "  Just  two  years  younger  than 
your  majesty's  happy  reign."  The  queen  was 
so  well  pleased  with  this  sprightly  compliment 
from  a  child,  that  she  afterwards  frequently 
amused  herself  with  talking  with  him,  and 
asking  him  questions,  and  pleasantly  called  hira 
her  young  lord  keeper. 

In  the  thirteenth  year  of  his  age,  on  the  l6th 
of  June,  1573,  Bacon  was  entered  a  student  of 
Trinity  college,  in  the  university  of  Cambridge, 
and  placed  under  the  tuition  of  Dr.  Whitgift, 
then  master  of  the  college,  and  afterwards  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  a  man  of  distinguished 
learning  and  ability.  His  progress  in  the  va- 
rious branches  of  science  was  rapid  and  sur- 
prising. So  penetrating  and  comprehensive 
were  his  powers  of  thought,  that,  before  he 
had  completed  his  sixteenth  year,  he  discovered 
the  futility  of  ihe  Aristotelian  philosophy,  and 
probably  produced — not  without  a  strong  feel- 
ing: of  that  divine  ardor  which  alwavs  accom- 
panies  the  first  efforts  of  original  genius — tlie 
embryo-conception  of  his  new  method  of  philo- 
sophising. This  memorable  circumstance  was 
communicated  by  himself  to  his  chaplain  and 
biographer,  Dr.  Rawley,  to  whom  he  at  tlie 
same  time  remarked,  that  he  did  not  entertain 
tiie  design  of  renouncing  the  philosophy  com- 
monly received  in  the  schools  through  con- 
tempt of  the  author,  but  because  he  saw  that 
it  was  rather  fitted  to  create  and  perpetuate  dis- 
putes, than  to  produce  any  benefit  to  mankind  ; 
and  this  opinion  he  retained  through  life. 

According  to  a  practice,  then  customary,  of 
placing  young  men  intended  for  public  life  in 
tlie  train  of  eminent  statesmen  resident  abroad, 
young  Bacon  was,  at  sixteen  years  of  age,  sent 
by  his  father  to  France  with  the  embassador  to 
that  court,  sir  Amias  Powlet,  who  conceived 


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(    509    ) 


BAG 


so  favourable  an  opinion  of  him,  tliat  lie  sent 
him  over  to  England  with  a  message  to  the 
queen  which  required  secrecy  and  dispatch. 
Having  executed  his  commission  in  a  manner 
which  procured  him  the  tlianks  of  the  queen,  he 
returned  to  France,  and  travelled  through  seve- 
ral of  the  provinces,  to  acquaint  himself  with 
the  customs  and  manners  of  the  nation.  (Hist, 
of  Life  and  Death.  Works,  vol.  iii.  p.  180.) 
An  indubitable  proof  of  the  industry  with  which, 


vourcd  to  accomplish  great  things  bv  a  small 
force,  (Conamur  teiuies  grandia)  and  declared 
that  the  ardor  and  constancy  of  his  mind  in  tiiis 
undertaking  had  never,  through  so  long  a  pe- 
riod, abated  or  cooled,  lie  adds;  '*  Equidem  me- 
mini  mt:  quadraginta  ahliincannis  juvenile  opus- 
culum  circa  has  res  confecisse,  quod  magna 
prorsus  fiducia  et  magnifico  tituhi,  '  Tcmporis 
Partum  Maximum,' inscripsi."  Epist.  ad  Fulg. 
Works,    vol.  ii.  p.  404.      [I    remember    that 


during  tliis  period,  he  collected  political  infor-     forty  years   ago  I  composed  a  juvenile  work 
mation,   and   of  the    sagacity   and  penetration     upon  tliis  subject,  to  which  1  had  the  extreme 

'"  ■"    '   "  '      "  confidence  to  prefix  tiic  pompous  title  of "  The 

greatest  Birtli  of  Time."]  These  rudiments  of 
Bacon's  philosoi)liy  have  been  supposcil  to  bo 
lost;  but  it  is  probable  that  they  remain  under 
the  more  modest  title  of  ^'  The  Interpretation 
of  Nature,"  (Works,  Append,  p.  17.)  anil 
that  philosophers  may  still  be  gratified  with 
tiacing  the  steps  by  wliich  the  genius  of  this 
graat  man  advanced  in  creeling  his  system. 

In  the  character  of  a  |)hilosophur.  Bacon  ap- 
l>e3rs  with  so  much  pre-eminence,  that  it  is 
painful  to  interrupt  the  narrative  of  his  scientific 
labours,  in  order  to  see  Iiim,  in  other  capaci- 
ties, brought  down  to  the  level  of  ordinary  men, 
and  even  exhibiting  an  humiliating  example  of 
human  frailty.  The  contracted  citcumstances 
in  whicli  he  was  left  by  his  fatlier,  alfordcd  biin 
no  other  alternative,  but  either  to  pursue  his 
speculations  in  obsiure  retirement,  or  to  be- 
come an  obsequious  dc|iendaiu  upon  the  court. 
Unfortunately  for  the  reputation  and  happines-s 
of  Bacon,  he  made  the  latter  ciioicc.  'Ihc  post 
already  conleried  upon  liim  by  the  queen  was 
rather  honourable  than  lucrative  ;  but  it  proba- 
bly exciteil  the  desire,  and  encouraged  the  ex- 
pectation, of  further  advancement.  He  hud  not 
only  received,  on  several  occasions,  Haltering 
marks  of  attention  from  his  si>vcrei^n,  but  \va» 
allitxl  bv  marriage  to  the  lord  treasurer  Builcigh, 
and  to  his  son  sir  Robert  Cecil,  principal  s«  rc- 
tarv  of  state.  He  therefore  thought  himself  en- 
titled to  ex|x;ct  some  honourable  and  .idvanta- 
geous  post :  but  the  friendship  which  he  bail 
from  his  youth  professed  tor  the  earl  ot  Essex. 
Cecil's  avowed  enemy,  prove»l  an  insU|K:ral>lt: 
obstacle  to  his  success.  All  that  he  was  ever 
able  to  obtain  through  the  inicn-st  of  lord  Bur- 
leigh was  the  reversion  of  the  office  of  register 
to  ilie  .Star-chamber,  wonh  about  1600I.  a 
year,  which  did  not  fall  to  him  till  twenty  years 
afterwards.  When,  in  1  5Q4,  the  carl  of  Essex 
used  all  his  interest  to  obtain  for  hiin  Uic  |)ostof 
solicitor  general,  Cecil  reprcscntevl  hitn  to  the 
uuL'ca  as  a.  maa  so  devoted  to  spccuUitiuu,  a»  to 


with  which  he  pursued  his  inquiries  and  refleC' 
tions,  icmains  in  a  work,  written,  in  part  at 
least,  when  he  was  only  nineteen  years  of  age, 
but  probably  finished  and  revised  while  he  lived 
in  Gray's  Inn.  It  is  entitled  "  Of  the  State  of 
Europe,"  and  contains  minutes  of  the  ])rinces 
then  reigning,  their  families,  interests,  forces, 
revenues,  and  principal  tiansactions,  with  ob- 
servations which  strongly  mark  the  early  matu- 
rity of  the  writer's  judgtnent. 

The  sudden  death  of  sir  Nicholas  Bacon 
left  his  son  Francis,  the  youngest  of  five  bro- 
thers, in  circumstances  which  obliged  him  to 
return  abruptly  from  France,  and  to  engage  in 
some  lucrative  profession.  His  choice  was  soon 
fixed  upon  the  study  of  the  common  law,  not, 
however,  as  his  principal  object,  but  merely  as 
a  subsidiary  pursuit.  Entering  himself  in  tlie 
society  of  Gray's  Inn,  he  applied  with  so  much 
assiduity  to  the  studies  peculiar  to  his  profession, 
that  at  tire  age  of  twenty-eight  years  he  was 
appointed  by  the  queen  to  the  honoifrable  post 
of  her  learned  Council  Extraordinary.  But  tiic 
commanding  genius  of  Bacon,  capable  of  com- 
prcliending  and  enlarging  tlie  field  of  science, 
■was  not  to  be  confined  \vitliin  the  narrow  li- 
mits of  professional  studies.  The  germ  ot  that 
grand  idea  which  he  had  conceived  at  tJic  uni- 
versity now  began  to  expand  ;  and,  at  tliis  early 
period  of  his  life,  probably  about  the  twenty- 
sixth  year  of  his  ag<^,  he  formed  the  first  sketch 
of  the  great  work  which  he  afterwaids  com- 
pleted in  his  "  Instauraiion  of  the  Sciences." 
The -vanity  of  a  young  mind  pregnant  with 
noble  conceptions  and  va.st  designs  is,  surely, 
venial ;  and  Bacon  may  be  pardoned,  if,  in  the 
first  glow  of  affection  towards  the  fair  ofispring 
of  a  vigorous  intellect,  he  gave  it  a  vaunting 
name.  That  he  livfd  to  recollect  with  regret 
this  instance  of  juvenile  folly,  appears  from  a 
letter,  written,  towards  the  close  of  his  lite,  to 
father   Fulgentio,    a  learned   Italian,    who   re- 

?u€stcd  from  him  an  accoujit  ot  his    works, 
laving  modestly  confts^ed  tb%C  he  lud  cudca- 


B  AC 


(    5'o    ) 


BAG 


be  wholly  unfit  for  public  business  ;  and  the  suit 
was  rejected.  Essex,  who  loved  his  friend,  and 
■whose  high  spirit  did  not  easily  brook  a  refusal, 
resolved  to  make  Bacon  some  compensation  tor 
his  disappointment,  and  generously  presented 
him  with  an  estate  in  land,  which  he  afterwards 
«olu,  at  an  under  price,  for  1800I.  Tiie  parti- 
culars of  this  singularly  noble  act  of  friendship 
nre  related  by  loid  Bacon  himself  with  warm 
expressions  of  affection  and  gratitude.  (Apo- 
logy ;  Works,  vol.  iv.  p.  430.)  Nevertheless, 
w  ithout  any  apparent  cause  of  alienation,  the 
ungrateful  Bacon,  rather  than  relinquish  an 
empty  honour  and  uncertain  prospects,  aban- 
doned his  friend  and  benefactor  in  the  moment 
of  peril  ;  displayed  to  the  privy  council  the  un- 
dutiful  expressions  in  the  earl's  letters  on  his  trial 
for  high  treason ;  though  not  obliged  by  his  of- 
fice to  appear,  pleaded  against  him ;  and,  after  his 
execution,  undertook  the  task  of  vindicating  the 
conduct  of  the  administration  in  an  appeal  to  the 
public,  under  the  title  of  "  A  Declaration  of 
the  Treasons  of  Robert  Earl  of  Essex."  This 
declaration  was,  it  is  true,  drawn  up  with  such 
apparent  marks  of  tenderness  for  the  reputation 
of  Essex,  that  the  queen,  wl>en  Bacon  rea-d  the 
pa[5srto  her,  observed  to  him,  that  old  love,  she 
saw,  could  not  easily  be  forgotten.  (Cabala, 
p.  83  )  But  this  circumstance  only  proves,  that, 
in  executing  the  task  imposed  upon  him  by  his 
royal  mistress,  he  acted  in  direct  opposition  to 
his  best  feelings,  and  affords  little  palliation  of 
the  baseness  of  violating,  for  selfish  ends,  the 
sacred  obligations  of  friendship  and  gratitude. 
The  general  dissatisfaction  which  the  conduct 
of  Bacon,  through  the  whole  of  this  transac- 
tion, excited  in  the  mind  of  the  public,  induced 
him  to  write  a  long  and  elaborate  "  Apology" 
for  himself,  which  he  addressed  to  the  earl  of 
Devonshire.  His  ingenuity  and  eloquence 
■were,  however,  on  this  occasion,  thrown  away  ; 
for  it  was  easily  perceived,  that  no  plea  of  duty 
to  his  sovereign,  or  of  imprudence,  rashness,  or 
criminality  on  the  part  of  Essex,  could  excul- 
pate him  from  the  odious  charge  of  ingratitude. 
If  Bacon  expected  to  reap  any  benefit  from  this 
base  servility,  he  was  disappointed  :  no  new  ho- 
nours or  emoluments  were  bestowed  upon  him 
during  the  remainder  of  Elizabeth's  reign  ;  and 
to  the  men  in  power  he  still  continued  an  object 
of  jealousy  and  aversion. 

Notwithstanding  the  pusillanimity  and  servi- 
lity v.'hich  Bacon  discovered  in  the  aff"air  of  the 
carl  of  Essex,  there  were  other  public  concerns 
in  which  he  acted  with  firmness  and  dignity. 
Having  been,  in  1593,  chosen  to  represent  the 


county  of  Middlesex  in  parliament,  he  soon  di- 
stinguished himself  in  the  debates  of  the  house, 
and  on  several  public  questions,  though  in  the 
service  of  tiie  crown,  he  took  the  popular  side 
against  her  majeity's  ministers.  On  the  ques- 
tion of  subsidies,  though  lie  assented  to  them, 
he  proposed  that  six  years  shonlil  be  allowed  for 
the  payment,  urging  the  necessities  of  the  peo- 
ple, the  danger  of  exciting  public  discontent, 
and  the  impropriety  of  setting  an  evil  precedent 
against  themselves  and  their  posterity.  The 
freedom  of  this  speech  gave  great  offence  to, 
the  queen,  and  was,  probably,  one  principal 
cause  of  her  disinclination  to  listen  to  solici- 
tations for  his  advancement,  In  1597  he  made 
a  motion  in  the  house  against  inclosures,  and  in 
his  speech  employed  the  pojnilar  arguments 
which  have  since  been  so  frequently  repeated. 
Towards  the  latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
his  parliamentary  conduct  became  more  servile. 
To  show  his  duty  to  her  majesty,  he  strenuously- 
supported  the  question  on  the  supplies,  and  op- 
posed the  proceedings  of  the  commons  against 
monopolies.  His  poverty,  however,  may  bo 
recollected  as  some  extenuation  of  his  fault  r 
he  had  been  disappointed  in  a  project  for  a  lu- 
crative matrimonial  connection ;  and  was  so 
deeply  involved  in  debt,  that  he  had  been  twice 
arrested. 

Upon  the  accession  of  James  1.  fortune, 
whom  Bacon  had  long  courted  in  vain,  began  to 
smile  upon  him.  Through  the  interest  of  se- 
veral of  the  king's  friends,  both  Scotch  and 
English,  and  probably  still  more  through  his 
own  eminent  literary  reputation  —  for  fames 
valued  himself  upon  being  the  patron  of  letters 
— he  soon  obtained  the  favour  of  his  new  sove- 
reign. In  1603  he  received  the  honour  of  knight- 
hood. A  favourable  opportunity  soon  after- 
wards occurred  for  recovering  his  popularity. 
The  house  of  commons,  in  the  first  parliament 
of  this  reign,  undertook  the  redress  of  the  griev- 
ance, of  which  tlie  nation  had  long  complained, 
arising  from  the  exactions  of  the  royal  purvey- 
ors. Sir  Francis  Bacon  found  means  to  procure 
for  himself  the  nomination  to  the  difficult  service 
of  making  a  solemn  representation  to  the 
throne  of  the  injuries  and  oppressions  commit- 
ted by  these  officers,  under  the  pretext  of  taking 
royal  provision;  and  he  executed  the  delicate 
task  with  so  much  ability  and  address,  that  he  at 
the  same  time  gave  satisfaction  to  the  house,  and 
pleased  the  king.  From  the  former  he  received 
a  vote  of  thanks,  and  from  the  latter  a  patent  as 
one  of  the  king's  counsel,  with  a  salary  of  for- 
ty pounds  a  year.     This  grant  was  accompa- 


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(    S"     ) 


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nied  with  an  additional  pension  from  the  crown 
of  ^ixty  pounds  a  year,  for  special  services  re- 
ceived from  his  brother  Anthony  Bacon  and 
himself.  (Rymer,  vol.  xv.  p.  597.)  Sir  Fran- 
cis seemed  now  in  the  high  road  to  preferment: 
but  his  progress  was  still  obstructaJ  by  the  hos- 
tile efforts  of  his  old  enemy,  sir  Robert  Cecil, 
now  earl  of  Salisbury.  He  found,  besides,  a 
new  and  powerful  opponent  in  sir  Edward 
Coke,  attorney-general,  who,  though  he  affect- 
ed to  slight  the  professional  learning  of  Bacon, 
envied  his  talents  and  reputation  as  a  philoso- 
pher. Still,  however,  he  jM-osecuted  his  plans 
for  advancement  with  steady  perseverance  ;  and 
by  industriously  pursuing,  both  in  parliament 
and  in  the  courts,  the  king's  favourite  object  of 
a  union  of  the  two  kingdoms,  and  publishing, 
in  the  year  1605,  one  of  his  most  important 
works,  "  On  the  Advancement  of  Learning," 
he  so  efl^ectually  recommended  himself  to  the 
favour  of  his  royal  master,  that,  in  1607,  upon 
a  vacancy  occasioned  by  the  advancement  of 
sir  John  Dodderidge  to  a  higher  post,  he  was  ap- 
pointed solicitor-general.  His  practice  as  a 
lawyer,  from  this  tiine,  became  more  extensive, 
and  there  were  few  great  causes  in  W'estminster- 
hall  in  which  he  was  not  concerned.  His  for- 
tunes were,  about  this  time,  improved  by  his 
marriage  with  Alice,  daughter  of  Benedict 
Barnham,  esq.  a  wealthy  alderman  of  the  city 
of  London.  In  the  senate  as  well  as  in  the 
courts,  his  great  talents  were  now  eminently 
displayed ;  and  by  the  manner  in  which  he  ex- 
ecuted a  commission  from  the  house  of  com- 
mons to  represent  to  the  king  sundry  grievances 
under  which  the  nation  laboured,  as  well  as  by 
his  judicious  and  able  speech  on  tlie  question  of 
exchanging  the  ancient  tenures  of  tlie  crown  for 
a  competent  revenue,  he  acquired  much  popu- 
larity. His  grand  philosophical  si)eculations 
and  pursuits  wire,  in  the  mean  time,  by  no 
means  neglected.  Having  drawn  an  outline  ot 
his  intended  work,  under  the  title  of  "  Cogitata 
etVisa,"'  he  ciiculatcd  cojjies  of  it  among  the 
learned  for  their  animadversions;  and,  in  1610, 
lie  published  his  treatise,  entitled,  "  Of  the 
Wisdom  of  the  Ancients." 

In  161 1,  sir  Francii  was  appointed  to  the  of- 
fice of  judge  of  the  Marshalsca  court,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  sir  Thomas  Vasavor.  About  this  time 
he  came  into  the  possession  ot  the  profitable 
post  of  register  to  the  Star-chamber,  granted 
him  in  reversion  under  Elizabeth  ;  and,  in  1O13, 
on  the  advancement  of  sir  Henry  Hobart  to  the 
office  of  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas,  he 
was  made  attorney-general.  The  functions  ot 
tlw  latter  office  requiring  fjc<jucnt  jticndancc  iu 


the  house  of  lords,  it  had  been  customary  to 
consider  it  as  incompatible  with  the  possession 
of  a  seat  in  parliament ;  but,  merely  from  con- 
siderations of  personal  respect,  this  indulgence 
was  granted  to  sir  Francis.  In  some  of  the 
state  trials  %%hich  came  before  the  couiTs  while 
he  held  this  office,  he  supported  the  government 
in  the  oppressive  exercise  of  arbitrary  pf)wer, 
particularly  in  the  prosecution  of  Mr.'  St.  Jolm 
for  writing  a  letter  against  benevolences,  and  of 
Pcacham,  a  clergyman,  for  treasonable  passages 
in  a  sermon  found  in  his  study,  but  never 
preached,  and,  as  some  said,  never  intended  to 
be  preached.  His  official  dutv  was,  however, 
on  many  occasions  faithfully  and  meritoriously 
performed  :  and  he  is  entitled  to  great  praise  for 
his  active  exertions  to  supprc<.s  the  savage  prac- 
tice of  duelling.  Lfpon  an  information  exhi- 
bited in  the  Star-chamber  against  Priest  and 
Wright,  he  delivered  so  excellent  a  charge  on 
this  subjedt,  that  the  lords  of  the  council  ordered 
it  to  be  printed  and  published  with  the  decree  of 
the  court :  (See  this  Charge,  Works,  vol.  iv. 
p.  297.)  and  he  afterwards  prosecuted,  in  the 
Star-chamber,  Mr.  Markham,  for  sending  a 
challenge  to  lord  Darcy. 

Sir  Francis  Bacon's  circumstances  were  now 
affluent,  and  with  moderation  and  economy 
might  have  afforded  him  a  noble  independence  : 
but  prodigality  rendered  him,  with  a  large  in- 
come, a  needv  man  ;  and  ambition,  which  a- 
spired  at  the  first  dignity  in  the  law,  prompted 
him  to  descend  to  mean  sQr\'ices  and  unwar- 
rantable artifices  to  obtain  it.  George  Villicrs, 
afterwards  duke  of  Bui  kingham,  having  l>c- 
come  ihe  king's  favourite,  Bacon  immc-<iiatclv 
entered  into  a  strict  friendship  with  him,  which, 
though  at  first  cijual  and  gentrous,  as  fullv  ap- 
pears from  an  excellent  letter  of  advice  on  his 
first  advancement,  (Works,  vol.  iii.  p.  564.) 
afterwards  degenerated,  on  tlie  part  »)f  Bacon, 
into  selfish  servility.  He  nut  only  showed  pe- 
culiar solicitude  tor  the  advancemeni  ot  the  ho- 
nours anil  t'onunes  of  Villirrs,  and  gave  him 
proofs  of  particular  kindness  in  his  officialcapa- 
city  as  attorney  general,  but  submitted  i<j  the 
degrading  servitude  of  acting  as  steward  to  the 
estates  bestowed  upon  him  bv  tl>r  king.  In  or- 
der to  secure  his  favourite  oliject,  when  the  ex- 
pected death  of  the  lord  chancellor  ])roiniscd 
iiim  an  oppotliniitv  ot  succcetlif.g,  Baron  did 
ni>t  choose  wholly  to  rely  upon  the  interest 
which  his  faithful  servites  to  the  crown  inij^ht 
have  created  tor  him  in  the  liriast  of  his  roy- 
al master,  but  wrote  a  letter  to  his  majesty  — 
in  whi(  h  he  endeavoured  to  depreciate  tltc  mc- 
ilt  uf  those  incu  whoinigbt  probably  bcihoughr 


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(    5'^     ) 


BAG 


of  as  proper  to  fill  this  liigh  office,  and  rested 
his  own  claim  on  his  ready  ohedience,  and  his 
power  of  influencing  the  lower  iiouse  of  par- 
liament. The  letter  so  fully  lays  open  the  mind 
of  Bacon  in  this  affair,  that  it  will  not  be  im- 
proper to  make  an  extract  from  it  of  considera- 
ble length. 

: — "  I  heseech  your  majesty,  let  me  put 

vou  the  present  case  trulv.  If  you  take  my  lord 
Coke,  this  will  follow:  first,  your  majesty  shall 
put  an  over-ruling  nature  into  an  over-ruling 
place,  which  may  breed  an  extrctne  ;  next, 
vou  shall  blunt  his  industry  in  matter  of  fi- 
nances, which  ,'feemeth  to  aim  at  another  place ; 
and  lastly,  popular  men  arc  no  slifre  mounters 
for  your  majesty's  saddle.  If  you  take  my  lord 
Hobart,  vou  shall  have  a  judge  at  the  upper 
end  of  your  council-board,  and  another  at  the 
lower  end,  whereby  your  majesty  will  find 
your  prerogative  pent ;  for,  though  there  should 
be  emidation  between  them,  yet,  as  legists,  they 
will  agree  in  magnifying  that  wherein  they  are 
best.  He  is  no  statesman,  but  an  economist 
wholly  for  himself,  so  as  vour  majesty  (more 
than  an  outward  form)  will  find  little  help  in 
him  for  the  business.  If  you  take  my  lord  Can- 
terbury, I  will  say  no  more,  but  the  chancellor's 
place  requires  a  whole  man,  and  to  have  both 
jurisdictions,  spiritual  and  temporal,  in  that 
height,  is  fit  but  for  a  king.  For  myself,  I  can 
only  present  your  majesty  with  gloria  in  ohu- 
quio:  yet  I  dare  promise  that,  if  I  sit  in  that 
place,  your  business  shall  not  make  such  short 
turns  u|)on  you  as  it  doth,  but  when  a  direction 
is  once  given,  it  shall  be  pursued  and  performed  ; 
and  your  majesty  shall  only  be  troubled  with 
the  true  care  of  a  king,  which  is  to  think  what 
you  would  have  done  in  chief,  and  not  how  for 
the  passages.  I  do  presume  also,  in  respect  of 
my  father's  memory,  and  that  I  have  been  al- 
ways gracious  in  the  lower  house,  I  have  inte- 
rest in  the  gentry  of  England,  and  shall  be  able 
to  do  some  good  effect  in  rectifying  that  body  of 
parliament-men,  which  is  cardo  rerum  \  for,  let 
>ne  tell  your  majesty,  that  that  part  of  the  chan- 
cellor's place,  which  is  to  judge  in  equity  be- 
tween party  and  party,  that  same  rcgnum  judi- 
ciale,  which,  since  my  father's  time,  is  but  too 
much  enlarged,  concerneth  your  majesty  least, 
more  than  the  acquitting  of  your  conscience  for 
justice;  but  it  is  the  other  parts,  of  a  moderator 
amongst  your  counsel,  of  an  overseer  over  your 
judges,  of  a  planter  of  fit  justices  and  governors 
in  the  country,  that  iinporteth  your  affairs,  and 
these    times    most."-  (Works,    vol.   iv. 

p.  607.) 

The  address  of  Bacon  in  this  business,  so  near 


his  heart,  succeeded  ;  and  in  March  161 7', 
upon  the  resignation  of  the  aged  and  infirm 
lord  viscount  Brackley,  the  king  delivered  to 
him  the  seals,  with  the  tide  of  lord  keeper,  af- 
ter having,  the  preceding  year,  raised  him  to  the 
dignity  of  privy-counsellor.  A  letter,  (Works^ 
vol.  iv.  letter  168.)  written  that  very  day  to  the 
earl  of  Buckingham,  shows  that  he  considered 
himself  as,  in  a  great  degree,  indebted  to  the  in- 
terest of  that  nobleman  for  his  advancement  to 
these  honours.  They  were,  shortly  afterwardsj 
succeeded  by  others  :  in  the  beginning  of  1619^ 
he  was  created  lord  high  chancellor  of  England,  ■ 
and  baron  of  Verulam,  which  title  he  exchang- 
ed, the  year  following,  for  that  of  viscount  of 
St.  Albans  :  circumstances,  which  it  may  be 
sufficient  barely  to  mention  ;  for,  to  the  nainc 
of  Francis  Bacon,  titles  could  add  no  lustre; 
and  it  must  be  added,  that  this  great  name  would  ' 
have  been  transmitted  to  posterity  with  less  tar- 
nished splendour,  had  it  never  been  decorated 
with  those  tinsel  ornaments.  To  the  seductions 
of  high  rank  and  station  Bacon  owed  every  blot 
which  stains  his  memory. 

For  four  years,  from  the  age  of  fifty-six,  lord 
Verulam  enjoyed  the  gratification  of  occupying 
the  highest  department  in  the  law  ;  but  it  soon 
proved  to  its  possessor  a  post  of  vexation  and 
disgrace,  rather  thaii  of  honour.  By  opposing, 
though  with  timidity,  the  proposed  treaty  of 
marriage  between  Charles,  prince  of  Walesj 
and  the  infanta  of  Spain,  he  displeased  the  king.' 
By  interfering  to  prevent  a  marriage  betweeii ' 
sir  John  Villiers,  Buckingham's  brother,  and 
sir  Edward  Coke's  daughter,  from  which  he' 
apprehended  the  advancement  of  his  rival,  he 
gave  ofience  to  the  favourite.  If  in  the  former 
measure  he  was  influenced  by  patriotic  motivesi 
it  can  scarcely  be  questioned  that  in  the  latter 
he  was  governed  by  an  unworthy  spirit  of  per- 
sonal jealousy.  The  alienation  which  this  op- 
position occasioned  was,  however,  removed  ; 
the  king  again  admitted  the  lord  keeper  to  his 
confidence,  confened  upon  him  the  honours  al- 
ready s])ecihed,  and  Buckingham  corresponded 
with  him  apparently  with  the  same  cordiality  as 
before.  In  truth,  neither  the  king  nor  his  fa- 
vourite had  much  cause  of  personal  dissatisfac- 
tion with  the  chancellor.  His  new  honours 
prompted  him  to  serve  his  master's  private  inte- 
rest with  increasing  assiduity,  and,  though  he 
sometimes  checked  the  rapacity  of  Buckingham 
by  refusing  grants  which  he  recommended,  he 
in  numerous  instances  encouraged  it  by  affixing 
the  great  seal  to  patents  which  were  evidently 
intended  as  instruments  ofextortion.  On  this 
account,  howevei,  and  on  others  inwhich-his 


B  A  C 


(    5^3     ) 


B  A  C 


CAvn  lucrative  advantage  was  the  Immediate  ob- 
ject, his  country  had  great  reason  to  complain, 
and  national  justice  at  length  demanded  an  in- 
quiry into  his  conduct. 

The  parliament  which,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  year  163 1,  James  had  called  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  legal  supplies,  entered  into  an  ear- 
ly and  minute  examination  of  the  grievances 
which  had  arisen  from  the  grants  of  licences 
and  patents,  under  the  pretext  of  which  large 
sums  of  money  had  been  exacted.  These 
grievances  the  commons  represented  to  the  king, 
who  expressetl  an  earnest  desire  that  the  abuses 
which  had  crept  into  administration  might  be 
corrected,  and  said  before  all  the  members  of  the 
house,  "Spare  none,  where  you  find  just  cause 
to  punish."  (Hacket's  Life  of  Archbisliop 
Williams,  p.  49.)  With  this  encouragement, 
from  the  suppression  of  monopolies  they  pro- 
ceeded to  otlier  acts  of  public  justice  ;  and  a 
committee  was  appointed  for  examining  into 
the  proceedings  of  the  courts  of  law  and  equity. 
A  petition  had,  a  short  time  before,  been  jire- 
sented  to  the  king  by  one  Wrenham,  against 
the  lord  chancellor,  complaining  of  injury  in 
a  decree  of  the  court  of  chancery  ;  and  though, 
upon  examining  the  grounds  of  the  suggestion, 
the  chancellor  was  in  this  instance  exculpated, 
suspicion  was  awakened;  new  complaints  arose, 
which  furnished  the  parliamentary  comm.ittce  of 
inquiry  materials  of  accusation.  The  business 
was  transferred  to  the  house  of  lords.  Before 
their  select  committee  were  brought  above  twen- 
ty distinct  charges  of  corruption  and  biibcry,  to 
the  amount  of  several  thousand  pounds  ;  of 
which  presents  some  indeed  were  received  after 
tl>e  decree  was  passed,  but  several  before,  or 
while  tlie  cause  was  depending.  The  chancel- 
lor, who  wished  to  escape  an  inquiry  which  he 
was  not  prepared  to  meet,  made  application  to 
the  king,  both  by  letter  and  in  person,  earnestly 
entreating  his  favour  and  protection.  'I"hc  king, 
who  had  shed  tears  on  the  first  news  of  the  chan- 
cellor's perilous  situation,  received  him  with  af- 
fection ;  and  he  gave  him  an  unequivocal  proof 
of  his  desire  to  rescue  him  from  disgrace,  by 
procuring,  probablv  at  the  chancellor's  request, 
a  short  recess  of  parliament.  Things  \\erc, 
however,  rather  aggravated  than  softened  by  this 
expedient  ;  for  every  day  brought  new  grounds 
of  accusation,  and  heigtitened  the  public  cla- 
mour. Conscious  of  guilt,  instead  of  attemjit- 
ing  a  formal  defence,  the  humbled  culprit  de- 
termined to  avoid  the  confusion  and  mortifica- 
tion of  a  minute  inquiry  by  a  general  confes- 
sion ;  and  in  a  submissive  letter  to  the  house  ot 
lords,  in    which,  notwithstanding   his   critical 

VOL.  I. 


situation,  his  accustomed  eloquence  is  eminently 
displayed,  he  casts  himself  upon  the  mercy  of 
his  peers,  and  entreats  that  his  sentence  may  not 
be  extended  beyond  his  dismission  from  the 
high  office  which  he  had  disgraced.  The  lords, 
however,  insisted  upon  a  paiiicular  confession 
respecting  each  article  of  briberv  and  corruption 
of  which  he  was  accused.  Accordinglv,  on  the 
30th  of  April,  the  chancellor  scut  to  the  house 
a  full  and  particular  confession  and  submission, 
in  which,  of  the  twcnty-tliree  articles  of  cor- 
ruption with  which  he  was  charged,  though  he 
extenuated  some  on  the  plea  that  the  present  wa» 
received  after  the  suit  was  ended,  he  acknow- 
ledged the  greater  part,  again  throwing  himself 
on  tlie  mercy  of  the  house.  When  he  was 
asked,  whether  the  confession  which  had  been 
read  was  subscribed  bv  his  own  hand,  lie  re- 
plied, "  It  is  my  act,  my  hand,  my  liean  ;  I 
beseech  your  lorilsiiips  to  be  merciful  to  a  broken 
reed."  The  chancellor's  delinquency,  however, 
was  so  heinous,  that  it  was  deemed  necessary  to 
inflict  U])on  him  a  severe  penalty;  and  he  waj 
sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  forty  thousand  pounds, 
to  be  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  during  the  king's 
pleasure,  to  be  for  ever  incapable  of  anv  office, 
place,  or  employment,  and  never  again  to  sit  in 
parliament,  or  come  within  the  verge  of  the 
court.     (State  Trials,  vol.  i.  p.  383,  &c.) 

The  punishment  was  heavy  ;  and  it  must  ever 
be  regretted,  that  it  was  incurred  by  a  man 
whose  talents  have  commanded  the  adiniration 
of  the  world  :  but  no  sufficient  evidence  api>car* 
to  prove  that  the  rigour  of  the  sentence  was  tr» 
be  imputed  to  any  other  cause  than  the  strict 
exercise  of  justice.  Lord  chancellor  Bacon 
might  not  perhaps  be  guilty  of  any  flagrant  in- 
fringement of  equitv  in  his  official  decrees  ;  he 
might  pass  just  decisions  even  against  the  very 
])ersorK  who  had  bribed  him ;  but  a  bribe  \va« 
not  a  likely  means  of  guiding  him  to  an  equi- 
table judgment :  and  where  it  produci-d  no  effect, 
the  persons  from  whom  he  received  the  wage? 
of  ini({uitv  might  have  some  reason  to  com- 
plain. 'I'liis  great  man  was  not,  it  is  true, 
chargeable  with  the  sordid  vice  of  avarice:  he 
w.is  not  temptetl  to  receive  dishonourable  gra- 
tuities by  the  desire  of  accninulaiing  wealth, 
but  from  the  false  amhiiion  of  suppoiting  the 
splendor  of  rank  and  office:  he  ni;iy  even  !><• 
pitied  for  the  facility  with  which  he  surtVral  his 
servants  to  become  the  instiuments  of  his  niin  , 
and  the  situation  to  which  he  was  reduced  was 
tridv  lamentable,  when,  in  iIk  midst  of  hi« 
troubles,  as  he  was  jiassing  through  a  hall  w  lir re 
Several  of  his  retinue  rose  up  to  salute  luiii,  Ur 
said  to  them  >aaasticallv,  ••  Sii  down,  mv  ma- 
3U 


B  A  C 


C    514    ) 


BAG 


stcrs;  youi- rise  has  been  my  fall."  (Stephens's 
lutrod.  to  Loitl  Bacon's  Letters,  p.  54.)  Ne- 
vertheless, it  must  be  admitted,  and  he  himself 
confessed,  that  he  was  exceedingly  culpable  in 
encouraging  those  exactions  of  his  servants, 
vvhicl)  occasioned  one  principal  article  of  his  ac- 
cusation ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  doubt,  that 
such  an  ex-ample  of  conuption,  as  was  exhi- 
bited by  this  great  man  in  an  office  of  the  first 
responsibility,  was  an  injurious  attack  upon 
public  virtue,  for  which  no  penalty  could  sul- 
ficiently  atone.  In  order  to  palliate  lord  Ba- 
con's criminality,  it  has  been  insinuated  that 
he  was  given  up  to  parliaineniary  rigour  by  the 
king,  in  order  to  screen  his  favourite  from  the 
vengeance  W'hich  direatened  him,  and  that  "lord 
St.  Alban  was  made  the  scape-goat  of  Bucking- 
ham ;"  (Mallet's  Life  of  Lord  Bacon,  prefixed 
to  his  Works,  p.  xxvi.)  and  in  supj)ort  of  this 
supposition,  a  reference  has  been  made  to  a 
story  (Bushel's  Abridgment,  Sec.  App.  p.  5.) 
told  by  Bushel,  his  lordship's  servant,  that  the 
king,  to  prevent  an  unwelcome  disclosure  of 
facts  to  the  discredit  of  his  favourite,  gave  his 
positive  advice  to  the  chancellor  not  to  make  his 
defence  before  the  lords,  promising  to  screen 
him  in  the  last  determination,  or,  if  that  could 
not  be  done,  to  make  him  in  the  issue  ample 
retribution.  But  Bushel,  who  in  the  Fleet-pri- 
son published  a  speech  of  lord  Bacon's,  which 
is  allowed  to  be  in  a  great  measure  fictitious, 
relates  so  many  improbable  stories,  that  his 
testimony  requires  the  support  of  other  evi- 
dence ;  and,  in  the  present  case,  his  account  is 
invalidated  by  the  general  instructions  which 
the  king  gave  his  parliament  to  pursue  their  in- 
quiry without  restraint,  and  by  his  order,  al- 
ready mentioned,  for  proroguing  parliament, 
*'  to  try  if  time  could  mitigate  the  displeasure, 
which  in  both  houses  was  strong  against  the 
lord  chancellor;"  (Racket's  Life  of  Archbishop 
Williams,  p.  58.)  to  which  may  be  added  lord 
Bacon's  own  testimony,  who,  when  he  resign- 
ed the  seals,  rook  the  blame  wholly  upon  him- 
self, acknowledging,  (Life  of  Sir  Symonds 
d'Ewe's,  M.  S.  p.  58.)  that  what  the  king  had 
given,  his  own  misconduct  had  taken  away. 
"  Rex  dedit,  culpa  abstulir." 

From  the  highly  culpable  and  justly  degraded 
statesman,  we  revert  with  pleasure  to  the  uni- 
versally applauded  and  truly  illustrious  philo- 
sopher. Even  in  the  midst  of  the  avocations 
ef  his  high  office,  lord  Bacon  found  leisure  for 
study.  In  the  year  1620  he  presented  the  world 
with  a  work,  which  he  had  been  twelve  years 
ill  completing,  his  "  Novum  Organon,"  the 
second  part  of  his  grand  "  Instauration  of  the 


Sciences."  When  driven  from  a  court  into  soli- 
tude, he  returned  with  ardour  to  his  favourite 
pursuits,  and  during  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
under  the  discouragement  of  public  censure, 
under  a  heavy  incumbrance  of  debt,  and  under 
the  still  greater  pressure  of  sclf-rej)roach,  lie 
yet  retained  so  much  vigour  of  intellect,  and 
warmth  of  fancy,  as  to  be  capable  of  producing 
writings  of  singular  merit  in  history,  morals, 
and  philosophy.  In  the  latter  department  espe- 
cially, the  originality  of  his  genius  never  for- 
sook him,  and  his  last  pieces  were  the  comple- 
tion of  the  great  plan  for  the  improveiuent  of 
science,  which  he  had  conceived  in  liis  youth, 
and  of  which  he  had  never  lost  sight  through 
ail  the  vicissitudes  of  his  chequered  life.  In  his 
humiliated  state,  he  found  some  comfort  in 
comparing  his  condition  with  that  of  three  great 
men  of  antiquity,  Demosthenes,  Cicero,  and 
Seneca,  all  of  whom,  after  occupying  high 
stations  in  their  respective  countries,  had  fallen 
into  delinquency,  and  been  banished  into  retire- 
ment, where  they  consoled  themselves  with  let- 
ters and  philosophy.  These  exainples,  as  he 
himself  declares,  confirmed  him  in  the  resolu- 
tion, to  which  he  was  otherwise  inclined,  of 
devoting  the  remainder  of  his  time  wholly  to 
writing  ;  and  he  might  have  adopted  the  lan- 
guage in  which  Cicero  addresses  philosophy  : 
"  Ad  te  confugimus  ;  a  te  opem  petimus  ;  tibi 
nos,  ut  antea  magna  ex  parte,  sic  nunc  penitus 
totosque  tradimus."  [To  thee  1  fly  ;  from  thee 
I  seek  support  ;  to  thee  I  dev-ste  myself,  as  for- 
merly in  part,  so  now  entirely  and  altogethei.] 
Even  yet,  however,  neither  philosophy  nor 
experience  had  perfectly  taught  lord  Bacon  the 
lesson  of  moderation.  After  his  release  from 
the  Tower,  which  was  soon  granted  him,  and 
the  entire  remission  of  his  sentence,  which  was 
by  degrees  obtained,  w'nen  the  king's  indulgence 
settled  upon  him  a  pension  of  1200I.  a  year,  in 
addition  to  the  grant  which  he  retained  of  600I. 
a  year  from  the  alienation  office,  and  700I.  a 
year,  which  he  enjoyed  from  his  own  estate, 
(See  his  will  at  the  end  of  Works,  vol.  iii.)  he 
still  lived  at  a  great  expense,  and  sometimes  ap- 
peared in  splendor.  It  is  said,  that  the  prince, 
one  day  observing,  near  London,  a  coach  fol- 
lowed by  a  considerable  number  of  people  on 
horseback,  was  told,  on  inquiry,  that  it  was 
lord  St.  Albans,  attended  by  his  friends  ;  upon 
which  his  highness  said,  "  Well,  do  what  we 
can,  this  man  scorns  to  go  out  like  a  snuff." 
It  was  no  inconsiderable  aggravation  of  the  folly 
of  this  prodigality,  that  he  %vas  still  encumbered 
with  a  heavy  load  of  debt :  though  about  the 
time  of  hi§  fall,  he  found  means  to  discharge 


BAG 


(     515     ) 


BAG 


arrears  to  the  amount  of  8000I.  he  died  in  debt 
upwards  of  22,000!.  (Stiphenr.'s  Intiod.  p.  57.) 
It  is  not  surprising,  tliat,  with  so  many  causes 
of  monificaiion  and  regret,  external  and  inter- 
nal, lord  Baton  sliould  be  capable  of  exercising 
the  virtue  of  humility.  It  was  a  very  natural 
and  becoming  reply  whieli  he  made  to  the  French 
embassador,  wlio,  upon  reading  a  French  trans- 
lation of  his  Essays,  paid  him  the  fulsome  com- 
pliment of  comparing  him  to  angels,  of  whom 
he  had  heard  much,  but  whom  he  had  never 
seen  :  "  If  the  politeness  of  otlrcrs  compare  me 
to  an  angel,  my  own  infirmities  remind  me  that 
I  am  a  man."  (Stephens's  Introd.  p.  29.)  But 
it  may  be  remarked  as  a  striking  instance  of 
self-command,  and  a  singular  proof  of  th.e  i)cr- 
petual  predominancy  of  the  love  of  science  in 
the  mind  of  this  great  man,  that,  receiving  from 
a  friend  an  account  of  the  failure  of  an  appli- 
cation at  court  for  some  important  favour,  at 
the  moment  when  he  was  dictating  to  his  cha- 
plain an  account  of  some  experiments  in  philo- 
sophy, he  calmly  said,  "  Be  it  so  !"  then  dis- 
missing his  friend  with  thanks  for  his  service, 
he  turned  to  the  chaplain,  saying,  (Tenison's 
Account  of  his  Writings,  p.  45.)  "  Well,  sir, 
if  that  business  will  not  succeed,  let  us  go  on 
with  this,  which  is  in  our  power;"  and  conti- 
nued to  dictate  to  him,  for  some  hours,  with- 
out hesitation  of  speech,  or  apparent  interrup- 
tion of  thought. 

Lord  Bacon  pursued  his  philosophical  re- 
searches to  the  last,  in  the  midst  of  bodily  in- 
firmities, brought  on  by  intense  study,  by  mul- 
tiplicity of  business,  and,  above  all,  by  anguish 
■of  mind.  In  the  winter  of  1625  he  found  his 
health  and  spirits  much  impaired  ;  but  in  tlie 
spring  of  the  following  year  he  made  an  excur- 
sion into  the  country,  to  try  some  experiments 
on  the  preservation  of  bodies.  Having  ])ro- 
bably  exposed  himself  imprudently  to  noxious 
effluvia,  he  was  suddenly  seised  with  pains  \\\ 
fiis  head  and  stomach,  which  obliged  Iiim  to 
Stop  at  the  carl  of  Arundel's  house  at  HIghgate. 
Here  he  fell  sick  of  a  fever,  and,  after  a  week's 
illness,  expired  on  tlic  9th  of  April,  1626,  in 
the  66th  year  of  his  age.  It  is  to  be  regretted, 
that  no  memorial  remains  of  the  last  hours  of 
this  philosopher,  except  a  letter,  addressed  to  the 
nobleman  under  whose  roof  he  ilieJ,  in  which 
he  compares  himself  to  tlie  elder  Plinv,  who 
lost  his  life  bv  ajiproaching  too  near  to  Mount 
Vesuvius  during  an  eruption.  He  was  buried 
in  the  chapel  of  St.  Michael's  church,  witliin 
the  precincts  of  Old  Verulam.  Verses  to  his 
memory  were  wiitten  in  various  languages  by 
the  most  eminent  scholars  of  the  university  of 


Cambridge ;  but  the  most  honourable  memo- 
rial of  this  great  man  is  found  in  his  immortal 
writings. 

In  order  to  judge  of  the  nature,  and  estimate 
the  value,  of  lord  Bacon's  philoscphicai  works, 
it  must  be  recollected,  that  lie  tame  into  the 
world  at  a  ])eri(jd  when  the  study  of  abstract 
notions  and  words  had  almost  entirely  excluded 
the  study  of  nature.  Aristotle  had  obtained  su- 
preme authority  in  the  schools  ;  and  his  logic, 
physics,  and  metaphysics,  were  the  chief  guides 
in  all  schol.istic  labours.  Men  were  lost  in  a 
labyrinth  of  definitions,  distinctions,  and  dispu- 
tations, and  wasted  their  time  in  speculations 
altogether  barren  and  useless.  A  few  bold  ad- 
venturers had.  indeed,  deserted  the  fairy  regions 
of  metaphysics  to  tread  the  solid  ground  of  na- 
ture, and,  particularly,  the  fields  of  natural  know- 
ledge had  been  cultivated  and  improved  by  friar 
Bacon,  Galileo,  Copernicus,  and  others.  But 
there  was  still  wanting  a  great  and  comprehen- 
sive mind,  which  could  survev  the  whole  region 
ot  science,  examine  die  foundations  of  former 
systems  of  philosophy,  and  suggest  a  surer  and 
more  advantageous  method  of  pursuing  know- 
ledge. Sucli  a  commanding  genius  Bacon  pos- 
sessed, and  to  him  exclusively  belongs  th.c  praise 
of  having  invented,  methodised,  and  carried 
forward  to  considerable  maturity,  a  general  plan 
for  the  improvement  of  natural  science  bv  the 
only  sure  niethod  of  experiment.  ^Vith  a  mind 
jiroinpt  in  invention,  patient  in  inquiry,  and 
subtle  in  discrimination,  neither  affecting  no- 
velty nor  idolising  antiquity,  he  forme<l,  and 
in  a  great  measure  executed,  his  grand  plan, 
"  The  Instauration  of  Sciences."  This  plan 
comprehended  ax  parts.  Of  these,  the  fii it  it 
his  ex'cellent  treatise,  entitled  "  The  Advance- 
ment of  Learning."  Here  he  takes  a  survey 
of  the  whole  region  of  knowledge,  in  its  seve- 
ral provinces  ;  classes  the  sciences  auil  ans  un- 
der leading  heads,  according  to  the  three  (acui- 
ties of  the  soul,  memory,  fancy,  undersiai-.d- 
ing  ;  observes  wherein  catli  part  has  hitherto 
been  deficient  or  erroneous  ;  and  suggests  pro- 
per means  for  supplying  omissions,  and  rcctitr- 
ing  errors.  Of  this  work,  the  author,  in  a 
letter  to  the  earl  of  Salisbury,  miulestlv 
that  he  was  herein  contentol  to  awake  b  i  r 
spirits,  being  himself  like  a  bell-ringer,  who  i< 
first  up  to  call  others  to  church.  Tlic  uc»nd 
part  is  the  "  Novum  Organon,"  or  new  me- 
thod of  employing  the  reasoning  faculties  i  1  '1- 
pursuit  of  truth.  Dissatisfied  with  the 
gistic  mode  of  rcasni.ing,  as  a  n 
of  disputation,  and  finding  no  i . 
hypothetical  systems  of  anckut  philtnopiiy,  mc 


BAG 


(    5'6    ) 


BAG 


author  in  this  work  recommends  and  explains 
the  slow  and  severe,  but  alone  satisfactory  me- 
thod of  induction,  in  which  natural  objects  are 
subjected  to  the  test  of  observation  and  experi- 
ment, in  order  to  furnish  certain  facts,  as  the 
foundation  of  general  truths.    The  "  Sylva  Syl- 
varum,"  or  History  of  Nature,  is  to  be  consi- 
dered as  the  third  part,  in  which  this  great  ex- 
perimentalist leads  the  way,  by  furnishing  ma- 
terials upon  which  the  organ,  or  instrument, 
which  he  has  provided  for  the  investigation  of 
nnture,  may  be  employed.     In  this  repository, 
facts  and  phaenomena  are  loosely  thrown  toge- 
ther, and  original  observations  are  made  on  va- 
rious  branches  of  natural  knowledge,  which, 
though  not  always  correct,  are  valuable,  as  a 
pattern  of  the  manner  in  which  such  researches 
should  be  pursued.      In  x\\e  fourth  part,  entitled 
"  Scala  Intellectus,"  a  series  of  steps  is  pointed 
out,  by  which  the  understanding  may  regularly 
ascend  in  its  philosophical  inquiries :  this  work 
is  evidently  intended  as  a  particular  application 
and  illustration  of  the  author's  method  of  phi- 
losophising.    Of   the  fifth   part,    "  Anticipa- 
tiones  Philosophicas,"  intended  to  contain  philo- 
sophical hints  and  suggestions,  nothing  is  left 
but  the  title  and  scheme.     The  sixth  part,  in 
which  the  universal  principles  of  natural  know- 
ledge, drawn  from  experiments,  should  be  ex- 
hibited in  a  regular  and  complete  system,  the 
author  despaired  of  being  able  himself  to  ac- 
complish.    The  grand  edifice,  of  which  he  had 
laid  the  foundation,  he  left  to  be  finished  by  the 
united  and  continued  labours  of  philosophers  in 
future  ages.     Among  the  more  popular  works 
v.hich  lord  Bacon  has  left,  the  principal  arc, 
his  History  of  Henry  VII.  which,  though  not 
unjustly  charged  with  partiality,  as  a  literary 
performance  may  be  justly  admired  for  vigour 
of  conception,  and  strength   of  language;  his 
treatise  "  Of  the   Wisdom  of  the  Ancients," 
in  which  he  endeavours,  perhaps  with  more  in- 
genuity than  solidity,  to  unveil  the  hidden  sense 
of  the  fables  of  antiquity ;  his  "  Mora!  Essays," 
in  which  a  great  variety  of  just  reflections  and 
original  thoughts,  on  subjects  which,  to  use  the 
author's  own  phrase,  "  come  home  to  men's 
business  and  bosoms,"  are  forcibly,  but  often, 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  times,  quaintly, 
expressed,  and  are  enlivened  by  happy  illustra- 
tions  of   various  kinds  ;    and   his  law    tracts, 
speeches,  letters,  and   other  miscellaneous  pa- 
pers,   relative   to    personal    or    public    affairs, 
which  abound  with  curious  and  interesting  mat- 
ter.   These  valuable  writings,  which  were  gra- 
dually collected,  have  been  repeatedly  published 
on  the  continent  in   Latin.     An  edition  was 


given  of  them,  in  folio,  at  Francfort,  in  1665, 
and  another,  by  Arnold,  at  Leipsic,  in  1694. 
They  have  passed  through  several  editions, 
both  separately  and  collectively,  in  English  : 
they  were  published  in  1740,  in  four  volumes, 
folio  ;  but  the  most  complete  edition  is  that 
printed  in  London  in  1778,  in  five  volumes, 
quarto. 

It  is  a  singular  example  of  the  confidence 
with  which  original  genius  reposes  upon  the 
merit  of  its  own  productions,  and  assures  itself 
of  posthumous  fame,  that  lord  Bacon  inserted 
in  his  last  will  the  following  remarkable  pas- 
sage :  "  My  name  and  memory  I  leave  to  fo- 
reign nations  ;  and  to  mine  own  countrymen, 
after  some  time  be  passed  over."  When  young, 
he  formed  the  grand  conception  tliat  he  was 
born  to  benefit  mankind  :  in  his  letter  to  Ful- 
gentio  he  styled  himself  the  servant  of  posterity  ; 
in  all  his  philosophical  labours,  he  to  the  latest 
hour  of  his  life  considered  himself  in  this  light; 
and  succeeding  ages  have  abundantly  proved 
that  he  was  not  mistaken.  The  ever-increasing 
pile  of  natural  knowledge,  which  philosophers, 
following  his  method  of  expcriinental  investi- 
gation, have  been  enabled  to  raise,  is  an  eter- 
nal monument  to  his  memory,  on  which  distant 
posterity   will    read  this  inscription :    Bacon, 

THE  FATHER  OF  EXPERIMENTAL  PHILO- 
SOPHY. The  moral  defects  which  were  inter- 
woven with  intellectual  excellencies  in  his  cha- 
racter, it  is  impossible  to  disguise  or  forget,  and 
in  vain  to  palliate.  The  nobler  were  his  con- 
ceptions, the  more  culpable  was  his  obliquity  of 
conduct.  Flaws  are  most  to  be  regretted  in  the 
most  precious  gems.  When  we  meet  with  a 
Bacon  disgracing  himself  by  servility,  ingrati- 
tude, and  corruption,  nothing  remains  but  to 
lament  such  mortifying  instances  of  human 
frailty,  and  to  take  care  to  draw  from  the  in- 
structive fact  the  right  moral  inference.  In  the 
present  case,  instead  of  hastily  concluding  that 
superior  talents  are  rather  to  be  dreaded  than  de- 
sired, as  Pope  seems  to  have  done  when  he 
wrote,  (Essay  on  Man,  epist.  iv.  v.  277.) 

"  If  parts  allure  thee,  tliink  how  Bacon  shin'd, 
Thi;  wisest,  brightest,  meanest,  of  inankiud;" 

we  should  infer  the  infinite  superiority  of  the 
pursuits  of  intellect  above  those  of  ambition. 
Had  Bacon  been  contented  with  being  a  philo- 
sopher, without  aspiring  after  the  honours  of  a 
statesman  and  a  courtier,  he  would  have^been  a 
greater  and  a  happier  man.  Rowley's,  and 
Mallet's,  Life  of  Lord  Bacon.  Stephens^ s  In- 
traduction  to  his  Collection  of  Lord  Bacon's  Let- 
ters.    Baconi  Fit.  a^ud  Oper.  Ed.  Lips.  1694, 


B  A  C 


(    517    ) 


BAG 


Shaw's  Preface  to  his  Jbrldzmtnt  of  Bacon's 
Works.  Dr.  Birch's  Coilection  of  Lord  Bo- 
eon's  Letters.  Dr.  Tcnison's  Lntroduction  to 
Lord  Bacon's  fVorks.      Biogr.  Brit. — E. 

BACONTHORP,  or  BACON,  John,  an 
English  monk  of  tlie  thirteenth  century,  was 
born  at  Baconthorp,  a  village  in  Norfolk,  and 
assumed  the  monastic  habit  in  the  convent  of 
Blackney  in  the  same  county.  For  his  edu- 
cation he  was  indebted  to  the  schools  of  Oxford 
and  Paris,  in  which  lie  obtained  the  highest 
honours.  In  his  youth  he  was  professedly  a 
follower  of  the  Arabian  philosopher  Averroes, 
who  taught  that  one  intelligent  principle  ani- 
mates all  human  beings.  In  a  general  assembly 
of  the  order  of  English  Carmelites,  held  at 
London  in  1329,  he  was  chosen  one  of  their 
provincials.  Four  years  afterwards,  he  was 
iirvited  to  go  to  Rome,  where  he  gave  offence, 
by  allowing  in  public  disputation  too  much 
latitude  in  the  marriage  of  related  persons.  He 
afterwards,  however,  retracted  his  opinion,  and 
maintained  that,  in  degrees  of  consanguinity 
prohibited  by  the  divine  law,  the  pope  has  no 
dispensing  power.  Though  remarkably  small 
of  stature,  he  possessed  a  vigorous  and  active 
mind.  He  obtained  during  life  the  appellation 
of  the  Resolute  Doctor,  and  alter  his  death  was 
celebrated  both  in  prose  and  verse,  as  a  zealous 
defender  of  the  catholic  faiih  against  Jews, 
Turks,  and  heretics.  He  wrote  many  books, 
of  which  only  a  few  were  afterwards  printed: 
among  these  were,  "  Commentaries,  or  Ques- 
tions on  the  four  Books  of  Sentences,"  pub- 
lished at  Milan  in  1510  and  161 1,  and  "  A 
Compendijm  of  the  Law  of  Christ,"  at  Ve- 
nice, 1527.  John  Baconthorp  died  at  London  in 
the  year  1346.  Leland.  Bale.  Pits.  Fuller's 
Wortliics.      Biogr.  Brit. — E. 

BACQllF.T,  John,  a  learned  French  law- 
yer, advocate  to  the  king,  flourished  at  tlie 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  pro- 
foundly skilled  in  the  law  of  France,  and  in  the 
civil  law,  and  wrote  many  excellent  law-tracts, 
published,  with  notes  by  Ferriere,  at  Lyons,  in 
two  volumes  folio,  in  1744.  He  died  in  1597. 
Moreri.   Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

BACTISHUA,  orBoKT  Jesi',  the  servants 
of  yesus  ;  the  name  of  a  Christian  family  of 
physicians  famous  in  the  east  under  the  Abbas- 
side  caliphs. 

George  Ebn  Bactishua,  a  native  of 
Jondispour  or  Nisapour  in  Khorasan,  was 
brought  to  tlie  court  of  the  cali|)h  Almanzor, 
in  order  to  cure  Iiim  of  a  complaint  in  liis  sto- 
mach. The  caliph  was  charmed  with  the  ele- 
gance and  learning  of  liis  couvcisation,  aiyl  the 


gracefulness  of  his  person,  and  treated  him  with 
great  respect.  After  he  had  effected  a  cure, 
Almanzor  asked  him  if  he  was  married.  He 
rejilied,  that  he  had  an  old  woman  for  his  wife, 
who  was  unable  to  rise  from  her  sear.  The 
caliph  thereupon  sent  one  of  the  eunuchs  to  hi* 
hou.se,  with  three  beautiful  Greek  girls,  and 
3000  dinars,  as  a  present.  George  being  ab- 
sent, his  disciple  Isa  took  them  in  ;  for  which 
he  was  reproved  by  his  master  on  his  return, 
and  they  were  sent  back  to  the  caliph.  Alman- 
zor, when  he  next  saw  the  physician,  e\|)resscJ 
his  surprise  at  his  strange  conduct,  for  which^ 
George  apologised,  by  acquainting  him,  that, 
as  a  Cliristian,  he  could  not  lawfully  have  more 
tlian  oi'.c  wife  at  a  time.  Ahnanzor's  esteem 
for  him  was  increased  by  this  declaration,  and 
he  loaded  him  with  tokens  of  his  favour.  In 
the  next  year,  George,  being  himself  taken  ill, 
requested  permission  to  return  to  his  native 
place  ;  and  when  the  caliph  expressed  his  un- 
willingness to  |)art  with  one  whom  he  l»ad 
found  so  serviceable  to  his  health,  George  pro- 
posed leaving  with  him  his  pupil  Isa  ;  to  which 
the  caliph  agreed,  and  sent  him  home  with  great 
honour.  Various  particulars  of  this  phvsician's 
practice  arc  cited  by  Rhazcs  and  Serapion. 

Gabriel  the  son  of  George,  was  physician 
to  Haroim  al  Rashid,  and  highly  valued  bv 
him.  A  story  is  tuld  of  his  sagacity  in  curing 
a  favourite  concubine  ol  the  caliph's  of  a  spas- 
modic contraction  which  pi  evented  her  from 
using  her  arm,  by  making  a  sudden  mntiim 
which  alarmed  her  modcsiv,  and  torced  her  to 
stretch  ont  her  hand  to  defend  liersclf.  'l"lic 
caliph  being  seised  with  a  fit  of  apoplexy,  Ga- 
briel, then  very  yoimg,  (Jroiioscd  opening  a  vein, 
which  was  done  through  the  auilioiiiyof  Al- 
manzor, and  pcrfccilv  recovered  the  patient. 
Thenceforth  he  was  Haroun's  chief  physician, 
and  enjoyed  the  highest  degree  of  his  contidence. 
He  was  with  this  caliph  at  his  death.  He  suc- 
ceeded to  the  same  employment  under  Alman- 
•/.or,  who  adniitteil  him  every  morning  before 
any  of  his  other  physicians,  and  gave  him  a 
very  muniticent  salary.  Falling,  however,  into 
disgrace  with  the  caliph,  Gabriel  was  thrown 
into  prison  ;  but  he  recovered  hi<  favour  bv  the 
successful  advice  he  gave  him  in  that  situation. 

Another  of  the  family  was  pliysician  to 
Moctader.  They  all  acquired  great  influence 
and  riches,  and  were  on  many  occasiom  ser- 
viceable to  the  Christians  under  the  musulman 
empire,  though  sometimes  their  disgraces 
brought  misfortunes  on  all  the  sect.  D'Htr. 
helot.  Holler,  Bihl.  Med.  Mod.  L'mv.  iliit. 
Freind,  Hist.  Phyi.—A. 


BAG 


(     518     ) 


BAG 


BADUEL,  Claud,  a  protestant  divine  of 
the  sixt'.enth  century,  was  a  native  of  Nismes, 
and,  under  the  patronage  of  the  queen  ot  Na- 
varre, was  appointed  rector  oi  tlie  university  in 
that  city.  He  afterwards,  in  1557,  removed 
into  Switzerland,  and  became  the  pastor  of  a 
churth  in  tlic  vicinity  of  Geneva,  and  tauglit 
philosophy  and  marlieniatics  till  his  deatii  ia 
1 56 1.  He  translated  into  Latin  tlic  sermons, 
and  some  other  works,  of  Calvin,  published  in 
8vo.  at  Geneva,  in  1557.  He  also  wrote  "  De 
Ratione  Vitie  studiosa  ac  literata;  in  Matri- 
monio  collocandie  ac  degcndte,"  4to.  printed 
at  Lyons  in  1544,  and  translated  into  French 
in  1548;  "  De  Collegio  et  Univeisitate  Ne- 
raaiistnsi,"  printed  at  Lyons  in  1554  ;  "  Acta 
Martyrum  nostri  Saculi,"  Genev.  1556;  and 
Latin  orations  and  epistles.  He  wrote  Latin 
well,  and  was  much  esteemed  for  his  learning 
and  piety.  Epitom.  B'lbl.  Gcsner'i.  Baylc.  Sc- 
nebiet\  Hist.  Lilt,  de  Geneve. — E. 

BAERSIU.S,  or  VEKENSTIL,  Henry, 
a  mathematician,  flourished  at  the  beginning  of 
tiie  sixteenth  century.  He  was  a  printer  at 
Louvain,  and  the  author  of  the  following  cu- 
rious rnathematical  treatises :  '•  Tabulas  perpe- 
tU£e  Longitudinum  ac  Latitudinum  Planeta- 
rum,"  1528  ;  "  De  Compositione  et  Usu  De- 
crctorii  Pianetarum,"  1530;  "  De  Compo- 
sitione et  Usu  Qiiudrantis,"  1537.  Fal.  Audi: 
B'lhl.  Bclg.     Moreri.—E. 

BAGDEDIN,  Mahomet,  an  Arabian 
mathematician,  is  commonly  leckoned  among 
the  authors  of  the  tenth  century.  To  him  are 
ascribed  several  treatises  in  geometry,  among 
which  is  one  "  On  the  Division  of  Superficies," 
translated  into  Latin  by  John  Dee  of  London, 
and  by  Frederic  Commandini  of  Urbino.  The 
latter  published  this  treatise  at  Pesaro,  in  1570, 
together  with  another  of  his  own  upon  the 
same  subject.  Some  writers  are  of  opinion,  that 
this  work  was  only  translated  into  Arabic  from 
the  Greek,  by  Bagdedin,  and  that  it  was  writ- 
ten by  Euclid  or  some  other  ancient  mathema- 
tician. f''ossius,de  A'/al/i.  c.^6.§ 4.  Moreri. — E. 

BAGGER,  John,  a  Danish  divine,  bishop 
of  Copenhagen,  was  born  at  Lunden  in  1646. 
After  visiting  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  ar;d 
England,  and  studying  in  various  places  under 
"tl\e  ablest  masters,  lie  returned  to  his  native 
place,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  the  ori- 
ental languages.  He  had  scarcely  begun  his 
lectures,  when,  by  the  advice  of  his"  friends,  he 
solicited  aud  obtained  the  place  of  principal 
minister  in  one  »i  the  churches  of  Copenhagen ; 
and,  soon  afterwards,  when-he  was  only  twen- 
ty-nine years  of  age,  he  was  advanced  to  the 


episcopal  see  of  that  city,  and  discharged  its 
functions  with  distinguished  approbation.  He 
revised  the  public  ritual  of  worship  established 
by  Ciiristiern  V.  and  published  several  learned 
and  eloquent  discourses,  some  in  Latin,  others 
in  Danish.  Hs  died  at  the  early  age  of  forty- 
seven.  A  logical  treatise  of  Bagger's  remains, 
under  the  title  of  "  De  Principiis  pcrfcctivis 
Syllogismorum,"  printed  in  axo.  at  Copenhagen, 
in  1665.  Albcrti  T/iura  Hist.  Lit.  Daiiorum, 
ed.  Hamb.  1723,   p.  141.     Moreri. — E. 

BAGLIONl,  Johk-Paul,  a  native  of  Pe- 
rugia, descended  from  a  family  of  warriors, 
who  had  long  held  the  regency  of  that  city,  is 
chiefly  worth  recording  as  a  specimen  of  the 
Italian  leaders  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteentli 
centuries,  who  hired  their  services  indilFerently 
to  all  parties.  He  learned  the  art  of  war  under 
Virgilio  Orglioni,  to  whom  he  was  very  useful 
in  his  efforts  to  reinstate  Peter  de'  Medici  at 
Florence.  Baglioni  having  become  almost  so- 
vereign at  Perugia,  was  driven  out  by  Csesar 
Borgia,  but  recovered  his  footing  there  after  the 
death  of  pope  Alexander  VL  He  was  next 
general  of  the  Florentines,  and  inflicted  many 
evils  on  their  enemies  the  Pisans.  On  some 
disagreement  with  them,  he  went  over  to  the 
service  of  the  Siennese,  who  made  a  present  of 
him  to  pope  Julius  11.  He  served  this  pontifF 
under  the  duke  of  Urbino,  and  assisted  in  reco- 
vering Romagna  from  the  Venetians.  But 
upon  the  death  of  count  Pitigliano,  he  engaged 
in  the  Venetian  service,  and  regained  to  tiie 
republic  several  places  which  the  emperor  had 
taken  from  it.  In  1512  his  troops  were  twice 
beaten ;  but  he  was  enabled,  by  a  reinforce- 
ment of  Swiss,  to  drive  the  French  from  the 
territories  of  Venice  and  Milan.  Soon  after, 
his  Venetian  masters  uniting  with  the  French, 
Baglioni  took  Cremona  and  Lignago,  but  was 
worsted  at  Vicenza.  He  defended  Perugia 
against  the  general  of  the  church,  and  assumed 
an  unlimited  power  there  ;  on  which  account 
pope  Leo  X.  having  enticed  him  to  Rome, 
caused  him  to  be  beheaded  in  1520.  He  left 
two  sons,  who  followed  his  profession,  Horace 
and  AJalatesla.  Horace,  a  brutal  and  violent 
character,  was  constantly  in  the  Florentine 
service,  and  acquired  much  renown  at  the  tak- 
ing of  Salerno.  He  was  killed  before  Najjles 
in  1528.  Malatesta  served  the  Venetians  with 
reinitation  under  Liviano.  Assisted  bv  the 
duke  uf  Urbino,  he  drove  his  relation  Gentilis 
Baglioni  from  Perugia.  He  afterwards  served 
the  Italian  allies  against  the  emperor ;  and 
lastly  defended  Florence  for  a  whole  year  when 
besieged  by  the  imperial  arms,  and  did  not  sur- 


BAH 


(    P9     ) 


B  A  fl 


rcmlcr  till  reduced  to  the  last  extremity.  He 
died  of  a  lingering  disease  in  1533.  A/oreri. 
— A. 

BAGLIVI,  George,  an  eminent  physician 
and  medical  professor,  was  a  native  of  Ragusa, 
and  studied  at  Naples  and  Padua,  at  which  last 
university  he  graduated.  He  obtair.ed  great 
celebrity  aljoiit  the  btginning  of  the  eigi)teenth 
century  as  a  new  theorist  in  physic,  and  was 
thought  likely  to  become  the  founder  of  a  sect. 
To  the  simple  Hippocratic  observation  of  the 
phenomena  of  diseases,  he  joined  a  methodical 
system  which,  rejecting  the  humoral  pathology, 
placed  the  cause  of  diseases  in  the  altered  tone 
of  the  solids.  Adopting  the  discoveries  of  Pac- 
chioni,  he  supposed  an  alternate  motion  between 
the  heart  and  tne  dura  mater,  by  which  the 
whole  animal  machine  was  actuated.  He  was 
professor  ot  anatomy  and  surgery  at  Rome, 
and  had  acquired  great  fame  by  his  doctrines, 
when  he  was  cut  off  by  death  in  1707  at  the 
age  of  thirty-four. 

•  His  principal  works  are,  "  Praxis  Mcdica," 
Romje,  1696  ;  "  Dissertatio  de  Anatome, 
Morsu,  et  Effectibus  Tarantulce,"  i6g6  :  "  Ob- 
servationes  varii  Argumenti  Anatomica?  et  Prac- 
tice ;"  "  De  Fibra  Alotrice  et  Morbosa",  Perus. 
1700  ;  "  Specimen  IV  Librorum  de  Fibra  Mo- 
trice  et  Aiorbosa,"  Rom.  1701;  and  "Spe- 
cimen 111  Librorum  reliquorum,"  published  af- 
terwards ;  "  De  Medicina  Solidorum  ad  rectum 
Statices  Usum  Canoncs,"  Rom.  1704;  "  De 
Progressione  Terrs  Motus,"  1705.  These, 
and  some  other  works,  have  been  frequently 
reprinted,  and  several  times  publislicd  all  to- 
gether. They  are  full  of  curious  remarks, 
theoretical  and  practical,  which  exhibit  much 
acuteness  ;  but  the  basis  of  his  theories  has  not 
been  able  to  withstand  more  accurate  investi- 
gation. He  is  charged,  not  w  ithout  some  just- 
ice, with  plagiarism  from  Valsalva,  Malpighi, 
and  others;  and  with  iii'dulitv  as  to  the  tales 
of  the  tarantula.  Holler,  B'thl'ioih.  Alcd. 
Pract.—K. 

BAHRAM,  surnamcd  Giubin,  a  celebrated 
Persian  general  and  usurper,  w^as  descended 
Irom  the  ancient  princes  of  Rei  or  Ragae,  and 
from  his  youth  served  in  the  army  of  the  Per- 
sian king  Chosroes  I.  or  Nushirvan.  His  gi- 
gantic size,  fierce  countenance,  and  signal  va- 
lour, raised  him  to  command  in  the  reigns  of 
Nushirvan  and  his  son  Hormouz,  and  at  length 
acquired  him  the  government  of  Media,  and 
superintcndance  of  the  royal  palace.  When 
Persia  was  invaded  by  the  great  khan  of  the 
Turks,  Bahram  was  salt  for  by  Hormou/,  to 
oppose  him.     Bahram  took  only  I2,C00  select 


soldiers,  and  marching  with  equal  celerity  and 
secrecy,  he  fell  unexpectedly  upon  the  khan's 
numerous  host,  and  dcfeatal  it  with  great 
slaughter,  killing  the  khan  himsilf,  and  taking 
all  the  rich  treasures  of  his  camp.  His  ivran- 
nical  master,  though  rejoiced  at  this  deliverance, 
became  jealous  uf  his  general's  success,  and 
gave  car  to  those  who  insinuated  that  he  had 
kept  die  most  valuable  of  the  spoils  to  himself. 
Soon  after,  Bahram  undergoing  a  defeat  from 
tb.e  lieutenant  of  the  Greek  emperor,  HormouA 
was  im])rudent  enough  to  insult  him  by  the 
present  of  a  wheel,  a  distaff,  and  a  suit  of 
woman's  apparel.  Bahram  sliowed  himself  to 
the  troops  in  this  dress,  and  so  inflamed  their 
passions  by  the  ignominy  inflicted  on  the  whole 
army  in  his  person,  that  they  unanimously 
joined  him  in  a  revolt  against  their  king.  In 
the  mean  time,  Hurmou/.  met  with  another 
enemy,  in  the  person  of  Bindocs,  a  Sassanian 
l)rince,  his  brother-in-law,  whom  he  had  un- 
justly confined  in  a  dungeon,  and  who,  Iwing 
liberated  by  his  own  brother,  seised  Hormouz 
and  committed  him  to  the  same  confinement. 
The  king  was  publicly  tried,  deposed,  and  dcpriv  - 
ed  of  sight;  and  his  son  Chosroc.s,  surnamcd 
Parviz,  was  set  on  the  throne.  Some  historians 
represent  Bahram  as  having  produced  this  re- 
volution ;  but  it  is  certain,  that  he  equally  de- 
clared against  Chosroes,  and  marched  to  Mo- 
dain,  the  capital,  with  a  view  of  deposing  him. 
A  bloody  engagement  ensued,  in  which  Chos- 
roes  was  defeated,  and  in  consequ':nce  obliged 
to  quit  the  country.  Before  his  departure,  t.'ie 
deposed  Ilormouz  was  strangled  by  Bindocs  and 
his  brother.     This  happened  in  590. 

Bahram  now  assuinitl  the  regal  authoriry, 
though  he  was  oppo.<cd  by  the  magi  and  other 
friends  of  the  roval  family.  Civil  discords  and 
conspiracies  rendered  the  scat  of  the  usur)icr 
insecure,  and  compelled  him  to  acts  of  violence 
and  severity.  Discontents  prevaileil  to  si,i!i  a 
degree,  tliat  when  Ciiosroes,  who  had  fl  d  to 
the  d'uninions  of  the  emperor  Maurice,  had 
obtained  an  army  from  that  i)rince  to  e<?tct  his 
restoration,  and  appeared  on  the  frontier,  he 
wa.s  joined  by  numbers  of  the  Persian  nobles 
and  peo|>lc.  Bahram,  however,  assembled  an 
army  for  his  detencc,  and  fought  two  battles,  in 
which  he  was  defeated.  With  the  remain,  of 
his  forces  he  retirul  to  the  provinces  on  the 
Oxus,  and  took  refuge  with  the  great  klian. 
By  him  he  was  entertained  for  some  years,  and 
cniploycd  in  military  expeditiotis.  At  Kii.:t:i 
he  was  poisoned  at  the  suliiiiatiou  of  Chosu,ei, . 
who  always  dreaded  his  return.  The  renown 
of  Bahram  still  lives  among  the  Persians ;  and 


BAH 


(    520    ) 


BAH 


some  excellent  laws  are  dated  from  his  reign. 
The  name  of  Bahram  has  by  the  Greeks  been 
Converted  to  Varanes,  under  which  designation 
some  of  the  Persian  kings  will  hereafter  be 
noticed.     ITnlvas.  Hist.  Gibbon. — A. 

BAHRDT,  Charles  Frederic,  a  theo- 
logical and  satirical  writer,  was  born  at  Bi- 
schofswerda  on  the  25th  of  August  1741.  His 
father,  a  clergyman  of  that  place,  removed  in 
the  course  of  some  years  to  Leipsic,  where 
he  was  first  promoted  to  be  preacher  in  St.  Pe- 
ter's church,  and  afterwards  professor  of  divi- 
nitv,  and  superintendant.  Bahrdt  received  the 
early  part  of  his  education  from  private  tutors, 
under  whose  care  he  improved  so  little,  that  his 
father  placed  him  at  the  public  school  ;  but  his 
progress  there  not  being  equal  to  his  expec- 
tation, he  carried  him  with  some  more  ot  his 
f^ons  to  tlie  grammar-school  at  Pfortc.  Having 
rtmained  here  a  short  time,  he  returned  to 
Leipsic,  and  after  some  private  instruction  in 
the  Greek  and  Latin  from  Ernesti,  he  was  en- 
tered at  the  university,  which  he  quitted  in  two 
years,  and  commenced  preacher  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Leipsic.  In  1761  he  was  admit- 
ted to  the  degree  of  master  of  arts,  and,  some 
years  after,  appointed  substitute  to  his  father, 
and  extraordinary  professor  of  sacred  philology. 
Not  contented  with  the  reputation  he  had  ac- 
quired at  Leipsic,  he  now  became  desirous  of 
extending  his  fame  as  an  author;  and,  in  1763, 
published  a  work  entitled  "  The  true  Christian 
in  Solitude;"  and,  in  1768,  his  "  Commentary 
on  Malachy,"  in  which  he  endeavoured  to  dis- 
play his  talents  for  biblical  criticism,  and  his 
knowledge  of  oriental  literature.  An  unfortu- 
nate intrigue,  which  rendered  him  a  fathei', 
soon,  however,  put  an  end  to  all  his  expectations 
at  Leipsic,  and  obliged  him  to  retire  to  his  friend 
Klotz  at  Halle,  who  got  him  apjjointed  pro- 
fessor of  biblical  antiquities  at  Erfurt,  but 
without  any  salary.  Bahrdt  was  fond  of  good 
living ;  and  as  he  was  supplied  with  money  by 
his  father,  he  here  found  his  situation  very  com- 
fortable ;  but  having  introduced  in  his  lectures 
some  theological  remarks  not  considered  as  al- 
together orthodox,  complaints  were  made  a- 
gainst  him  by  Schmidt  and  Vogel,  two  clergy- 
men of  that  city.  Tliat  he  might  repel  the 
attacks  of  his  antagonists  with  more  weight,  he 
purchased  the  degrte  of  doctor  in  theology  from 
the  university  of  Erlangen,  which  gave  him  a 
right  to  lecture  publicly  in  divinity,  and  he 
liastened  to  prepare  for  the  press  his  "  Essay 
towards  a  System  ot  the  Doctrines  contained  jn 
the  Bible,"  the  liist  part  of  which  appeared  in 
i'](iC)t    tor   the   jjurpose   uf  defending   himself 


against  the  charge  of  heterodoxy.  About  the 
same  period  he  published,  but  without  his  name, 
"  The  earnest  Wishes  of  a  dumb  Patriot,"  in 
which  he  attacked  the  weakest  proofs  of  the 
fundamental  truths  of  the  theological  system, 
not  to  destroy  that  system,  but  to  give  uneasi- 
ness to  those  orthodox  divines  who  had  injured 
his  reputation,  and  in  particular,  by  very  plain 
allusions,  to  raise  up  a  suspicion  against  pro- 
fessor Schmidt,  of  his  being  a  Jesuitical  secta- 
rian. This  attempt,  however,  did  him  more 
injury  than  service.  His  conduct  was  publicly 
reprobated  by  the  faculty  of  divines  at  Witten- 
berg ;  and  those  of  Gottingen,  though  they  put 
the  best  construction  possible  on  his  doctrines, 
advised  both  parties  to  enter  into  a  reconcili- 
ation. A  paper-war,  carried  on  with  great  bit- 
terness, took  place  afterwards  between  Bahrdt 
and  Schmidt ;  but  it  was  attended  with  no  otlier 
consequences  than  that  of  rendering  the  former 
more  cautious.  In  17 70  Bahrdt  published  at 
Eisenach  his  "  System  of  moral  Theology," 
w  hich,  though  a  hasty  composition,  met  with  a 
favourable  reception  on  account  of  the  agree- 
able manner  in  which  the  author  conveys  his 
ideas.  Desire  of  fame  and  love  of  money  made 
Bahrdt  embark  in  many  projects  and  under- 
takings, two  of  which  deserve  to  be  here  men- 
tioned. The  first  was  to  establish  a  society  or 
council  of  divines  to  form  a  new  theological 
system,  the  grounds  of  which  were  to  be  his 
System  of  the  Doctrines  contained  in  the  Bible, 
and  his  treatise  on  morality ;  and  he  invited 
those  inclined  to  favour  this  plan  to  transmit  to 
him  their  thoughts  on  these  works,  which  he 
would  afterwards  reduce  into  order,  and  make 
public.  A  few  persons  offered  to  assist  in  this 
undeitaking,  and  their  ideas  were  published  by 
Bahrdt  in  his  "  Letters  on  Systematic  Theo- 
logy ;"  but  that  work  was  dropped,  and  the 
whole  society  dissolved,  after  the  first  volume 
had  made  its  appearance.  The  approbation 
given  to  his  critical  performances,  even  in  fo- 
reign countries,  induced  him  to  engage  in  an- 
other undertaking  too  vast  for  his  knowledge 
and  situation,  which  was  an  edition  of  the  Old 
Testament,  such  as  had  been  before  announced 
by  Kennicot,  with  a  collection  of  all  the  various 
readings,  drawn  from  a  number  of  little-known 
manuscripts.  Bahrdt's  volatile  genius  over-, 
looked  the  difficulties  of  such  an  attempt,  but 
his  promises  were  never  fulfilled.  His  next 
plan  for  impro\'ing  his  finances  was  by  a  for- 
tunate marriage  ;  and,  after  some  unsuccessful 
applications,  he  at  length  espoused  a  young 
widow  of  Muihausen,  who  brouglit  him  a  for- 
tune oi  6000  dollars.     The  cabal  formed  ■*.- 


B  A  H 


(    5^1     ) 


RA  II 


gainst  him  by  the  divines  at  Erfurt,  and  other 
circumstances,    having  rendered    bis    situation 
there  disagreeable,  he  embraced  a  projjosal  made 
to  him  ot  being  preacher  and  fourth  professor 
of  theology  at  Giessen  in  Hesse,  an  office  which 
he  entered  on  in  the  year  177  i.    His  propensity 
to   writing  he  indulged  here  with  uncommon 
assiduity,  and  in  die  space  of  four  years  pub- 
lished two  "  Collections  of  Sermons,"  a  "  Book 
of  Homilies,"   his   "  Apparatus  criticus  veteris 
Testamenti,"  "  A  general  theological  Reposi- 
tory," "  Outlines  of  an  ecclesiastical  History  of 
the  New  Testament,"  "  Proposals  for  explain- 
ing the  Doctrines  ot  the  Church,"  "  A  critical 
Examination  of  Michaelis's  Translation  of  the 
Bible,"  and  the  "  Newest  Revelation  of  God," 
that  is,  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament, 
widi  notes.     The  heterodoxy  of  Bahrdt's  doc- 
trines,   which   seemed  to  aim  at   nothing  less 
than  to  destroy  the  great  bulwark  of  religion, 
and  above  all  his  violent  attack  on  die  doctrine 
of  propitiation,   together  with   his   modernised 
new  testament,  raised  up  a  violent  storm  against 
him  at  Giessen ;  but  a  fortunate  event  saved 
him  from  the  effects  of  it,  when  just  ready  to 
burst  forth.     This  was    an   invitation    he  re- 
ceived from  Von  Salis,  on  the  recommendation 
of  Basedow,  to  be  director  of  his  philanthro- 
pinum  at  Marschliriz   in  Suisserland,   with  a 
salary  of  2000  florins.     He   quitted  Giessen, 
therefore,  in  the  year  1775.  after  having  paid  a 
visit  to  Basedow's  philanthropinum  at  Dessau 
(see  Basedow),  in  order  that  he  might  be  there 
initiated  in  the  mysteries  of  education.    Owing, 
however,    to   soine   misunderstanding   betweeii 
him  and  his  employer  at  Marschlinz,   it  was 
not  long  before  he  wished  for  a  change  of  situ- 
ation ;    and  as  Count  von  Lciningen-Dachs- 
burg,    who  wanted    an  agreeable   preacher  to 
take    on   him  the    office    of  superintendant  at 
Durkheim,  invited  him  thither,  he  gladly  ac- 
cepted die  offer,  though  he  at  first  made  some 
difficulty  in  order   to  obtain  better  terms.     He 
removed  to  Durkheim  in  the  year  1776,  and  as 
he  had  long  beca  projecting  a  plan   for  esta- 
blishing a  seminary  of  education,  he  represented 
in  so  lively  colours  to  his  new  patron  the  advan- 
tages   of  such   an    institution,  that  die  count 
assigned  over  to  him  for  that  purpose  ids  palace 
at   Heidcshcim,  which   was    then  unoccupied. 
Bahrdt  now  announced  in  a  pompous  address  to 
the  public,  printed  in  German  and  French,  tl.c 
establishment  of  Ids  philanihropinum.  and  made 
every  exertion  possible  to  raise  money  by  sub- 
scription for  carrying  it  on.      As  these  attempts 
were  not  attended  with  the  wishcd-for  success, 
he  resolved  to  reprint  his  "  Translation  of  the 

VOL.    I. 


new  Testament"   in  a  better  form,  by  which 
means  he  soon  collected  tlie  sum  of  1200  dol- 
lars.   The  philanthropinum  was  opened   with 
great  solemnity  in  the  year   1777,  and  every 
thing  went  on  prosperously  for  some  time  ;   but 
as  Bahrdt,  besides  teaching,  had  the  duties  of 
his  office  as  a  clergyman  to  attend  to,  and  a.s 
his  restless  disposition  was  always  prompting 
him  to  engage  in  new  projects,   he  got  consi- 
derably  involved   in   debt.      His   creditors   did 
every  thing  in  their  power  to  support  his  new 
institution,    as   they  saw  no  other  means    by 
which  they  were  likely  to  recover  what  they 
had  advanced  ;  but  a  concurrence  of  unfortunate 
circumstances  having  brought  it  almost  to  ruin, 
Baiirdt  resolved  to  visit  Holland  and  England, 
with  a  view  of  procuring  pupils  in  these  coun- 
tries.     Though    possessed   of  very   little  pro- 
perty to  bear  the  expenses  of  his  journey,   he 
proceeded  to  London,  where  he  wus  reccivc<l 
with  much  friendship  by  Dr.  Wendcbom,  and 
John  Rcinhold  Forstcr,  late  professor  at  Halle, 
who    introduced   him    to   the   grand   lodge   of 
Free  Masons,   from  whom  he  received  three 
degrees  in  one  evening.     By  the  recommend- 
ation of  Dr.  Wcndeborn,  he  found  several  [ter- 
sons  of  reputation  who  were  disposed  to  interest 
themselves   in   favour  of  his  institution  ;    hut 
being  a' voluptuar\',  living  in  London  was  100 
expensive  for  his  finances,  and  in  a  little  lime 
he  was  reduced  to  considerable  distress.    In  this 
situation  he  was  relieved  by  a  merchant  of  the 
name  of  Rasch,  who  sent  him  thirty  guineas, 
and  he   quitted   England  with  four  pupils,    to 
whom  he  added  nine  more  in  his  way  through 
Holland,  Clevcs,  and  Crcfeld.   Ho  now  hastened 
to  Heidesheim,  overjoyed  with  the  idea  of  sooi\ 
seeing  his  philanthropinum  in  a  tlourishing  con- 
dition ;  but  before  he  reached  it,  he  received  in- 
telligence that  he  h-td  been  suspended  from  all 
his  employments  by  a  conclusum  of  the  Im- 
perial council.     This  severe  measure  had  been 
adopted  in  consequence  of  an  application  made 
by  the  suffragan  of  Worms,  who  was  otlcndeU 
with  Bahrdt  on  account  of  some  satirical  re- 
flections which  he  had  published  against  him  in 
the  Heidesheim  gazette,    because  he  had  dis- 
approved of  hi;   translation  of  the  new  tesi.;- 
ment  being  so  muih  read  among  the  catholics. 
The  prince  of  Lciningen  wrote  a  letter  in  his 
favour  to  the  emperor  Joseph,  and  a  pctitioi^ 
for  the  same  purpose   was  drawn  up  by  his 
congregation  at  Durklicini.  but  by  some  neg- 
lect    iieiihcr    of    thcin    was     ever    presented. 
Bahrdt  had  now  no  other  resource  than  to  quit 
the  empire  and  to  seek  refuge  in  I'russi.i.     In 
Mav  1779  he  retired  with  his  finiily  to  HAk; 
3^ 


BAH 


(     5^2     ) 


BAH 


and  a  subscription  of  200  JoUars  to  be  paid 
him  annually  was  raised  for  him  by  his  friends 
at  Berlin,   under  the  management  of  professor 
Eberhard.     He   flattered    Sedlitz   the    Prussian 
minister,    in    order   to    procure    permission    to 
establish  a  school,  but  as   tliis  did  not  succeed, 
he  once  more   had  recourse   to  his  pen. .  His 
first  attempt  at  Halle  in   the  literary  way   was 
unfortunate.     The  manuscript  of  his   "  Apo- 
logy of  Reason,"  and  a  specimen  of  the  "  His- 
tory of  his  own  Life,"  were  sent  back  to  him 
from  Berlin,  with  an  intimation  that  these  works 
would  tend  rather  to  increase  his  enemies,  and 
give  the  public  occasion  to  say  that  he  meant 
to  set  at  defiance  the  Imperial  conclusum.     He 
contented   himself,    therefore,   with  publishing 
extracts  from  the  sacred  scriptures  under  the 
title  of  "  The  Bible  in  Miniature,"  wliich  was 
printed  in  1780.    Bahrdt's   residence  at  Halle 
was    disagreeable    to    many  of  the   professors, 
and  particularly  to  Semler.    He  however  had 
the  courage  to  give  private  lectures  on  philo- 
sophy,   humanity,    and    rhetoric,     the    last    of 
■which  were  received  with  universal  approbation. 
He  read  lectures  also  on  Tacitus  and  Juvenal  ; 
but  he  was   reproached  with   commenting  on 
some  passages  of  the  latter  in  such  a  manner  as 
seemed  to  show   that  his  mind  as  well  as  his 
taste  was  depraved.      Some  of  his  auditors,  ne- 
vertheless, entertained  so  high  an  opinion  ot  his 
talents,  that  they  entrusted  him  ^\■ith  the  edu- 
cation of  their  sons,  and  this  induced  him  to 
undertake  translations  of  the  above  authors,  and 
to  form  a  plan  of  translating  all  the  Greek  and 
.Latin  clas..ics  ;  but  his  restless  genius  soon  led 
him  from  this  peaceful  labour  to  the  wide  field 
of  theology,   which  had  already  involved  him 
in  so  many  storms.     He  acknowledges  himself, 
in  his  life,  that  when  he  arrived  at  Halle,  there 
were  some  sparks  of  religion  alive  within  his 
mind,   but  that  they  were  soon  totally  extin- 
guished bv  liis  intercourse  with  Deists.     In  the 
worts,   therefore,  which  he  now  published,  he 
endeavoured  to  teach   tlie  doctrine  and  history 
of  Christianity,  pnrihed  from  every  thing  super- 
natural,   in   its  original   simplicity,   accommo- 
dated to  reason,  and  agreeable  to  his  own  ideas. 
7\s  his  health  had  suffered  much  by  excessive 
labour,   Goldhagen  his  physician  advised  him 
•  to  change  his  manner  of  life.      Finding  that  his 
cook-maid  Chri'^tina  understood  something  of 
husbandry,  he  resolved  to  turn  this  circumstance 
to  advantage,  and,   spite  of  every  remonstrance 
made  by  Ids  wife,  purchased  a  vineyard  with  a 
small  farm  attached  to  it  in  the  ncigiibourhood 
of  Halle.     The  mansion  was  enlarged  by  two 
wings,  aud  fitted. up  as  a  tavern  and  coffee- 


house ;  a  bailiff  managed  the  farm,  and  the  do- 
mestic   economy   was    entrusted   to   Christina, 
who  enjoyed  all  Bahrdt's  affection  as  well  as- 
confidence.      Bahrdt  shone  with  equal  lustre  as 
a  landlord  and  an  agreeable  companion.     After 
attending  to  his  literary  labours  in  the  morning, 
he  devoted  the  remainder  of  the  day  to  waiting 
on  his  guests.  He  generally  played  at  cards  with 
them   in   the  afternoon,   and  entertained   them 
in  the  evening  with  the  charms  of  his  conver- 
sation.    But  his  character  at  this  period  appears 
in  a  very  unfavourable  view  on  account  ot  his 
behaviour  to  his  wife.     While  he  carried  on 
an  illicit  commerce  with  the  girl  to  w'hom  he 
had  committed  the  care  of  his  house,  he  obliged 
his  wife,  by  the  most  cruel  treatment,  to  leave 
him  ;  and  though  she  had  the  goodness  some 
time  after  to  return,  it  was  only  to  be  a  victim 
to   still   greater   barbarities.     Bahrdt,   when   in 
England,  had  been  initiated  in  masonry,  and  on 
his  return  to  Germany  he  declared  to  his  friends 
that  he  had  thereby  acquired  a  great  addition  to 
his  knowledge.     At  that  time  he  displayed  little 
enthusiasm  on  this  point;  but  in  the  year  1 781, 
having  met  with  Stark's  book  on  the  mysteries, 
it  awakened  in  him,  as  he  says  himself  in  his 
life   [vol.  IV.  p.  126],    the  spirit   of  masonry 
which  had  been  infused  into  him  in  England, 
and  excited  an  idea  that  Jesus  Christ  must  have 
intended,  by  establishing  a  secret  society,  to  pre- 
serve and  diffuse  among  mankind  truth  almost 
banished  from  the  world  by  priests.    This  idea 
of  a  secret  society  established  by  Jesus  Christ  he 
afterwards  propagated  in  his  "  Accomplishment 
of  the  Plan  and  Object  of  Jesus,"  and  in  the 
third  edition  of  his  "-Translation  of  the  Newr 
Testament."    In  the  year   1784  or  1785  there 
arose  in  Germany  the  so  called  union  or  society 
of  twenty-two  united  masons,  the  principal  de- 
sign of  which   was  to   improve  the    arts    and 
sciences,    commerce,    and   above    all    religion, 
among  the  common  people.     Bahrdt,  who  be- 
came a  member  of  this  society,  was  desirous, 
among  other  things,  that  it  should  totally  en- 
gross the  business  of  book-seHIng,  bodi  with  a 
view  to  gain  money,  and  to  obtain  the  complete 
sovereignty  of  the  republic  of  letters  in  Ger- 
many.    This  plan,  however,  did  not  meet  witli 
approbation,  and  was  accordingly  dropped.     In 
the  year  1785  or  I  786  he  is  said  to  have  had  in 
view  another  project,  vv'hieh  was  to  make  him- 
self the  founder  of  an  avowed  deistical  sect  in 
Prussia,   but  if  does   not  appear  riiat  he  ever 
seriously    attempted   it.     In    1787    Bahrdt   ex- 
erted himself  with  much  zeal  for  the  support  of 
the  union,  and  assembled  the   members  at  his 
tavern,  where  he  imagined  they  would  escape 


BAH 


( 


j'o 


) 


B  A  J 


suspicion :  but  In  this  he  was  mistaken ;  for, 
after  tlie  second  meeting,  he  received  notice  to 
discontinue  the>e  assemblies.  This  did  not 
damp  his  activity,  but  rather  induced  him  to 
propagate  his  ideas  by  an  epistolary  correspond- 
ence, and  he  established  an  office  for  the  affairs 
of  the  order,  in  wliich  he  laboured  with  a  secre- 
tary during  tlie  whole  of  the  year  1788.  At 
the  same  time  he  published  several  works  cal- 
culated to  promote  his  views,  and  relating  to  th.e 
union,  sucli  as  "  Observations  on  the  Liberty 
of  the  Press  and  its  Boundaries,"  and  "  Zamor, 
or  the  Man  of  the  Moon,"  in  wl'icli  he  deli- 
neates Freemasonry  in  Germany,  as  corrupted 
by  the  wildest  fanaticism  and  the  darkness  of 
popery.  About  this  period  also  appeared  his 
comedy  called  '•  The  Edict  of  Religion,"  which, 
though  anonymous,  was  universally  ascribed  to 
him,  as  he  had  been  so  imprudent  as  to  repeat 
jnany  passages  from  it  before  ic  was  published. 
Being  betrayed  by  his  secretary  Roper,  he  was 
arrested  on  account  of  this  work,  and  of  his 
connection  with  the  union,  and  put  under  con- 
finement at  Halle,  during  which  he  wrote 
*'  Morality  for  the  People,"  one  of  his  most 
valuable  and  best-finished  works,  though  he 
completed  it  in  the  course  of  three  weeks. 
When  brought  to  trial  he  was  act]uitted  on  the 
charge  respecting  the  union,  but  declared  guilty 
of  writing  the  comedy,  and  sentenced  to  two 
years  imprisonment  in  the  fortress  of  Alagde- 
burg.  This  punishment,  however,  was  after- 
wards mitigated  by  the  king  to  half  that  period 
He  was  ^^■ell  treated  while  in  prison,  found 
friends  who  sujiported  him,  obtained  permission 
for  his  eldest  daugliter  and  Christina  to  visit 
liim  fiequenlly,  and  employed  liis  leisure  mo- 
ments in  writing  the  "  History  of  his  own  Life," 
a  singular  performance,  in  which  he  discloses 
circumstances  respectiivT  himself  that  a  man  of 
common  delicacv  would  have  concealed.  When 
he  recovered  his  libcriv  lie  returned  to  his 
vineyard,  where  he  bcliaved  with  equal  !)ar- 
barity  to  his  wife,  as  his  sufferings  had  not  in 
the  least  softened  his  character.  fhe  untortu- 
nate  woman  sought  refuge,  therefore,  in  the 
house  of  her  brotlier,  and  Balndt  being  now  left 
fvcc  from  all  controul,  took  home  his  maid 
wiih  her  children,  and  continued  his  former  life 
:,s  l.mdlord  and  writer.  Soon  after  his  enlarge- 
ment he  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  his  eldest 
daughter,  and  he  was  attacked  by  a  pain  in  his 
throat,  which  in  the  end  affected  lus  whole 
I'raine.  As  he  was  fond  of  tjuackery,  and  en- 
tertained a  high  idea  of  the  virtues  ot  mercury, 
he  prescribed  for  himself  a  large  dose  of  that 
dangerous   mineral.     This   threw  hiui  into  a 


salivation  wjiich  increased  his  disorder,  and  a 
report  was  thence  spread,  though,  as  apiHrars, 
without  foundation,  that  his  illness  was  the 
effects  of  debauchery.  He  at  last  put  himself 
under  the  care  of  professor  Junker,  who  found 
him  in  a  most  miserable  condition  from  the  ef- 
fects of  the  mercury,  and  a  fever  soon  after 
taking  place,  he  expired  on  the  23d  of  April, 
1792.  This  versatile  genius,  besides  the  work^ 
already  mentioned,  was  the  author  of  a  great 
many  others,  chiefly  on  morality  or  religion. 
He  wrote  also  some  more  satirical  pieces,  but 
as  they  were  generally  of  a  personal  nature, 
their  reputation  was  temporary,  and  they  have 
therefore  been  consigned  to  that  oblivion'which 
they  deserve.     Schlichtcgroirs  Necrology. — J. 

BAJAZET  \.  sultan  of  the  Turks,  sur- 
named  Ildcrim,  or  the  Lightning,  succeeded  hi» 
father,  Amurath  1.  in  1389,  being  then  about 
forty-tour  years  of  age.  Possessed  of  all  the 
hre  and  energy  which  form  a  conqueror,  he 
pursued  the  ambitious  designs  of  bis  father, 
having  first  secured  his  authority  at  home  by 
the  execution  of  his  younger  brother,  who  at- 
tempted to  raise  a  revolt  against  him.  He 
pushed  his  conquests  at  once  both  in  Europa 
and  Asia.  In  the  latter,  he  reduced  the  Selju- 
kian  princes  on  the  north  of  Anatolia,  and  made 
himself  master  of  all  Karamania,  after  defeat- 
ing and  putting  to  death  the  icstlcs>  Katanian 
Ogli.  At  N  icopolis,  near  the  Danube,  he 
gained,  in  1396,  a  com|ilcte  victory  over  a 
confederate  army  of  one  hundred  thousand 
Christians  headed  by  Sigismond  king  of  Hun- 
gary ;  in  which  he  took  jirisoners  a  body  of 
Frcnth  crusadeis,  among  whom  was  the  son  of 
the  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  some  of  the  noblest 
lords  of  France.  Baja/.et's  behaviour  on  thi« 
occasion  was  a  mi.xturc  of  barbarous  ferocity 
with  regal  magnanimity.  His  word,  cither  to 
spare  or  to  destroy,  was  equally  irrevocable. 
He  next  turned  his  arms  against  the  feeble  re- 
mains of  the  eastern  empire,  and  invested  Con- 
stantinople ;  but  he  was  at  first  satisfied  with 
rendering  the  emperor,  Manuel  Palxologus, 
tributary,  an<l  imposing  the  condition  ot  having 
a  Turkish  caili  and  a  niosch  in  his  capiial. 
This,  however,  did  not  long  content  him.  He 
again-  threatened  Constantino|>le,  under  the  pre- 
tence of  fixing  on  the  throne  t!ie  lawful  heir, 
the  prince  of  Sclybria.  Manuel  in  his  di.trc« 
sought  the  jirotection  nf  the  king  of  Fnmce, 
who  sent  him  a  small  succour  under  maishal 
Boucicault.  By  his  valour,  Manuel  was  de- 
fended for  a  year,  but  at  length  he  was  obligej 
to  yield  to  his  competitor  John,  and  quit  the 
throne  and  cr.pitul.     Johu,  however,  Jj  nor. 


B  A  J 


(     5^4     ) 


B  A  J 


as  the  sultan  expected,  deliver  Constantinople 
to  him  ;  and  Bajazct  pressed  it  more  closely 
than  ever,  when  he  was  called  ofFby  the  threats 
of  a  more  formidable  tyrant  than  himself.  This 
■was  the  great  Timour  or  Tamerlane,  who, 
heariiig  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  of  Baja- 
z.et's  haughty  summons  of  the  prince  of  Ar/.in- 
gan  on  the  borders  of  Anatolia,  whom  he  pro- 
tected, wrote  a  proud  and  magisterial  letter  to 
the  Turkish  sultan,  which  was  ans\^e^cd  by 
the  latter  with  equal  insult.  Timour,  in  1400, 
began  his  march  from  Georgia  towards  Asia 
Minor.  He  took  Sirvas  or  Sebaste,  and  thence 
turning  aside  into  Syria,  sacked  and  destroyed 
Aleppo  and  Damascus,  and  took  possession  of 
Bagdad.  He  offered  peace  to  Bajazet  on  mo- 
derate terms  ;  but  the  sultan,  confiding  in  his 
strength,  employed  himself  in  drawing  together 
all  the  forces  of  his  empire;  and  tiiese  two 
mighty  potentates  met  in  the  plains  of  Angora 
in  July  1402.  Eastern  armies  with  their  fol- 
lowers admit  of  such  latitude  in  the  statement 
of  their  numbers,  that  the  difference  among 
historians  in  their  accounts  on  the  present  oc- 
casion is  not  to  be  wondered  at.  All  agree, 
however,  that  two  more  numerous  and  power- 
ful hosts  have  seldom  been  opposed  to  each 
other,  and  that  Timour,  w  ith  his  countless  Tar- 
tar cavalry,  out-numbered  his  adversary.  The 
Turks  were  entirely  broken  with  dreadful 
slaughter  ;  and  Bajazet,  after  maintaining  his 
ground  all  day  with  the  shattered  relics  of  his 
army,  towards  evening  mounted  his  swiftest 
horse  and  fled.  He  was  pursued  and  taken, 
and  brought  at  sun-set  to  Timour's  tent.  His 
reception,  according  to  the  Persian  accounts, 
\vas  honourable.  The  conqueror  mildly  ex- 
postulated with  hiin  on  the  pride  and  obstinacy 
\vhich  had  occasioned  his  misfortune,  and  Ba- 
jazet was  softened  into  humiliation.  He  re- 
quested that  his  two  sons  inight  be  sought  for 
on  the  held.  Musa  was  brought  to  him,  and 
received  with  tears  of  sensibility.  Mustapha 
was  among  the  dead.  Timour  on  his  march 
took  his  captive  with  him  ;  but  the  manner  in 
which  he  treated  him  is  very  differently  repre- 
sented by  his  own  annals  and  the  Persian  writers 
who  copy  them,  and  by  the  Turkish  and  Eu- 
ropean writers.  The  first  speak  of  nothing  but 
the  generosity  and  kindness  of  the  victor,  and 
say  that  his  progress  was  a  series  of  festivals, 
to  which  Bajazet  was  constantly  invited,  and  at 
one  of  which  Timour  placed  the  crown  of 
Anatolia  on  his  head.  The  latter  represent 
him  as  carried  about  in  an  iron  cage,  and  ex- 
posed like  a  wild  beast  to  the  gazing  multitudes. 
The  two  accounts  are  perhaps  not  irreconcile- 


able.  Timour  might  display  an  oslcntatioui 
magnificence  and  liberality  towards  Bajazet , 
while,  with  a  view  to  security,  he  kept  his 
important  j)rize  in  a  moveable  apartment  guarded 
u'it/i  bars,  and  indulged  his  own  pride  in  carry- 
ing hiin  about  in  triumph.  Such  a  mixed  treat- 
ment was  common  among  the  more  civilised 
Romans.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the 
strength  of  the  unfortunate  sultan  did  not  long 
support  him  in  this  situation.  He  died  of  ati 
apoplexy  at  Akshehr,  or  Antioch  of  Pisidia, 
aiiout  nine  months  after  his  defeat,  A.  D.  403, 
in  the  fifteenth  year  of  his  reign,  and  fifty- 
eighth  of  his  life. 

His  character  was  that  of  a  despot,  of  vio- 
lent passions,  but  not  habitually  cruel,  a  lover 
of  justice  in  the  rough  summary  way  practised 
by  arbitrary  princes,  insatiably  ambitious,  and 
much  addicted  to  the  erection  of  pompous  edifices 
for  use  or  ostentation.   Univ.  Hist.  Gibbon. — A. 

BAJAZET  II.  sultan  of  the  Turks,  suc- 
ceeded in  148 1  his  father  Mahomet  II.  being 
then  thirty  years  of  age.  He  was  governor  of 
Amasia  at  the  time  of  his  father's  death,  and 
was  meditating  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  in  which 
design  he  persisted,  notwithstanding  the  danger  to 
which  his  throne  was  exposed  from  the  ambi- 
tious designs  of  his  brother  Zizim,  or  Jem. 
He  was  absent  nine  months,  during  which 
time  Zizim  had  openly  rebelled,  and  been  pro- 
claimed at  Bursa.  Bajazet,  on  his  return, 
marched  against  him,  and  gave  him  a  complete 
overthrow  ;  in  consequence  of  which,  Zizim, 
after  wandering  about  some  time  in  disguise, 
escaped  to  Rhodes,  where  he  was  entertained 
by  the  grand  master,  and  at  length  sent  to  Italy. 
{See  u'Aubusson).  In  that  country  he  met 
with  his  death,  either  in  consequence  of  poison, 
or  from  the  razor  of  a  renegade  barber  employ- 
ed for  the  purpose  by  his  brother.  Bajazet, 
thus  freed  from  his  competitor,  engaged  in  war 
with  his  neighbours,  like  his  predecessors,  and 
made  conquests  in  Moldavia  and  Caramania. 
He  showed  the  treacherous  ferocity  of  his  cha- 
racter in  putting  to  death,  at  an  entertainment 
in  his  palace,  his  famous  general  Achmet,  an 
act  whicli  he  had  before  attempted,  but  was 
intimidated  by  a  mutiny  of  the  Janisaries.  His 
resentment  against  this  powerful  body  for  their 
interference,  caused  him  to  form  a  design  of 
cutting  them  all  olf ;  but  his  counsellors  dis- 
suaded him  from  so  hazardous  a  purpose.  His 
war  with  the  sultan  of  Egypt  was  a  commence-- 
ment  of  hostilities,  which  finally  terminated  in 
the  ruin  of  the  latter  power ;  but  its  first  events 
were  unfavourable  to  Bajazct,  who  lost  a  great 
number    of  troops   in    an   invasion   of    Syria. 


B  A  I 


(    525     ) 


B  A  I 


With  a  view  of  cutting  ofF  the  sources  of  the 
Mameluke  soldiery  of  Egypt,  lie  afterwards 
overran  Circassia,  and  carried  a  multitude  of 
its  inhabitants  into  captivity.  On  the  expulsion 
of  the  Moors  from  Spain,  Bajazet  was  applied 
to  as  head  of  the  Mahometan  religion  to  re- 
venge their  cause:  and  he  sent  a  fleet  into  the 
Mediterranean,  which  defeated  the  Christian 
navy,  and  ravaged  the  coasts.  Afterwards,  he 
sent  an  army  into  Croatia  and  Bosnia,  which 
reduced  those  countries,  with  great  slaughter  of 
the  opposite  forces.  On  the  solicitation  of 
Sforza  duke  of  Milan,  he  declared  war  against 
the  Venetians,  and  invaded  and  [ilundered 
Friuli.  At  the  same  time  he  marched  in  j)er- 
son  into  the  Morea,  attended  by  a  j)Ouetrul 
fleet  along  the  coast,  and  took  Lepanto,  Modon, 
and  Durazzo ;  the  ^^enetians,  on  i!ie  other 
hand,  made  themselves  masters  of  Cephalonij. 
Peace  between  the  two  powers  took  place  in 
1503.  Besides  these  foreign  wars,  Eajazet  had 
various  civil  commotions  to  sustain,  of  which, 
tliat  which  most  nearly  affected  him  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  rebellion  of  his  son  Selim.  The 
prince  was  at  first  defeated  ;  and  his  father, 
hoping  to  reclaim  him,  would  not  suiFcr  him 
to  be  pursued.  This  lenity  did  not  prevent 
Sclim  from  accepting  the  invitation  of  the  Jani- 
saries  to  come  to  Constantinople.  He  repaired 
thither,  and  was  so  warmly  supported,  that 
Bajazet,  infirm  in  constitution,  and  worn  with 
care,  thought  it  best  to  resign  the  crown  to  his 
son  without  a  farther  contest.  He  only  desired 
to  live  in  peace  and  privacy  at  Demotica  ;  and 
having  given  Selim  his  blessing,  he  set  out  on 
Iiis  journey  thither  attended  by  a  few  friends. 
He  proceeded  so  slowly,  that  his  son  suspected 
he  was  waiting  for  soine  turn  of  affairs  in  his 
favour ;  and  his  death,  when  he  had  got  only- 
forty  miles  from  Constantinople,  was  with  pro- 
bability ascribed  to  poison  administered  to  liini 
by  a  Jewish  physician.  He  died  in  1512,  aged 
sixty-two,  after  a  busy  reign  of  thirty-two  years. 
He  was  active  and  vigorous  in  body  and  mind, 
a  patron  of  the  learned,  himself  a  proficient  in 
literature,  and  well  versed  in  the  philosophy  of 
Avcrrocs,  and  a  punctual  observer  of  the  rites 
of  his  religion.  At  the  same  time  he  had  the 
fierceness  common  to  the  Ottoman  princes,  and 
shed  blood  without  remoise.  He  is  commend- 
able for  his  attention  to  the  improvement  and 
decoration  of  his  dominions  by  many  edifices  of 
grandeur  and  utility.  Mod.  Univers.  Hisi. — A. 
BAIKR,  JonN-J.\MES,  an  eminent  Ger- 
man physician,  was  born  at  Jena  in  1677. 
He  studied  in  medicine  and  general  literature  at 
that  university  and  at  Halle,  and  took  liis  de- 


gree at  Jena  in  1701.  He  afterwards  visited 
the  mines  of  Lowtf  Saxony,  where  hv  disco- 
vered several  curious  minerals.  He  settled  suc- 
cessively at  Halle,  Nuremberg,  and  Ratisbon  ; 
but  was  invited  in  1704  to  the  professorship  of 
physiology  and  surgery  at  Altdoif,  which 
thenceforth  became  the  place  of  his  residence. 
Here  he  rose  to  the  presidency  of  the  medical 
faculty,  and  was  made  director  of  the  botanical 
garden.  He  likewise  became  an  associate  of 
the  imperial  academy  called  Naturae  Curiosorum, 
of  which  he  was  elected  president  in  1730. 
Baier  was  a  man  of  great  learning,  ar.d  author 
of  vaiious  works  both  medical  at,d  literary. 
The  [iiincipal  are,  "  A  Description  of  the 
'J'own  and  University  of  Altdorf," — German. 
"  Gcnimarum  afiabrc  sculpiarum  Thesaurus  ;" 
"  De  Hortis  celcbrioribus  Germania  ;  ct  Hurti 
medici  Academiei  A'.tdorfini  hist."  "  Oratioi.ci 
varii  Argument!  ;"  "  Biographia  Professoruin 
Med.  in  Acad.  Altdorf;"  "  Animadvcrsioncsphy- 
sico-med.  in  cjuadam  novi  Fccderis  loca."  He 
likev\ise  published  a  number  of  academical  dis- 
putation-, partly  in  his  own  name,  panlv  in 
those  of  students,  according  to  the  cusloin  of 
foreign  universities.  Some  of  these  arc  medical, 
some  botanical,  or  relating  to  the  M.itcria  .Me- 
dica.  Haller  gives  catalogues  of  them  in  liis 
Blhl.  Afcd.  Pract.  ct  Bihl.  Holan.  Baier  died, 
senior  of  the  university  of  Altdorf,  in  July 
1735.  His  son  Ferdinand-James  i>ul)lishcd,  in 
1760,  a  collection  of  his  "  Ejiistles  to  learned 
Men,  and  their  Answers."  Aforeri.  Hallo, 
Bib/.— A. 

BAIF.    SccBayf. 

BAIL,  Louis,  an  industrious  and  zealous 
French  divine,  a  native  of  Abbeville,  wlio  flou- 
rished in  the  seventeenth  century,  wrote  several 
voluminous  works,  among  which  those  wliich 
Tuay  best  deserve  mention  are,  "  A  Summary  of 
Councils,"  incontinuationof  thai  by  Fatlicr  Fr. 
LongusdeCoriolan,  printed,  ill  two  large  volumes 
folio,  at  Paris  in  1672  :  and  an  account  of  the 
most  celebrated  pieacheis  in  all  a^cs,  under  the 
singular  title  of  "  Sapicniia  foris  prxdicuns," 
■"  Wisdom  uttering  her  Voice  in  tlu-  Sticcts," 
In  this  work,  the  author  not  only  gives  the 
lives  of  the  most  celebrated  preachers,  but  de- 
scribes their  respective  merits,  and  |Kiiiits  out 
the  inost  remarkable  passages  in  their  discour- 
ses.    Afoiert.  Noiiv.  Diet.  I  Hit. — E 

BAILLET,  Adrian,  an  eminent  French 
critic,  was  born  in  1649,  of  ob'.curc  luienis, 
in  Neuville,  a  village  near  Beauvais.  He  re- 
ceived the  first  rudiments  <if  learning  in  a  neigh- 
bouring convent  of  Cordeliers,  and  completed  his 
education  in  the  college  of  the  city,  wlicrc  he 


B  A  I 


(     526     ) 


B  A  I 


hail  for  some  time  the  charge  of  the  Latin 
school.  In  1676  he  took  holy  orders,  and 
accepted  a  cure  ;  but  he  soon  quitted  the  clcri  - 
cal  offices,  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  study. 
Lamoigiion,  president  of  the  parliament  of  Pa- 
ris, made  him  his  librarian  ;  and  he  remained 
in  that  station,  wiihout  mixing  in  the  atFairs  of 
the  world,  till  his  death,  whicli  happened  in 
his  fifty-seventh  year,  at  the  beginning  of  1706. 
Baillet  was  a  man  of  indefatigable  industry, 
and  vast  erudition.  Without  avocations,  witli- 
out  desires  or  passions,  always  reading  or  writ- 
ing, it  is  not  surprising  that  he  was  acquainted 
with  innumerable  authors,  and  wrote  many 
books.  His  great  work,  "  Jugemens  des  Sa- 
vans  sur  les  principaux  Ouvrages  des  Auteurs," 
[Judgment  of  the  Learned  on  the  principal 
AVorks  of  Authors],  is  a  proof  how  extensively 
lie  was  conversant  with  books  of  every  class. 
The  first  volume,  wiiich  is  intended  as  a  pre- 
liminary discourse  to  the  whole  work,  lays 
down  judicious  rules  for  judging  of  authors, 
and  their  productions.  The  three  following 
volumes,  which  appeared  in  1685,  treat  of 
printers,  critics,  translators,  authors  of  diction- 
aries, &c.  the  next  five  on  poets  ;  and  the  au- 
thor would  have  continued  it,  according  to  the 
plan  which  he  presented  to  the  public  in  1694, 
had  he  not  been  arrested  in  his  progress,  by 
severe  criticism  and  satire,  in  the  Anti-Baillet 
of  Menage,  and  otlrer  pieces.  Having  abandon- 
ed in  chagrin  his  great  design,  Baillet  employed 
himself  on  various  theological,  biographical, 
and  historical  subjects:  he  wrote,  in  1693, 
"  A  Treatise  on  the  Worship  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  ;"  another  in  1695,  "  On  the  care  of 
Souls  ;"  "  The  Lives  of  Saints,"  printed  in  four 
volumes  folio,  and  in  seventeen  volumes  8vo.  in 
1 701  ;  "  The  Life  of  Descartes,"  in  two  vo- 
lumes 4to.  i6gi,  abridged  in  izmo.  1692  ; 
"  The  Life  of  Richer,"  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne, 
written  in  1692.  and  published  in  17  14;  "The 
Life  of  Godfrey  Hermant,"  doctor  of  the  Sor- 
bonne, printed  in  i2mo.  at  Amsterdam  in  1717; 
"  An  History  of  Holland,  from  the  Truce 
of  1609,"  where  Grotius  finished,  "  to  the 
peace  ot  Nimeguen,"  jiublished  at  Paris,  under 
the  name  of  "  Neuville,"  in  four  volumes 
i2mo.  1693  =  "  ■^  New  and  Curious  Account 
of  Muscovy,"  under  the  same  name,  in  i2rno. 
at  Paris,  1 698  ;  and  "  An  History  of  the  Con- 
tests of  Pope  Boniface  VIIL  v  ith  Philip  the 
Tair,  King  of  France,'"  pubhshed  by  Father 
Long,  ini2mo.  1718.  The  "  Jugemens  des  Sa- 
■vans"  was  revised  and  enlarged  by  M.  de  la 
Monnoye,  member  of  the  French  academy, 
itndjprinted  at  Paris,  in  seven  volumes  410.  in 


1722,  and  in  seventeen  volumes  i2mo.  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1725.  Baillet  dealt  too  much  in 
tiivial  details  and  tedious  compilation,  and  was 
too  negligent  of  his  style,  to  be  an  agreeable 
writer  ;  his  principal  work,  however,  is  a  va- 
luable collection  of  facts  and  observations,  and 
has,  doubtless,  been  of  great  use  in  abridging 
the  labour  of  subsequent  writers.  Jo'ut  nals  des 
Savans.  Morcy't.  Nauv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

BAILLIE,  Robert,  a  divine  of  the  churcli 
of  Scotland,  famous  tor  his  zeal  against  epis- 
copacy, was  born  at  Glasgow  in  the  year  1599, 
and  educated  in  the  university  of  that  city. 
Here  he  was  a  diligent  student,  and,  soon  after 
he  had  completed  his  academical  course,  he 
was,  in  1622,  chosen  a  regent  of  jihilosophy. 
Devoting  himself  to  the  piofession  ot  divinity, 
he  received  orders  from  archbishop  Law,  and 
was  presented  by  the  earl  of  Eglington  with  the 
living  of  Kilwinning.  Being,  in  1637,  request- 
ed by  his  ordinary,  the  archbishop  of  Glasgow, 
to  preach  a  sermon  before  the  general  assembly 
at  Edinburgh,  in  recommendation  of  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,  and  the  canon,  then  in- 
troduced and  established  by  authority,  he  de- 
clined the  service,  and  in  a  letter  to  the  arcli- 
bishop  assigned  liis  reasons  for  the  refusal.  He 
franklv  confessed  to  his  lordship,  that  his  mind 
was  by  no  means  satisfied  with  these  books, 
and  that  "  the  little  pleasure  he  had  in  them, 
and  the  great  displeasure  which  he  found  the 
most  part  of  pastors  and  people,  wherever  he 
came,  had  conceived  of  them,  filled  his  mind 
with  such  a  measure  of  grief,  that  he  was  scarce 
able  to  preach  to  his  own  flock  ;  but  tliat  to 
preach  in  another  congregation,  and  in  so  fa- 
mous a  meeting,  upon  these  matters,  he  was  at 
that  time  utterly  unalile."  Notwithstanding  this 
refusal,  Baillie  was  still  iinportuned,  and  even 
commanded,  upon  his  canonical  obedience,  to 
preach  before  the  synod,  the  subject  of  the  ser- 
mon being  left  to  his  own  discretion  Accord- 
ingly he  composed  a  discourse,  in  which,  with- 
out touching  upon  the  question  ot  coriformity, 
he  only  insisted,  in  general,  upon  the  pastoral 
duties  ;  but,  when  the  appointed  time  came,  lie 
peremptorily  refused  to  preach  at  all.  This 
spirited  refusal  only  served  to  establish  his/ cre- 
dit with  the  party  which  opposed  the  introduc- 
tion of  episcopacy  into  the  church  ot  Scotland, 
and  he  was,  from  this  time,  emploved  in  much 
of  the  public  business  of  that  church.  He  was 
ajjpointed,  in  1638,  bythe  presbytery  of  Irvine, 
a  member  of  that  assembly  at  Glasgow,  whicli 
was  a  prelude  to  the  civil  war  ;  and  his  own  ac- 
count of  that  assembly,  in  which  processes  were 
carried  on  against  several  persoiis  charged  with 


fifi/i/rJii-'u/i-t/  /of  cit/is/i/riniy  in/rt/n.tf 


B  A  I 


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supporting  Arminianism,  and  favouring  popery, 
affords  sufficient  proofs  of  his  bigotry.  "  Did 
not  the  heavens,"  says  he,  "  cry  for  a  ven- 
geance against  our  bishops,  though  we  had  been 
dumb,  who  did  hear  and  see  our  church  under- 
mined with  such  instruments  of  their  own 
making  and  maintaining  r"  As  one  of  the  most 
able  ar.d  -/ealous  advocates  for  the  presbyterian 
cause,  BailHe  was,  in  1640,  sent  by  the  cove- 
nanting lords  of  Scotland  to  London,  to  draw 
up  an  accusation  against  Laud,  archbishop  of 
Canterbnry,  for  attempting  to  obtrude  unwel- 
come innovations  upon  the  church  of  Scotland. 
As  a  divine  ot  approved  learning  and  ortho- 
doxy, he  was,  in  1643,  chosen  one  of  the  com- 
missioners of  the  church  of  Scotland  to  the  as- 
sembly of  divines  at  Westminster;  and  though 
he  did  not  distinguish  himself  in  the  debates  of 
that  assembly,  he  entirely  concurred  in  the  prin- 
ciples and  views  of  its  leaders.  Averse  as  Bail- 
lie  was  to  episcopacy,  he  was  not,  however, 
deficient  in  loyalty.  The  general  assembly  of 
Scotland  had  so  much  confidence  in  his  attach- 
ment to  the  house  of  Stuart,  that,  in  1649,  they 
appointed  hiin  one  of  tiie  embassy  from  their 
body  to  Charles  IL  at  the  Hague,  after  he  was 
proclaimed  in  Scotland.  As  speaker  for  the  em- 
bassy, he  addressed  the  king  in  a  loval  speech, 
expressing  in  the  strongest  terms  the  joy  which 
was  felt  by  himself  and  his  brethren  on  his  suc- 
cession to  the  throne,  and  their  abhorrence  of 
the  murder  of  his  royal  fariier.  He  calls  it  "  an 
execrable  and  tragic  parricide" — an  "  hardly 
expressible  crime,  wIulIi  stamps  and  stigmatises 
with  a  new  and  before  unseen  character  of  in- 
famy, the  face  of  tlie  whole  generation  of  sec- 
taries, and  their  adherents,  from  whose  hearts 
and  hands  that  vilest  villany  did  proceed."  The 
presbyterian  divines  of  that  periiul,  both  at  home 
and  abroad,  seem  to  have  been  generally  agreed 
in  condemning  this  sanguinary  measure  ;  but  it 
^vas,  to  say  the  least,  tmcandid  in  Baillie  to 
stigmatise  "  the  wliole  generation  ot  sectaries, 
and  their  adherents,"  for  an  action  committed 
by  a  few  persons,  who  assumed  an  undelegated 
power.  No  practice  is  inore  injurious  than  that 
of  charging  general  bodies  with  the  errors  or 
crimes  of  individuals. 

This  was  not  the  only  pioof  which  Baillie 
gave  of  his  aversion  to  sectaries,  and  his  intole- 
rant sjjirit :  his  letters  aiiound  with  sentiments  of 
this  kind.  In  a  letter  addressed  to  a  Scotch  mi- 
nister, who  had  settled  in  Holland,  he  writes  ; 
"  The  Independents  here,  finding  they  have 
not  the  magistrates  so  obsequious  as  in  New 
England,  turn  their  pens  to  take  from  the  ma- 
gistrate all  power  of  taking  any  coercive  oider 


with  the  vilest  heretics.  Not  only  they  praise 
your  magistrate,  who,  for  jwlicy,  gives  some 
secret  tolerance  to  divers  religions,  wherein,  as 
I  conceive,  your  divines  preach  against  them  as 
great  sinners,  but  avow,  that  by  God's  com- 
mand, the  magistrate  is  discharged  to  put  the 
least  discourtesy  upon  any  man.  Jew,  Turk, 
Papist,  Socinian,  or  whatever,  for  his  religion." 
In  this  disapprobation  of  the  doctrine  of  tolera- 
tion, Baillie,  however,  was  not  singular.  A 
bigoted  and  persecuting  spirit,  at  this  period, 
pervaded  the  general  body  of  the  clergy,  both 
presbyterian  and  episcopalian,  in  Scotland  and 
England  ;  and  if  the  leaders  of  the  Independents 
taught  a  differeiu  doctrine,  it  is  not  uncandid  to 
impute  this,  less  to  the  superior  enlargement  of 
their  views,  than  to  the  peculiarity  ot  their  si- 
tuation between  two  powerful  parties,  which 
required  them,  for  their  own  security,  to  plead 
for  indulgence  to  tender  consciences. 

In  these  times,  Baillie's  bigotry  proved  no 
obstacle  to  his  advanceiuent.  In  the  year  1642 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  piofcssors  of  divi- 
nity in  the  university  of  Glasgow,  after  having 
already  refused  invitations  from  the  other  three 
Scotch  universities.  After  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.  he  was  chosen  principal  of  the  same 
university.  Soon  afterwards  he  had  the  gratifi- 
cation of  refusing  the  offer  of  a  bishopric. 
During  an  illness  in  the  year  16^2,  he  received 
a  visit  froin  the  newly  created  archl)ishop  of 
Glasgow,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  accosted  in 
the  following  bkuit  language:  •'  Mr.  Andrew, 
I  will  not  call  you  mv  Lord :  king  Ciiarles 
would  have  made  me  one  of  these  lords  ;  but  I 
do  not  find  in  the  New  Testament  that  Ciirist 
had  any  lords  in  his  house."  It  is,  however, 
added,  that  he  treated  the  archbishop  very  cour- 
teously. The  offer  of  a  mitre  to  this  KcaloiK 
presbyter  was  probably  as  much  a  tribute  to  l.is 
loyalty  as  to  his  talents.  Yet  he  appears  to  have 
been  a  man  of  considerable  learninc;  and  ability. 
He  wrote  an  histurienl  woik,  entitled,  '•  Opui 
Historicum  et  Chronologieum,"  whiih  a  wriior 
of  the  op))osiie  party  mentions  as  a  great  evi- 
dence of  his  diligence  and  learning:  the  same 
writer  speaks  of  him  as  a  modest  man,  and  adds, 
that  though  he  publisbctl  some  very  violent 
writings,  yet  these  fluwed  rather  from  the  in- 
stigations of  other  persons  than  his  own  ir.di- 
nations.  (Append,  to  Spotswood's  History.) 
This  candid  account  agrc-cs  widi  that  of  his 
biographer,  who  speaks  of  him  (Life  prcfixe.i 
to  his  Journals)  as  a  man  of  a  most  peaceable 
and  healing  temper :  a  character,  liowcvcr, 
which  can  scarcely  he  reconciled  \\  iih  the  proofi 
of  vcheinciicc  and  intolerance  whicli  apiMratcJ 


B  A  I 


(     5^8     ) 


B  A  I 


•ill  his  coinluct,  and  with  the  acknowledged  fact, 
that  he  died  under  a  rooted  aversion  to  prelacy. 
His  death  happened  in  the  sixty-third  year  of  his 
age,  in  July,    1662. 

Baillie  was  an  eminent  linguist :  he  (indcr- 
stood  twelve  or  thirteen  languages,  and  wrote 
Latin  with  elegance.  Of  his  devotional  zeal  a 
memorable  instance  is  preserved  in  one  ot  his 
letters,  written  while  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Westminster  assembly  of  divines,  from  which 
we  shall  make  an  extract,  which  strongly  marks 
a  leading  feature  in  the  character  of  those  times. 
*•  This  day  was  tiie  best  that  I  have  seen  since 
I  came  to  England.  General  Essex,  when  lie 
•went  out,  sent  to  the  assembly  to  entreat  that  a 
day  of  fasting  might  be  kept  for  him.  We  ap- 
point, tiiis  dav,  four  of  our  number  to  preach 
and  pray  at  Christ's  Church  :  also,  taking  the 
occasion,  we  thought  it  meet  to  be  humbled  in 
the  assembly,  so  we  spent  from  nine  to  five 
very  graciously.  After  Dr.  Twisse  had  begun 
with  a  brief  prayer,  Mr.  Marshal  prayed  laige 
two  hours,  most  divinely,  confessing  the  sins  of 
the  members  of  the  assembly,  in  a  wonderful, 
pathetic,  and  prudent  way  ;  after,  Mr.  Arrow- 
smith  preached  an  hour  ;  then  a  psalm  :  there- 
after, Mr.  Vines  prayed  near  two  hours,  and 
Mr.  Palmer  preached  an  hour,  and  Mr.  Sea- 
man prayed  near  two  hours  ;  then  a  psalm. 
After,  Rlr.  Henderson  brought  them  to  a  sweet 
conference  of  the  hejit  confessed  in  the  assem- 
bly, and  other  seen  faults,  to  be  remedied,  and 
the  conveniency  to  preach  against  all  sects,  es- 
pecially Anabaptists  and  Antinomians.  Dr. 
Twisse  closed  with  a  short  prayer  and  blessing. 
God  was  so  evidently  in  all  tliis  exercise,  that 
we  expect  certainly  a  blessing  both  in  our  mat- 
ters of  the  assembly,  and  whole  kingdom." 
(Baillie's  Letters  and  Journals,  vol.  ii.  p.  18.) 

To  what  a  pitch  of  enthusiasm  must  devo- 
tional fervour  have  been  carried,  when  a  ser- 
vice, continued  eight  hours  without  interrup- 
tion, could  be  attended  upon,  and  recollected 
with  rapture,  as  a  proof  of  immediate  divine 
interposition!  Beside  the  work  already  men- 
tioned, Baillie  wrote  several  small  tracts  on 
temporary  and  controversial  subjects.  His 
*«  Letters  and  Journals"  were  published,  by 
Robert  Aiken,  in  two  volumes,  8vo.  at  Edin- 
burgh, in  1775.  The  Journals  contain  a  his- 
tory of  three  general  assemblies,  and  an  account 
of  the  earl  of  Strafford's  trial :  these,  wiih  the 
Letters,  may  serve  to  cast  some  light  upon  the 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  history  of  that  period. 
Life  prefixed  to  Baillie'' s  Letters.  Biogr.  Bri- 
tan. — E. 

BAILLY,   Jean   Sylvain,  a    celebrated 


writer  on  astronomv  and  other  sciences,  polite 
literature,  and  biography,  and  a  principal  agent 
ill  the  late  revolution  of  France,  was  born  at 
Paris  on  the  15th  of  September,  1736.  His 
family  followed  the  profession  of  painting  for 
several  generations,  and  he  himself  was  also  in- 
tended for  the  same  employment,  and  had  actu 
ally  made  some  progress  in  the  art.  But  his 
attachment  to  literary  pursuits,  more  especially 
poetry,  and  works  of  imagination,  prevented 
his  making  those  advances  in  his  profession 
which  are  absolutely  necessary  to  secure  emi- 
nence. 

It  has  been  observed  by  Dr.  Johnson,  tliat 
genius  is  the  energy  of  a  mind  of  great  power, 
directed  to  a  particular  object  by  some  incident 
or  event;  a  truth  which  has  been  sufficiently 
shewn  in  a  variety  of  instances,  and  mav  be 
easily  deduced  from  a  general  contemplation  on 
the  great  similarity  of  mental  operations  in  sci- 
ence and  in  polite  literature.  Bailly  cultivated 
both,  but  was  advised  by  his  friends  to  attend 
more  particularly  to  the  sciences ;  and  his  stu- 
dies were  still  more  strongly  directed  to  these 
objects,  in  consequence  of  his  being  introduced 
to  La  Caille,  and  other  scientitic  men.  The 
theory  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  formed  a  par- 
ticular object  of  his  successful  inquiries  ;  upon 
which  he  communicated  a  number  of  memoirs 
to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  after- 
wards published  a  work  in  quarto  in  1766.  In 
the  Journal  encyclopedique  for  May  and  July, 
1773,  he  addressed  a  letter  to  M.  Bernoulli  on 
some  discoveries  relative  to  Jupiter's  moons, 
which  he  had  contested.  In  1768  he  published 
the  eloge  of  Leibnitz,  which  gained  the  prize  at 
the  academy  of  Berlin,  and  was  printed ;  a 
work  of  great  merit,  in  which  he  enlarges  upon 
some  particulars  which  had  been  more  concisely 
treated  by  Fontenelle,  but  in  which  much  still 
remains  to  be  wished  respecting  that  wonderful 
man.  In  1770  he  printed  the  eulogies  of  Charles 
the  Fifth,  of  La  Caille,  Leibnitz,  and  Cor- 
nel He.  The  latter  obtained  the  accessit  of  the 
Academy  of  Rouen,  and  his  eloge  of  Moliere 
had  the  same  honour  bestowed  upon  it  by  the 
French  academy. 

In  the  year  1775  his  first  volume  of  the 
"  History  of  ancient  Astronomy"  was  pub- 
lished at  Paris,  the  second  volume  of  which  ap- 
peared in  1787  ;  and  in  1779  he  printed  his 
"  History  of  modern  Astronomy,"  from  the 
foundation  of  the  Alexandrian  school  to  the 
present  age,  both  which  are  of  inestimable  va- 
lue, and  have  been  reprinted.  He  also  published 
"  Letters  on  the  Origin  of  the  Sciences,  and 
of  the  People  of  Asia,"  in  one  octavo  volume  j 


B  A  I 


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B  A  I 


and  another  scries  of  "  Letters  on  tlic  Atlantis 
of  Plato,  and  the  ancient  History  of  Asia," 
forming  a  continuation  of  the  preceding  vo- 
lume, botli  of  which  wcie  addressed  to  Vol- 
taire. His  "  Discourses  and  Memoirs,"  which 
include  the  eulogies  before  mentioned,  were  also 
published  in  two  volumes  in  the  year  1790; 
and  his  memoirs,  communicated  to  the  French 
Academy,  as  they  appear  in  Rozier's  index,  are 
as  follow :  "  Memoir  upon  the  Theory  of  the 
Comet  of  1759;"  "  Memtjir  upon  the  Epochs 
of  the  Moon's  Motions  at  the  End  of  the  last 
Century;"  "  First,  second,  and  third  Memoirs 
on  the  Theory  of  Jupiter's  Satellites,  1763  ;" 
"  Memoir  on  the  Comet  of  1762;"  vol.  for 
1763;  "Astronomical  Observations  made  at 
Noslon,  1764  ;"  "  On  the  Sun's  Eclipse  of  the 
1st  of  April,  1764;"  "  On  the  Longitude  of 
Polling,  1764;"  "  Observ^ations  made  at  the 
Louvre  from  1760  to  1764,  1765  ;"  "  On 
the  Cause  of  the  Variation  of  the  Inclination 
of  the  Oibit  of  Jupiter's  second  SateUitc,  1765;" 
*'  On  the  Motion  of  the  Nodes,  and  on  the 
Variation  of  the  Inclination  of  Jupiter's  Satel- 
lites, 1766  ;"  "  On  the  Theory  of  Ju|)itcr's 
Satellites,  published  by  M.  Bailly,  with  Tables 
■of  their  Motions,  and  of  those  of  Jupiter,  pub- 
lished by  Mr.  J  eaurat,  1766;"  "Observations 
on  the  Opposition  of  the  Sun  and  Jupiter, 
1768  ;"  "  On  the  Equation  of  Jupiter's  Centre, 
and  on  some  other  Elements  of  the  Theory  of 
that  Planet,  1768  ;"  "  On  tlie  'Fransit  of  Ve- 
nus over  the  Sun,  tlie  3(1  of  June,  1769  ;  and  on 
the  solar  Eclipse,  the  4th  of  June,  the  same  Year, 

1769." 

'l"he  reputation  of  Bailly  was  such,  that  he 

was  received  in  the  French  academy  as  adjunct 
on  the  29th  of  jaimarv,  1763  ;  and  associate 
en  the  14th  of  July,  1770.  In  1771  he  w;is 
•candidate  for  the  office  of  secretary,  which, 
however,  was  given  to  Condorcet.  In  the  year 
1784  he  was  nominated  one  of  the  commis- 
sion to  examine  and  report  concerning  the 
animal  magnetism  of  Mesmer,  as  practised  by 
Dtslon.  'i'hc  rcjiort  presented  to  the  academy 
e.n  this  occasion,  whiclj  was  soon  afterwards 
translated  into  English,  was  not  only  decisive 
with  regard  to  its  object,  but  may  serve  as  a 
rule  for  the  future  operations  of  the  investiga- 
tors of  similar  delusions.  It  is  likewise  of  the 
greatest  value  for  tl>c  light  which  it  throws  upon 
the  physical  eflects  produced  by  moral  causes  ; 
which  are  more  panieidarly  interestiog,  on  ac- 
oount  of  the  political  influence  which  causes  of 
tliis  nature  have  evci-  had  on  the  general  opi- 
jiions  of  society,  and  the  destiny  ot  nations. 
Bailly  was  one  of  the  early  and  most  zealous 
vaL.  1. 


promoters  of  that  revolution  of  France,  which 
has  astonished  and  convulsed  all  Europe,  and 
of  which  the  ultimate  consequences  can  at  this 
period  be  neither  foreseen  nor  conjectured.  Ir 
is  very  difficult,  during  the  confusion  of  o])po- 
site  interests,  and  the  rancour  of  party  violence, 
to  ascertain  the  passing  events,  and  still  more 
the  characters  of  the  agents,  in  political  scenes. 
Bailly  was  most  eminent  among  those  men  of  un- 
doubted ability  who  used  every  exertion  to  give 
an  impulse  t<i  the  public  mind,  which  they  after- 
wards found  it  impossible  to  repress,  though  it  af- 
tcrwards  effected  their  own  personal  destruction. 
Bailly,  a  |)rominent  oiiject  in  that  scene,  where 
niofives,  character,  and  views,  were  traduced, 
yilitied,  and  confounded,  has  had  the  singular 
fortune  to  be  well  .spoken  of  by  both  parties. 
They  who  accuse  him  of  harshness  and  in- 
gratitude to  the  government  which  was  destroy- 
ed in  this  struggle,  do  not  hesitate  to  admit  that 
he  was  misled  by  what  he  conceived  to  be  jlie 
highest  duties,  calling  u))on  him  as  a  patriot  and 
man  of  integrity  ;  and  among  those  who  think 
that  society  ought  to  be  regenerate*!  by  an  o\cr- 
throw-  of  establisheil  forms  and  regulations,  he 
is  considered  as  one  of  tlic  tirst  of  jiatriots,  whose 
nanx;  will  be  dear  to  future  times,  when  tlic 
prejudices  and  interestK  of  the  old  systems  shall 
have  disappeared. 

He  was  elected  a  deputy  to  the  tiirs  rtai  at  the 
assembling  of  the  statcs-gcneinl  of  France,  and 
was  ]iresident  of  the  first  national  assembly  at 
the  time  the  king's  proclamation  ordered  them 
to  disjicise.  During  tlie  struggle  between  the 
po|niIar  part  of  the  then  subsisting  assemblies 
and  tile  court,  Bailly  was  the  most  forward  10 
assert  those  popular  rlgliis  wliidi  at  that  time 
were  new  in  I'raixe  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  his 
temerity  might  have  been  productive  of  bad  con- 
sequences to  himscit',  if  he  h;ul  not  been  se- 
conded by  the  famous  Miralx:au.  It  was  Bailly 
who  dictated  the  oath  to  the  members  of  the 
tiers  ctat,  "  to  resist  tyrants  and  tyranny,  and 
never  to  separate  until  they  had  ubiainc*(l  a  fice 
Constitution." 

On  tlie  14th  of  Jul  V,  in  the  same  ve.^r,  17S9, 
being  the  day  on  which  the  Bastille  wasttormnl 
and  taken  hy  the  [Kople,  he  wS'i  appointed 
mayor  of  Paris.  Duiing  this  :>ituaiion  he  was 
the  very  conspicuous  instrument  of  the  various 
steps  by  which  the  popular  catisc  prc<lominatcd 
over  that  of  the  court,  for  whith  and  various 
other  {-vents  dtring  his  mayoralty,  he  enjoyed  n 
high  degree  of  |>opularity.  But  the  stream  of 
public  opinion,  and  the  notion  of  unlimited  m>- 
vereignty  on  the  part  ot  the  people,  whirl)  had 
been  so  strongly  inculcated  by  the  first  promo- 


B  A  I 


(     530     ) 


B  A  I 


tcrs  of  the  revolution,  now  flowed  on  in  a 
course  which  dehed  restraint  from  those  who 
had  first  impdlcd  it  forward.  Bailly  was  de- 
sirous that  the  existing  laws  and  regulations 
should  be  respected,  though  the  general  disposi- 
tion of  the  multitude  for  change  was  strongly 
conducive  to  the  contrary  etFect.  He  arrested 
certain  deputies  who  came  from  some  military 
insurgents  at  Nancy.  He  opposed  the  rash 
proceedings  of  Marat  and  Hubert.  He  was  a 
member  of  a  club  less  promiscuous  in  its  ad- 
mission of  members  than  that  of  the  Jacobins. 
He  exerted  himself  in  an  attempt  to  persuade 
the  populace  to  permit  the  royal  family  to  de- 
part to  St.  Clouti ;  and,  lastly,  on  an  occasion 
when  the  multitude  assaulted  the  soldiery  in  the 
Champ  de  Mars,  he  ordered  the  latter  to  fire, 
by  which  about  forty  persons  were  killed,  and 
upwards  of  one  hundred  vi.'ounded.  These  pro- 
ceedings entirely  destroyed  his  popularity,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  resigned  his  office  at 
the  dissolution  of  the  constituent  assembly  at 
the  end  of  the  year  1 791. 

From  this  period  he  lived  in  retirement,  pur- 
suing his  literary  and  philosophical  researches, 
and  never  soliciting  public  notice,  except  when 
called  upon  to  answer  some  inculpation.  This 
unobtrusive  conduct  could  not,  however,  secure 
hiu),  as  the  times  of  bloody  proscription  ap- 
proached. He  was  denounced,  apprehended  in 
an  obscure  country  house,  and  committed  to 
prison.  His  trial,  as  a  conspirator  against  the 
republic,  was  similar  to  those  mockeries  ot  pub- 
lic investigation  which  at  that  time  disgraced 
the  reigning  party.  He  was  condemned  to 
death,  and  executed  the  next  day  near  the  spot 
where  he  gave  the  order  for  the  military  to  hre 
on  the  people.  Circumstances  of  peculiar  ig- 
nominy attended  his  execution.  He  was  treated 
with  all  that  obdurate  cruelty  which  the  lower 
classes  of  society,  or  perhaps  the  great  mass  of 
the  human  species,  are  capable  of  exercising 
when  their  passions  are  roused,  and  their  en- 
mity prompts  them  to  sport  with  the  sufferings 
of  such  wretches  as  may  be  in  their  power.  He 
■wore  the  red  shirt,  or  badge  of  conspiracy,  and 
was  placed  in  a  cart,  with  his  hands  tied  behind 
him.  The  rain  poured  on  his  head  during  the 
whole  progress  towards  the  fatal  spot.  Mud 
was  thrown,  and  every  insult  and  cruel  derision 
was  bestowed  upon  him.  It  was  necessary  to 
remove  the  guillotine  from  the  spot  where  it 
was  first  placed  to  another  where  the  ground 
was  firmer,  during  which  he  was  forced  to  get 
out  of  the  cart,  and  walk  round  the  field,  in 
order  to  gratify  more  completely  the  rancour  of 
the  mob.     He  bore  these  last  trials  v.'ith  firm- 


ness. A  by-stander,  at  the  time  of  his  ascend- 
ing the  platform,  insultingly  exclaimed,  "  Bail- 
ly, you  tremble  ;"  to  which  he  instantly  an- 
swered, "  Yes,  but  not  with  fear."  In  fact, 
he  shook  from  inclemency  of  t'le  weather. 

Thus  perished  Bailly  in  the  fifty-seventh  year 
of  his  age,  a  man  whose  character  may  be  best 
judged  from  his  works.  In  person  he  was  tall, 
and  of  a  sedate  but  striking  countenance  ;  far 
removed  from  the  expression  of  apathy.  He 
retired  from  office,  impoverished  by  the  loss  of 
his  pension,  without  any  adequate  provision;  in 
which  instance,  as  well  as  in  numerous  private 
transactions,  he  established  his  character  for  in- 
tegrity and  disinterestedness.  He  had  eight 
nephews,  whom  he  educated  with  all  the  care 
of  a  father.  His  wife,  whom  he  married  in 
1787,  was  the  widow  of  his  intimate  friend 
Raymond  Gaye.     She  survived  him. — N. 

BAINBRIDGE,  John,  an  English  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  was  born  at  Ashby 
de  la  Zouch,  in  Leicestershire,  in  the  year 
I  582.  He  was  kinsman  to  Dr.  Joseph  Hal!, 
afterwards  bishop  of  Norwich,  by  whom,  af- 
ter preparatory  instruction  in  his  native  place, 
he  was  educated  at  Emanuel  College,  in  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  studied,  and  graduated  in  phy- 
sic. Retiring  to  Ashby  de  la  Zouch,  he  united 
with  medical  practice  the  care  of  a  grammar 
school.  In  this  retreat  he  indulged  his  early 
propensity  to  madiematical  studies,  and  quali- 
fied himself  for  distinction  among  the  philoso- 
phers of  his  time.  Having  removed  to  London, 
he  published  a  "  Description  of  the  Comet  in 
1618,"  which  introduced  him  to  the  notice  of 
sir  Henry  Saville,  who  had  at  that  time  founded 
an  astronomical  lecture  at  Oxford.  Sir  Henry 
was  so  well  persuaded  of  Dr.  Bainbridge's  emi- 
nence in  this  branch  of  science,  that,  without 
any  solicitation  on  the  part  of  the  doctor,  or  his 
friends,  he  appointed  him  his  first  professor  of 
astronomy.  From  that  time  he  resided  chiefly 
at  Oxford,  in  Merton  College,  where  he  was, 
in  1631,  appointed  reader  of  Linacre's  Lec- 
ture. At  the  age  of  forty  years,  having  formed 
a  design  of  publishing  correct  editions  of  the 
ancient  astronomers,  he  entered  upon  the  study 
of  the  Arabic  language  ;  but  it  does  not  appear 
that  he  proceeded  far  in  this  undertaking.  Dr. 
Bainbridge  died  at  Oxford  in  1643,  and  an  ora- 
tion was  delivered  at  his  funeral  by  the  univer- 
sity orator.  His  published  writings  are,  "  An 
astronomical  Description  of  the  Comet  in 
1618,"  printed  in  410.  at  London,  in  1619  ; 
"  Procli  Sph.Tera,"  et  "  Ptolemffii  de  Hypothe- 
sibus  Planetarum,"  et  "  Canon  Regnorum," 
with  a  Latin  version,  printed  in  410.  in  1620  ; 


B  A  I 


(     Si^     ) 


B  A  1 


and  "  Caniculaiia,"  publislied  at  Oxford  in 
1648;  a  "Treatise  on  the  Dog-Star  and  ca- 
nicular Days,  together  with  a  Demonstration 
of  the  heliacal  Rising  of  Sirius  for  the  Parallel 
of  Lower  Egypt."  Other  dissertations,  which 
were  prepared  for  the  press,  but  have  never  ap- 
peared, were  "  Antcprognosticum,"  a  treatise 
against  astrology  ;  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Mc- 
tliod  of  finding  the  Differences  of  the  Meridians 
or  Longitudes ;"  and  a  "  Dissertation  on  the 
Planet  Venus."  Besides  these,  other  MSS.  left 
by  Dr.  Bainbridge  to  archbishop  Usher,  arc 
preserved  in  tlie  library  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin  ;  among  which  are  two  volumes  of  a- 
stronomical  observations,  and  several  volumes 
of  mathematical  papers.  (Food's  Atlicn.  Oxon. 
Smith.   Vita  ciudit.      Biop-.  Brit. — E. 

BAITHOSUS,  a  Jewish  teacher,  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees,  flourished 
in  Judasa  in  the  third  century  before  Christ. 
Baithosus  and  Sadok  were  disciples  of  Antigo- 
nus  SociiKus,  wlio  lived  in  the  time  of  Elea/ar 
the  high-priest,  and  taught  that  men  ought  not 
to  serve  God  from  the  hope  of  reward.  Mis- 
interpreting this  doctrine,  which  Antigonus  only 
opposed  to  the  expectation  of  a  temporal  fc- 
compence,  they  taught,  that  no  future  reward 
was  to  be  expected,  and  that  there  will  be  no 
resurrection  of  the  dead.  Hence  arose,  about 
200  years  before  Ciirist,  the  sect  of  the  Baitho- 
seI,  or  Sadducees.  Tliesc  naines  seem,  at  first, 
to  have  been  used  promiscuously  ;  but  in  pro- 
cess of  time  the  former  fell  into  disuse ;  whence 
the  silence  of  the  sacred  history,  and  of  Jose- 
phus,  concerning  the  Baithossi.  This  sect, 
probably,  sprung  from  tlic  Karaites,  who  ad- 
hered to  the  letter  of  the  Mosaic  law,  in  oppo- 
sition to  die  Hasid.-ei,  who  received,  as  of  equal 
authority, certain  traditionarv  institutions.  Some 
Jewish  writers  have  questioned  the  existence  of 
Baithosus,  and  have  derived  the  name  of  the 
sect  from  words  which  signify  "  the  house  of 
the  Essenes  ;"  but  this  opinion  is  not  supported 
by  sufficient  authoritv.  Pirke,  Abhoth.  a  R. 
Jiathan  ap.  Lightfoot,  torn.  ii.  p.  737. 
Brucker.  Ott/ionis,  Hist.  Doct.  A'lisnicorum, 
i2mo.  Amst.  p.  36. — E. 

BAIUS,  MicHAEi.,  professor  of  divinity  at 
Louvain,  an  eminent  leader  in  the  controversy 
which  arose  after  the  Reformation  concerning 
free-will,  was  horn  at  Melin,  in  tb.c  territory  of 
Aeth,  in  tlie  year  15 13.  After  studying  with 
great  credit  and  succc-s  in  the  imivcrsity  ot  Lou- 
vain, he  was,  in  1541,  clccte<l  principal  of  one 
of  the  colleges,  and  in  1544  kxtunr  in  phi- 
losojjhy.  Tliis  cliair  he  occupictl  till  155c, 
when,  upon  taking  his  doctor's  degree,  he  was 


appointed  professor  of  tlie  holy  Scrijrtures,  3- 
long  with  John  Leonard  d'HciScls,  in  the  pla<c 
of  Ruard  lapper,  and  Joss  Ravcnstcin.  who 
were  gone  to  the  council  of  Treat.  ]:)uri!ig 
their  absence,  these  new  professors,  wlio  h.\A 
adopted  the  tenets  of  Lutlicr.  explained  the 
scriptures  in  a  manner  not  hiihirto  used  ii:  • 
schools,  and,  under  the  audiority  of  Aur^i-  :  . 
to  whose  writings  they  appealed,  taught  doc- 
trines concerning  grace  and  free-will,  contrary 
to  those  which  had  been  commonly  received  in 
the  church  of  Rome.  On  the  return  of  the 
former  preceptors,  their  resentment  was  kin- 
dled, and  Ravcnstcin  exclaimed,  "  V\'hat  devil 
is  this,  who,  during  our  absence,  has  introduced 
thcs«  heresies  into  our  schools  r"  The  iary  of 
the  storm  fell  upon  Baius.  The  Franciscan 
monks  took  the  business  into  their  hands,  and 
drew  up  a  set  of  propositions,  which  they  at- 
tributed to  him.  These  they  transmitted  to  the 
doctore  of  the  Sorbonne  at  Paris,  from  whom 
thev,  without  much  difficultv,  obtained  a  sen- 
tence of  censure.  This  was  ciiculatcd  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  brought  a  general  odium  upon 
Baius,  who,  on  his  part,  cuinpluins  of  unfair 
usage.  For  a  time,  the  dispute  was  silenced  by 
the  temperate  interference  of  cardinal  Granvelle, 
governor  of  the  country,  llic jealousy  of  bi- 
gotry was,  however,  still  restless.  From  books 
published  by  Baius  in  the  years  1 563  and  1564, 
liis  adversaries  collected,  or  pretended  to  collect, 
a  numerous  list  of  propositions,  which  in  1567 
thev  transmitted  to  pope  Pius  V.  The  pope  is- 
sued a  bull,  condemning  the  propositions  ;  but, 
probably  recollecting  the  ferment  which  had 
been  excited  by  the  anathemas  lately  fuIininateJ 
against  Luther,  liad  the  precaution  not  to  men- 
tion in  the  censure  the  name  of  the  author,  aiwl 
even  to  add  an  ambiguous  clause,  which  nu'ght 
be  understood  to  intimate,  that  some  of  the  con- 
demned propositions  admitted  of  a  favourable 
construction.  'J'he  |x-rson  of  Baius  thus  ex- 
empted from  the  penalties  of  excommunication, 
he  continued  iiis  usual  functions,  and  ventured 
to  vindicate  his  doctrines,  not,  however,  with- 
out afterwards  meekly,  or  timidiv,  bending  his 
knee  to  the  \iu\ic  to  obtain  absolution  fi^r  t!>c  ir- 
rcgularitv.  After  an  intiTval  of  sev 
the  complaints  against  Baius  were  rci,  : 

at  the  solicitation  of  the  Jesuits,  in  the  prr  •  >u 
of  Tolet,  one  of  the  fraternity,  pope  Grr,  i\ 
XIII.  confirmed  the  sentence  of  Pius  V.  \\  h  ■- 
ther  it  was,  that  Haiiis  was  fearful  of  en (■  1- 
tering  the  severities  which  mii^ht  ftpllow  r  ■ 
ance,  or,  that  he 

tering  his  conscii .  1 

the  papal  edict,  lie  ijuictiv  ac(juicM.cu  ni  (he  sen- 


B  A  K 


(    53^    ) 


B  A  K 


tencc,  anJ  declared,  tliutlie  condemned  the  pro- 
positions according  ro  the  intention  ot  the  bidl, 
and  in  the  manner  in  wiiieh  the  bull  condemned 
them.  It  is  impossible  to  pass  over  these  trans- 
actions, withont  remarking  the  extreme  absnr- 
dity  of  at  tlie  same  time  pretending  to  infallibi- 
lity, and  employing  the  pitiful  expedient  of 
doidilc  meaning  ;  and  the  wretched  policy  ot 
attempting  to  procure  uniformity  ot  doctrine, 
hy  means  which  must  expose  excellent  men  to 
the  sad  akernaiive  of  either  submitting  to  pains 
and  penalties,  or  abandoning  their  integrity. 

In  rlie  midst  of  all    the  theological    odium 
which  fell  upon  this  divine  for  his  opinions,  he 
had  the  good  fortune  to  retain  his  functions, 
and  even  to  receive  preferment.    Baius  and  Hes- 
scls,  notwitlistanding  their  former  grievous  ot- 
fcnces,  were  the  two  Louvain  divines  commis- 
sioned to  attend  the  council  of  Trent  in  the  year 
1563.     In  1575  he  was  preferred  to  the  deanery 
of  St.  Peter  at  Louvain,  and  elected  chancellor 
of  the  university;  and,  in  1578,  was  appointed 
conservator    of    its    privileges.     After    having 
been  professor   of  divinity    in   Louvain    torty 
years,  Baius  died  in  the  year  1589,  at  the  age  of 
.seventy-seven.     It  is   mentioned  as  a  proof  of 
his  great  charity,  that  in  his  last  v^ill  he  left  all 
liis  estate  to  the  poor  :  his  merit  in  tliis  respect 
^vould  be  more  certain,  if  we  were  inforined  how 
far  he  contributed  to  their  support  during  his 
life.     If  his  conduct  under  his  persecutions  af- 
ford no   very  exalted  idea   of  his  strength   of 
mind,  he  appears,  however,  to  have  been  a  man 
of  engaging  manners  :  Tolet,  one  of  his  adver- 
baries,  (Gery's  Apology  for  the  Censures  passed 
on  the  two  Universities,   1688,  p.  37.)   said  of 
him,  "Michaele  Baio  nihil  doctius,  nihil  humi- 
lius"  [Nothing  can  be  more  learned,  nothing 
more  huinble,  than  Michael  Baius].     The  on- 
ly proofs  of  his  learning  which  remain  are  a 
few    small    tracts    in    controversial    theology, 
which,  though   thev  made  much  noise   at  the 
time  when  they  appeared,  at  the  present  day, 
when  the  dispute  concerning  grace  and  free  will 
is  gone  by,  are  not  likely  to  be  much  sought  af- 
ter.    The  titles  of  those  which  were  published 
at  Louvain  in  the  year  1564  and  1565,  written 
in  Latin,  are,  "  On   the  Merits  of  Works  ;" 
"  On  the  tirst  Righteousness  of  Man,  and  the 
Virtues    of  Unbelievers ;"    "  On    the   Sacra- 
ments;"  "On   Free- Will  ;"    "On   Charity, 
Righteousness,   and  Justitication  ;"  "  On  ori- 
ginal Sin  ;"    "  On   Sacrifices ;"    "  On    Indul- 
gences ;"  "  On  Prayers  for  the  Dead." — Other 
pieces,  "  On  the   Church,   the  Power  of  the 
Pope,  &c."  afterwards  appeared.     His  woiks 
were  printed  entire,  in  410.  at  Cologne,  in  1696. 


They  arc  written  with  logical  precision,  and  hi 
a  neat  stxde.  Btiii  Vit.  apud  Op.  cd.  Colon'ut. 
liiiyle.  Dupin.  Hist.  Ecd.  Moreii.  A/o- 
sheim.     Eccl.  Hist. —  E. 

BAKER,  HrxRY,  an  ingenious  naturalist, 
was  born  in  London  about  the  beginning  of  tlie 
eighteenth  century.  He  was  brought  up  to  the 
trade  of  a  bookseller,  but  never  engaged  in  it, 
being  led  by  a  philosophic  turn  of  mind  to  the 
employment  of  curing  defects  in  utterance,  and 
teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb  to  speak,  in  whiih 
he  was  very  successful.  He  married  a  daughter 
of  the  celebrated  Daniel  Defoe.  In  the  earlier 
part  of  life  he  was  addicted  to  poetry,  and  pub- 
lished in  1725  and  1726,  "  Original  Poems, 
serious  and  humourous,"  in  two  parts,  in 
wliicli  are  some  talcs  approacliing  to  the  wit, 
and  also  to  the  licentiousness,  of  those  of  Prior. 
He  likewise  published  "  The  Universe,"  a 
poem  ;  and  an  "  Invocation  to  Health."  Af- 
terwards, he  pursued  various  branches  of  study 
and  experiment,  and  particularly  employed  him- 
self in  micro  copical  observations.  He  wa.s 
made  a  fellow  of  the  royal  and  antiquarian  socie- 
ties in  1740  ;  and,  in  1744,  had  the  gold  medal 
of  sir  Godfrey  Copley  presented  to  hiin  in  the 
former  for  his  microscopical  discoveries  on  the 
crystallisations  and  configurations  of  saline 
particles.  He  communicated  many  papers  to 
the  Royal  Society,  which  have  been  published 
in  their  Transactions.  Among  odier  topics 
of  inquiry,  he  pursued  with  great  ardour  a  se- 
ries of  experiments  relative  to  that  curious  ani- 
mal the  water-polype  ;  and  by  the  help  of  the 
microscope  he  also  made  researches  into  the  na- 
ture of  various  other  minute  animals.  The 
most  important  of  his  observations  are  contained 
in  his  two  works,  "  The  Microscope  made  ea- 
sy," and  "  Employment  for  the  Microscojie  ;" 
both  illustrated  by  plates,  and  full  of  curious  and 
entertaining  particulars.  His  reinarks  on  tlie 
water-polype  were  enlarged  into  a  separate 
treatise,  which  went  through  several  editions. 
Mr.  Baker  carried  on  a  large  correspondence 
both  at  home  and  abroad,  by  which  he  was  the 
means  of  introducing  some  useful  articles  of  cul- 
ture into  his  own  country.  He  was  one  of  the 
earliest,  and  most  assiduous  and  zealous  mem- 
bers of  that  patriotic  institution,  the  society  tor 
the  encouragement  of  arts,  commerce,  and  ma- 
nufactures. After  a  life  of  science  and  virtue, 
he  died  at  his  apartments  in  the  Strand,  Novem- 
ber 25,  1774.  By  his  will  he  left  tool,  to  the 
Royal  Society  for  an  anatomical  or  chymical 
lecture.      Biog.  Brita>i. — A. 

BAKER,    Richard,    Knight,   an    Eng- 
lish historian  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 


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B  A  K 


grandson  of  sir  John  Baker,  chancellor  of  tlie 
exchequer  to  Henry  VIll.  was  born  at  Sissing- 
licrst  ill  Kent,  about  the  year  1568.  He  was 
entered  a  commoner  at  Hart's-hall  in  Oxford, 
in  1584,  and  spent  three  years  in  academic  stu- 
dies. His  education  was  completed  in  one  of 
the  inns  of  court,  and  in  travelling.  In  May 
1603,  James  1.  conferred  upon  him  the  honour 
of  knighthood.  Possessing  estates  in  Oxford- 
shire, he  was,  in  1620,  appointed  high-sheriff 
for  that  county.  His  marriage  witii  IVIargaret, 
daughter  of  sir  George  Manwaringof  Igiitfield 
in  Shropshire,  involved  him  in  difficulties.  Im- 
prudently engaging  for  the  payment  of  debts 
contracted  by  that  family,  he  was  reduced  to  a 
state  of  insolvency,  and  obliged  to  take  refrge 
in  the  Fleet  Prison,  where  he  passed  several  of 
the  last  years  of  his  life  ;  and,  in  1645,  finished 
his  days.  During  this  humiliating  and  painful 
confinement.  Baker  found  relief  in  hii  habits  of 
study,  and  support  in  his  religious  principles  : 
he  employed  himself  in  writing  books,  .several 
of  which  arc  pious  "  Meditations  and  Disqui- 
sitions" on  portions  of  scripture.  Sometimes 
he  amused  himself  with  lighter  labours  :  he 
translated  Balzac's  Letters,  and  Malvezzi's  Dis- 
courses on  Tacitus  ;  and  wrote  two  pieces  in 
defence  of  the  Theatre,  in  reply  to  Prynne's 
*'  Histrio-Mastrix."  But  liis  principal  work, 
for  which  the  materials  were  probably  collected 
at  an  earlier  period,  was  his  "  Clironicle  of  the 
Kings  of  England,  from  the  Time  of  the  Ro- 
mans' Government  unto  the  Death  of  King 
James,"  first  published  in  folio  at  London  in 
1641,  and  afterwards  continued  by  Edward 
Phillips,  a  nephew  of  Milton.  Of  this  work 
the  author  had  so  high  an  opinion,  that  he  de- 
clared it  to  be  "  collected  with  so  great  care  and 
diligence,  that  if  all  other  of  om-  chronicles 
were  lost,  this  only  would  be  sufficient  to  in- 
form posterity  of  all  passages  memorable  and 
worthy  to  be  known:"  and  the  public  was  will- 
ing to  take  the  author's  word  for  tht  merit  of 
the  work.  Either  on  account  of  it^  lively 
style,  or  of  tlic  popularity  of  iis  political  senti- 
ments, it  became  every  where  a  sort  of  parlour- 
book,  and  was  particidarly  admired  by  siidi 
worthy  country  gentlemen,  as  the  Spectator's 
excellent  friend  sir  Roger  de  Coverlcy.  The 
work  continued  to  be  read  even  after  it  iiad 
been  criiicallv  examined  by  Thomas  Blount, 
■who  in  his  "  Animadversions  ujion  Sii  Richard 
Baker's  Chronicle  and  its  Continuation,"  pub- 
lished in  i2mo.  at  Oxford  in  i()72,  "  gave  the 
world  such  a  specimen  of  its  many  and  gross 
errors,"  respecting  dates,  names,  places,  and 
facts,  "as  ought  to  have  shaken  its  ucdit."  (Ni- 


cholson's Eng.  Hist.  Library,  third  td.  p.  73.) 
After  these  animadversions,  the  work  was  re- 
printed without  correction.  In  1730,  liowever, 
a  new  edition  appeared,  with  a  second  contitua- 
tion  to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  George  I.  in 
which  many  mistakes  arc  said  to  be  corrcctc-d  : 
but,  after  all,  Baker's  Chronicle  remains  an  ill- 
constructed  and  injudicious  performance,  vpnn 
which  little  reliance  can  he  placed.  Of  this 
writer's  taste  and  style,  a  better  idea  cannot  In; 
given  than  in  the  words  of  his  panegyiist  .md 
foimer  college  friend,  sir  Henry  Wotton,  v.Uo, 
returning  him  a  copy  of  one  of  his  pieces,  sent 
to  him  for  revisal  before  it  went  to  the  prns, 
wrote  duis :  "  I  much  admire  the  character  of 
your  style,  which  seemeth  unto  me  to  have  not 
a  little  of  the  African  idea  of  St.  Austin's  age  ; 
full  of  sweet  raptures  and  of  researching  con- 
ceiis  ;  nothing  borrowed,  nothing  vulgar,  and 
yet  all  flowing  from  you,  I  know  not  how, 
with  a  certain  cq;nl  facility."  /f 'tod's  A'hoi. 
Oxon.  Fuller's  n'orthies.'  Nlckclstn.  Bis-' 
Bnl.—Y.. 

BAKER,  Thomas,  a  man  of  letters  and 
antiquary  of  eminence,  was  horn  at  Lanchester 
in  the  county  of  Durham,  in  1656.  He  stu- 
died at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  of 
which  he  became  a  fellow.  In  1699  '"•"  1'"^*- 
lished  anonvmously  a  work  in  8vo.  cmitled, 
"  Reflections  ujion  Learning,"  which  was  la- 
vourably  received,  and  gained  him  consi.ler.ibic 
reputation.  Its  purpose  was,  by  showing  the 
uncertainty  and  insuflSciency  of  all  himtaii 
learning,  to  evince  the  nccessiry  of  a  revelation. 
Such  a  design  necessarily  led  him  to  i  ^  '  • 
all  modern  improvements,  and  coni^ 
to  extol  the  ancients.  But  how  far  hi;  ou:i 
knowledge  qualiticd  him  to  pass  judgment  upon 
general  learning,  may  be  conceived  from  his 
cold  praise  of  Bacon,  his  contemptuous  and 
ignorant  representation  of  the  Copemican  sv!i- 
lem,  and  his  total  oinissioii  of  Locke's  meta- 
physics. He  took  occasion  to  attack  with  as- 
perity Le  CIcrc.  a  much  superior  man  tr»  him- 
self. He  proved  himself  al.so,  according  ti>  Dr. 
Jortin,  nn  inadequate  critic,  and  little  acquaint- 
ed with  the  real  state  of  tiashical  books.  '1  ii.- 
work,  however,  had  merit,  and  was  long  con- 
sidered as  a  standard  lor  style,  though  it  seldoni 
rises  to  elegance.  He  afterwards  pursued  stu- 
dies for  which,  perhaps,  he  was  lietter  quahbcd. 
He  became  a  very  assiduous  collector  of  anti- 
quities, particularly  every  thing  rrliiivc  to 
church  and  university  matters  in  this  kingdom. 
His  great  design  apiK.irs  to  have  been  the  <oir 
pilation  of  a  histoiv  of  the  univcrsr.v  ot  C'iiii 
bridge ;  but  aotwith&tatiding  tlic  •idvanccd  a^ 


B  A  K 


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E  A  L 


to  which  hchvcd,  and  his  abunJancc  of  leisure, 
he  effected  no  more  tlian  a  very  copious  col- 
lection of  materials.  His  life  affords  few  inci- 
dents. His  conscientious  refusal  to  take  the 
oaths  required  by  government  at  the  accession 
of  George  I.  caused  him  to  be  ejected  horn  his 
fellowship  ;  but  he  still  kept  his  chambers  in 
St.  John's  College,  where  he  was  greatly  es- 
teemed ;  and  his  loss  of  income  was  very  liand- 
somely  made  up  to  hun  in  part  by  the  cele- 
brated poet  Prior,  who  keeping  his  own  fellow- 
ship, gave  the  profits  of  it  to  Mr.  Baker.  He 
maintained  a  correspondence  with  manv  learned 
men,  whom  he  freely  assisted  with  information 
on  topics  inwhicli  they  were  interested.  Among 
the  rest,  he  communicated  to  bishop  Burnet 
many  remarks  and  corrections  relative  to  his 
History  of  the  Reformation  ;  and  tlicsc  two 
men,  though  so  different  in  party  and  princi- 
ples, treated  each  other  with  a  friendship  and 
candour  honourable  to  both.  Mr.  Baker's 
private  character  seems  to  have  been  very  amia- 
ble, and  he  was  equally  beloved  and  respected 
among  Iiis  acquaintance.  He  died  at  Cam- 
bridge, }uly  2d,  1740,  in  his  eiglity-fourth 
year.  Of  his  large  collections,  twenty-tliree 
volumes  in  folio,  written  by  his  own  hand,  he 
left  to  lord  Oxford,  and  they  now  compose  part 
of  the  Harleian  collection  in  the  British  mu- 
seum. He  also  bequeathed  fifteen  volumes  fo- 
lio of  a  like  kind  to  the  pubHc  library  in  Cam- 
bridge, together  with  other  MSS.  and  printed 
books.      Bio^.  Biitan. — A. 

BAKHUYZEN,  Ludolph,  an  eminent 
painter,  was  bom  at  Emden  in  1631,  where 
his  father  was  secretary  of  the  States.  He  was 
brought  up  to  commerce,  and  served  his  father 
many  years  as  clerk,  being  an  excellent  writer 
and  book-keeper.  His  natural  talent,  however, 
led  him  to  painting,  in  which  he  attained  sucli 
excellence  even  before  he  had  any  other  master 
than  himself,  that  some  of  his  drawings  of 
ships  and  sea-pieces  sold  for  a  high  price.  En- 
couraged by  this  success,  he  applied  to  the  ait 
professionally,  and  was  instructed  at  Amsterdam 
by  Everdingen  and  Henry  Dubbels.  Having 
learned  the  mystery  of  managing  coloiu's,  he 
was  assiduous  in  practice.  Nature  was  his 
great  school  ;  and  it  was  his  custom  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  tempest  to  hire  a  boat  and  put  to 
sea,  when  he  observed  with  the  greatest  accu- 
racy the  motion  of  the  clouds,  the  dashing  of 
the  waves,  and  all  the  circuinstances  of  water 
in  a  state  of  agitation.  On  returning,  he  co- 
pied his  sketches  upon  canvas,  and  represented 
vith  fidelity  all  the  images  impressed  on  his 
memory.     His  colouring  was  liarmonious,  his 


drawings  correct,  and  his  whole  compositions 
full  of  life  and  nature.  They  soon  attained  a 
great  value  ;  and  the  city  of  Amsterdam  em- 
ployed him  to  paint  a  large  sea -piece  as  a  pre- 
sent to  Louis  XIV.  His  works  were  also 
sought  after  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  the  elector 
of  Saxony,  and  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  ; 
and  they  were  especially  the  delight  of  czar  Pe- 
ter, who  employed  the  artist  in  painting  vessels 
of  every  kind.  Bakhuyzen  was  a  man  of  tlie 
sedate  and  thrifty  character  of  his  country,  and 
taught  writing,  for  which  he  had  a  particular 
metiiod,  in  the  families  of  the  first  merchanis, 
even  in  the  midst  of  his  other  occupations.  Plis 
industry  never  slackened,  notwithstanding  cruel 
attacks  of  the  stone  and  gravel,  till  the  ap- 
proach of  death,  which  hapi^ened  in  1709,  at 
the  age  of  seventy-eight.  His  drawings  are 
liighly  esteemed  in  Holland  for  their  beauty  and 
accuracy,  and  sell  at  a  great  price.  He  also 
practised  etching  with  aquafortis,  and  published 
a  set  of  sea-views  in  that  style.  D' Argciivllk, 
Vies  dcs  Pc'intrcs. — A. 

BALAAM,  the  son  of  Beor,  or  Bosor,  a 
Syrian  diviner  of  Pethor,  a  town  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, was  sent  for  by  Balak,  king  ot  the  Moa- 
bites,  to  curse  the  Israelites,  but  pronounced 
upon  them  a  blessing.  He  was  killed,  together 
with  Balak,  in  a  battle,  in  which  the  Israelites 
defeated  the  Midianites,  about  1450  years  be- 
fore Christ.  Numb,  xxi — xxiii.  xxxi.  Deut. 
xxiii.  4.  2  Pet.  ii.  15.  Jos.  Ant.  lib.  iv. 
c.  6.— E. 

BALBI,  John,  a  learned  Dominican  monk 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Genoa, 
wlience  he  is  sometimes  called  Balbi  fanuensis. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  celebrated  grammatical 
work,  entitled  "  Catholicon,  sen  summa  gram- 
maticalis,"  finished,  as  he  himself  mentions, 
in  the  year  1286.  The  work  is  entitled  "Ca- 
tholicon or  Universal,"  because  it  is  a  kind  of 
grammatical  encyclopedia,  comprehending  in- 
structions in  the  several  parts  of  grammar  and 
rhetoric,  and  a  dictionary  compiled  from  va- 
rious authors.  The  work  is  at  present  entitled 
to  little  attention,  except  as  having  been  one  of 
the  first  books  upon  which  the  art  of  printing 
was  exercised.  It  was  printed  in  folio  at  Mentz, 
in  1460  :  this  first  edition  is  become  exceedingly 
scarce.  Matchand.  Hist,  de  V Impvuner'ic, 
p.  35.      Moreri.      T'lrahosclii. — E. 

BALBINUS,  Decimus  C.elius,  a  Ro- 
man emperor,  was  descended  from  Cornelius 
Ballnis  Theophanes,  a  Spaniard,  who  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  freedom  of  Rome  by  Pompey  the 
Great,  and  became  the  founder  ot  an  illustrious 
family.  Balbinus  was  a  senator  ot  great  wealth, 


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an  admired  orator,  a  distinguished  poet,  an  il- 
lustrious magistrate,  wlio  had  governed  several 
provinces  with  reputation,  and  liad  been  twice 
consul,  when,  on  the  death  of  the  Gordians  in 
237,  he  was  elected  emperor  by  the  senate,  in 
conjunction  wiili  Maximus.  A  tumult  among 
the  people  soon  obliged  them  to  associate  the 
youngci  Gordian  as  Cassar.  Maximus  then 
inarched  against  Maximinus,lcaving  to  Balbinus 
the  care  of  the  capital.  It  would  appear  that  his 
mild  and  rather  timid  character  was  unequal  to 
the  preservation  of  the  imperial  authority  at  such 
a  time ;  for  a  dreadful  tumult  was  suffered  to 
rage  for  some  days  between  the  peo])le  and  the 
praetorian  guards,  with  the  loss  of  many  lives, 
and  the  destruction  of  a  great  part  of  the  city  by 
fire,  in  which  Balbinus  was  himself  wounded  on 
the  head,  and  could  only  suppress  tiie  fury  of 
the  parties  by  oiFering  to  their  view  the  young 
Gordian  drcst  in  the  imjierial  robes.  On  the 
triumphant  return  of  Maximus,  jealousies  broke 
out  between  tlie  two  emperors,  wliieh  prevented 
their  concerting  proper  measures  to  oppose  the 
danger  threatening  both  from  the  enraged  prae- 
torians. These  tierce  troops  at  length  pro- 
ceeded to  an  open  revolt,  in  which  the  empe- 
rors were  seised,  stript  of  their  garments, 
dragged  ignominiously  through  the  streets  of 
Rome,  and  at  length  inhumanly  massacred. 
This  happened  in  23S,  after  they  had  reigned 
little  more  than  a  year.  Balbinus  was  arrived 
at  an  advanced  age  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
Univers.  Hist.     Gibbon. — A. 

BALBOA,  Vasco  Nugnes  de,  one  of 
the  most  famous  of  the  Spanish  adventurers  in 
the  New  ^Vorid,  was  a  native  of  Castile,  and 
went  over  very  early  to  make  his  fortune  in  the 
West  Indies.  He  had  a  considerable  settlement 
ia  Hispaniola  ;  but  his  affairs  becoming  derang- 
ed, he  embarked  with  a  Spanish  captain  named 
Enciso  in  search  of  new  lands,  and,  passing  the 
river  Darien,  they  settled  a  coUmy  upon  the 
isthmus  of  that  name,  and  founded  a  town  called 
Santa  Maria  el  Antigua  (the  ancient),  as  being 
the  first  settlement  on  the  southern  continent  of 
America.  In  this  |)Iace  a  kind  of  republican 
government  wa*;  established,  under  the  authori- 
ty of  two  alcaydes,  of  whom  Balboa  was  one. 
Nicuessa,  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  king 
of  Spain  governor  of  that  part  of  the  continent, 
was  at  first  refused  admission  into  Santa  Maria  ; 
at  length  Balboa  permitted  him  to  enter,  and 
protected  liini  from  his  enemies,  till  he  became 
the  victim  of  his  own  misconduct.  Balboa,  by 
his  courage  and  prudence,  gained  to  hinisilfall 
the  authority  of  the  new  colony,  and  quarrelling 
with  Enciso,  procured  his  iinpiisoninent,  and 


the  confiscation  of  all  his  cfTects — an  act  of 
power  that  eventually  proved  his  own  ruin. 
Balboa,  however,  pushed  his  conquests  among 
the  neighbouring  Indians,  selling  hi?  services  to 
the  best  bidder,  and  amassing  gold  from  all 
quaners  in  order  to  strengthen  his  interest  at  the 
court  of  Spain.  In  one  of  his  incursions,  a  ca- 
sique,  observing  with  wonder  the  Spanish  thirst 
of  gold,  offered  to  conduct  Balboa  and  his  com- 
panions to  a  country  where  their  wishes  should 
be  fully  satisfied.  Balboa  cagerlv  embraced  the 
proposal,  and  made  preparations  for  crossing  fur 
the  first  time  the  isthmus  of  Darien.  He  set  out 
on  this  expedition  on  September  I,  1513,  with 
only  one  hundred  and  ninety  Europeans ;  and 
with  tiie  greatest  valour  and  i>erscverance  over- 
came all  the  obstacles  to  his  progress.  Arriving, 
after  a  most  toilsome  march  of  twenty-five  days, 
to  a  mountain  whence  the  Indians  toi4  him  that 
the  South  Sea  was  to  be  discovert-d,  Ualboa 
halted  his  men  on  the  ascent,  and  himself  has- 
tened alone  to  tb.e  summit.  On  \icwing  the 
magnificent  sjiectacle  which  no  European  eye 
had  hitherto  beheld,  he  fell  on  his  knees  in 
transport,  and  returned  thanks  to  heaven  for 
being  preserved  to  so  great  a  discovery.  His 
men  soon  joined  him,  and  they  joyfully  iicld  on 
their  course  to  the  shore  ;  when  Balbua,  ad- 
vancing into  the  waves  with  his  sword  and 
buckler,  took  possession  of  this  vast  ocean  in 
the  name  of  his  master.  In  this  country  he 
obtained  considerable  riches,  w  ith  information 
of  that  mighty  and  opulent  kingdom  lying  10 
the  south-east,  called  Peru,  to  which,  however, 
Balboa,  with  his  present  force,  could  not  think 
of  proceeding.  He  returned  tn  Santa  Ma- 
ria by  a  new  track,  after  an  abs-iKc  of  four 
moiitlis  ;  and  immediatelv  sent  an  aicount  to 
Spain  of  his  important  discovery.  King  Icrdi- 
nand  resolved  to  make  unusual  effotts  to  profit 
by  it ;  but  ungratefully  overlooking  the  merit 
ol  Balboa,  he  appointed  Pedraiias  Davila  go- 
vernor of  Darien,  and  sent  him  out  with  a  well 
equipped  fleet  and  t\\elve  hundred  soldier?,  who 
were  joined  by  a  great  number  of  vohm'.uv  .-»<!- 
ventureis.  When  Pedrarias  landid 
Balboa  was  found  clad  in  a  canvas  ja.  \ 

coarse  hempen  sandals,  employed,  togttner  with 
some  Indians,  in  thatching  his  own  iuit  with 
reeds.  He  received  the  new  governor  with  a 
dignified  submission,  but  it  was  not  long  iKforc 
open  dissension  biokc  out  between  them.  Pe- 
drarias, in  order  to  weaken  and  mortify  his  ri- 
val, renewed  the  process  respecting  Enciso.  aid 
putting  Balboa  in  prison,  did  not  I  '  1 

without  the  payment  ofa  ruinous  fine.  e 

sickness  destroyed  a  great  number  ot  the  new 


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B  A  L 


comers,  ami  Pcdrarias,  bv  his  cruel  and  rapa- 
cious ])roceeclings  towanls  the  natives,  renilcroJ 
the  couiurv  round  a  desert.  Balboa  transmitted 
to  Europe  strong  remonstrances  against  this  im- 
politic conduct ;  and  Ferdinaiul  was  induced  to 
create  him  adelantado,  or  lieutenant-governor, 
■with  verv  extensive  powers,  and  a  separate  com- 
mand. An  outward  reconciliation  was  mediated 
between  him  and  Pcdrarias,  which  was  even 
cemented  by  the  marriage  of  Balboa  with  the 
daughter  of  the  governor.  But  enmity  still 
rankled  at  tlie  heart  of  Pedrarias,  and  he  resolved 
to  destroy  the  man  he  had  too  deeply  injured  for 
forgiveness.  The  charge  on  account  of  En- 
ciso  was  renewed,  to  which  were  added  tliose  of 
tlisloyalty  to  the  king,  and  a  design  to  revolt 
against  the  governor.  He  was  found  guilty  of 
a  capital  crime,  and,  notwitiistanding  tlie  en- 
treaties of tliejudges  themselves,  and  the  whole 
colon v,  he  was  publicly  beheaded  in  1517,  at 
tlie  age  of  forty  two,  at  a  time  when  he  stood 
tlie  first  in  reputation  for  vigour  and  abilities 
among  the  Spanish  leaders  in  America.  His 
fate  might  be  lamenteil,  were  it  possible  for  a 
lover  ot  justice  and  humanity  to  feel  any  thing 
but  satisfaction  at  the  destruction  of  these  fero- 
cious invaders  of  an  innocent  people,  by  their 
unitual  hostility.  Mcrai.  Rsl'crison's  Hist, 
of  ^maica. — A. 

BALDERIC,  a  French  historian,  a  native  of 
Orleans,  lived  in  the  twelfth  centurv,  and  v\  as 
bishop  of  Dole  in  Britanny.  He  assisted  at  the 
council  of  Clermont,  held  upon  the  subject  of 
the  holy  war,  and  wrote  the  history  of  that  war, 
in  four  books,  in  which  are  related  the  events  of 
that  fanatical  expedition  from  its  commence- 
ment to  the  year  1099,  when  Jerusnlem  was 
t;iken  bv  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  This  work 
may  be  found  in  "  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos  a 
Eongaro,"  fol.  1611.  Baldini  also  wrote 
"  Poems,"  preserved  in  the  fourth  volume  of 
Du  Chesne's  Collection  of  French  Historians. 
Vossius  de  Hist.  La'.  Ahreri.  Nonv.  Diet. 
Hist.^E. 

BALDI,  Bernardino,  an  Italian  of  pro- 
found and  various  literature,  w-as  born  at  Urbi- 
uo  in  1553.  An  insatiable  a\idity  of  knowledge 
early  disclosed  itself  in  him,  for  the  gratification 
of  which  he  often  suspended  liis  meals,  and  in- 
terrupted his  sleep.  His  early  education  was 
acquired  in  his  native  place,  where  he  studied 
mathematics  under  the  celebrated  Commandino. 
In  his  twentietli  year  lie  was  sent  to  the  universi- 
ty of  Padua,  where  he  made  a  surprising  pro- 
gress in  every  kind  of  literature.  His  know- 
ledge of  Greek  was  such  as  enabled  him  to 
translate  the  phenomena  of  Aratus  into  Italian 


verse,  and  several  other  Greek  writers  into  La- 
tin. He  had  an  extraordinary  talent  at  learning 
languages,  of  which  he  came  to  possess  twelve, 
several  ot  them  oriental.  On  leaving  Padua, 
be  was  taken  into  the  service  of  Ferrantc  Gon- 
zaga  II.  duke  of  Guastalla,  as  his  mathemati- 
cian. In  1586  he  was  created  abbot  of  Guas- 
talla, and  governed  that  church  manv  years  with 
great  reputation.  He  passed  his  time  partly  at 
Guastalla,  and  partly  at  Urbino  and  Rome,  in 
which  last  capital  he  obtained  the  title  of  apo- 
stolical prothonotary.  In  1603  he  was  at  Ve- 
nice for  the  purpose  of  ])riiiting  some  of  his 
works  at  the  press  of  Ciotti  ;  and  lie  again  vi- 
sited that  city  in  1612,  as  ambassador  from  the 
duke  of  Urbino  to  comjjlim.ent  the  new  doge, 
'i'owards  the  latter  pan  of  his  life  he  resigned 
the  church  of  Guastalla,  and  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Urbino,  where  he  gave  himself  up  en- 
tirely to  his  studies.  He  died  in  that  city  in  1617, 
aged  sixty-four.  Baldi  was  one  of  the  few  who 
united  elegant  with  scientific  junsuits ;  and  he 
stands  at  least  as  high  among  the  Italian  poets,  as 
among  the  scholars  and  mathematicians.  In 
jiastoral,  his  "  Celeo,  or  Orto,"  is  thought  to  be 
excelled  by  few  works  in  the  language.  His 
blank  verse  is  much  esteemed ;  but  some  expe- 
riments which  he  tried  of  introducing  new 
measures  into  Italian  poetry  failed  of  success, 
like  most  others  of  the  kind.  His  labours  in 
mechanics  and  mathematics  were  numerous.  He 
translated  into  Italian  the  Greek  work  of  Hero 
of  Alexandria,  "  On  Automata  or  Self-moving 
Machines  ;"  and  into  Latin  the  same  author's 
treatise  "  On  warlike  Machines."  He  wrote 
"Exercitations  on  the  Mechanics  of  Aristotle;'* 
and  published  two  Latin  works  relative  to  Vi- 
truvius,  the  one  containing  an  explanation  of  all 
the  terms  us-.d  by  him,  the  other  inquiring  into 
the  meaning  of  his  "  Scamilli  iinpares."  A 
work  which  he  left  behind  him,  entitled  "  Cro- 
nica  de'  Mathcmatici,"  being  a  compendium  of 
a  larger  one  he  had  jirepared  on  the  lives  of  ma- 
thematicians, was  printed  in  1707.  Many  other 
monuments  of  hisgenius  and  industry,  which  ob- 
tained reputation  in  their  time,  are  now  con- 
signed to  oblivion.      Tiruboscki, — A. 

BALDI,  DE  Ubaldis,  a  celebrated  lawyer 
of  the  fourteenth  ceuturv,  born  at  Penyia  in  the 
year  1319,  was  the  son  of  Francis  Ubaldi,  a 
learned  physician,  by  whom  he  was  carefully 
educated.  He  studied  law  under  Bartoli  at  Pe- 
rugia, where  he  afterwards  became  a  preceptor. 
He  passed  through  most  of  the  universides  of 
Italy,  and  acquired  distinguished  reputation. 
He  became  the  rival  of  his  master  Bartoli,  and 
embraced  every  opportunity  of  contradicting  his 


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opinions.  The  duke,  John  Galeazr.o,  was  one 
of  his  most  generous  patrons.  Pope  Urban  VI. 
whose  cause  he  pleaded  against  Clement,  re- 
warded him  liberally.  At  Pavia,  in  the  year 
1400,  while  at  the  age  of  seventy-six,  he  pos- 
sessed his  faculties  in  full  vigour,  and  was  con- 
sulted from  all  quarters  as  an  oracle  in  law ;  and 
while  he  still  enjoyed  good  health  and  a  robust 
constitution,  which  promised  him  many  future 
year*,  he  died  from  the  bite  of  a  dog  with  which 
he  was  playing.  He  left  numerous  treatises  in 
law,  published  in  three  volumes  folio,  which  dis- 
cover deep  knowledge  and  ex'cellent  talents,  but 
partake  too  much  of  the  barbarous  style  of  the 
age.  The  reputation  of  Baldi  was  so  great, 
that  after  his  death  his  family,  which  had  borne 
the  name  of  Ubaldi,  took  that  of  Baldeschi. 
Bayle.      Tiraboich'i.     Aforeri. — E. 

BALDINI,  John  Anthony,  a  learned 
Italian  count,  horn  at  Placentia  on  the  7th  of 
July  1654.  After  finishing  his  studies  in  the 
convent  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  at  Bologna,  and 
fiien  at  Rome,  he  travelled  into  France  and 
Poland.  In  1698  he  went  as  embassador  ex- 
traordinary from  the  duke  of  Parma  to  Spain, 
where  he  continued  nine  years.  On  his  return 
to  Parma,  he  was  dispatched  to  \'ienna  and 
other  German  courts,  and  at  last  to  England, 
from  which  he  was  sent  to  attend  the  congress 
at  Utrecht.  He  was  a  man  of  a  handsome  fi- 
gure, as  well  as  engagijig  manners  ;  and  cm- 
ployed  the  greater  part  of  his  time  in  tlie  study 
of  natural  philosophy,  the  mathematics,  and, 
above  all,  civil  and  ccclc^i:lStical  liistory.  Wiien 
in  England  he  was  elected  a  tellow  of  the  Roy- 
al Society  ;  and,  dui  ing  his  residence  in  Spain, 
made  a  considerable  collection  of  rare  gems, 
with  an  intention  of  getting  them  engraved  ; 
but  this  work,  which  he  actually  began,  was 
interrupted  by  his  public  occupations  and  tra- 
vels. At  Amsterdam  he  enriched  his  cabinet  of 
curiosities  with  a  great  number  of  Indian  and 
Chinese  articles  ;  and  he  purchased,  at  a  very 
great  expense,  all  the  lexicons,  atlasses,  and 
books  of  travels  he  could  procure  that  related 
to  the  ca'itern  countries.  The  editor  of  the 
♦'Atlas  Historique,"  in  five  vols,  published  at 
Amsterdam  in  1719,  derived  great  assistance 
from  count  Baldini's  colle<tion,  ss  he  acknow- 
ledges in  the  preface,  though  lie  docs  not  men- 
tion, that  the  discourse  which  follows,  respect- 
ing these  maps,  was  written  by  Baldini,  and 
only  translated  by  him  into  French  from  the 
Italian  original.  In  the  above  year,  when  Va- 
lisnieri  passed  through  Placentia,  and  saw  count 
Baldini's  collection,  he  thought  it  so  valuable 
«nrl  important,  that  he  tfansiuittcd  in  a  kttcr  to 

VOL.    I. 


P.  C.  Zcnoa  very  full  catalogue  of  it,  wliich 
was  inserted  in  the  "  Giornklc  de'  Lctterati 
d'ltalia,"  vol.  xxxiii.  p.  2.  On  the  ijtjj  of 
January  1725,  Baldini  had  a  violent  stroke  of 
the  apo])lcxy,  in  consequcnte  of  which  he  ex- 
pired on  die  23d  of  February  following.  J'i- 
clter'' i  Gelc/nten-Lrxuon. — J. 

BALDIXUCCI,  Philip,  born  at  Flo- 
rence  in  1624,  distinguished  himself  by  his 
knowledge  of  the  arts  of  design,  and  his  re- 
searches concerning  the  lives  of  their  profes- 
sors. He  was  sent  by  the  cardinal  Leopold  de' 
Medici  into  Lombardy,  in  order  to  observe  the 
style  and  manner  of  the  most  famous  painters  of 
that  province  ;  and  he  was  employed  by  duke 
Cosmo  III.  in  cominissions  of  a  similar  natuic. 
Queen  Christina  employed  him  to  write  tiic  life 
of  the  cav:dier  Bernini,  on  wiiich  account  he 
went  to  Rome  in  168 1,  and  published  his  work 
the  ensuing  year.  His  great  undertaking,  how- 
ever, was  a  general  history  of  the  mo.'it  emigcnt 
j)ainters  from  Cimabue  to  his  own  time.  Of 
this  he  wrote  six  volumes,  divided  into  centuries. 
'i"he  two  first  and  fouith  he  publi^hcd  in  his  life- 
time. The  three  others  were  afterwards  pub- 
lished by  his  son,  the  advocate  Francis.  A  new 
edition  of  the  whole  appeared  at  P'lorencc  in. 
1731  ;  and  since  that  time  it  has  been  reprinted  at 
Florence,  and  also  at  Turin,  with  copious  notcf 
and  additions  by  sign.  Ingcgncre,  Piaccnza. 
This  work  of  Baldinucci  is  written  in  a  polish- 
ed and  correct  style,  and  contains  many  d)ing$ 
which  had  escaped  the  notice  of  \'asari,  wliom 
the  author  frequently  coriects.  He  is  not  him- 
self, however,  exempt  from  errors,  and  is 
thought  by  many  to  be  too  diffuse  and  prolix. 
Baldmucci  likewise  published  a  *'  Vocabulary 
of  Design,"  a  very  useful  work  for  ihc  lan- 
guage of  artists,  and  which  gave  him  admission 
into  the  Academv  ddla  Crusca.  He  also  wrote 
"  The  Commencement  and  Progress  of  i!ie  Art 
of  engraving  on  Copper,"  Florence,  1 686,  410. 
a  piece  abounding  in  curious  and  novel  inlur- 
mation.  He  published  sc\cial  smaller  woiks, 
some  of  which  drew  ujxin  him  a  furious  and 
unjust  attack  from  Cinelli.  Baldinucci  died  in 
1696,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two.  Tirabuchi. 
Kouv.  Diet,  ffiit. — A. 

BALDOCK.  Ralph  df,  .in  EnrliJ.  .li. 
vine  of  tl'.c  fourteenth  century,  n\.i»  l 

Mcrton  College  in  Oxt'md  ;  in   t^^  jw 

pointed  bishop  of  London  ;  in  1 3^)7  was  chos- 
en by  Edward  I.  loid  chancellor  of  t.nclinJ, 
and,  in  13 13,  died  at  Sie;iney-  He  left  nehind 
him  an  history  of  the  British  afijirs  down  \m 
his  own  lime,  under  the  title  of  "  Miiicii* 
AatUea,"  whicU  Lcland  says  l>e  saw  ^t  Lea- 
3* 


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don,  but  which  is  now  lost.  Godwn  dc  pnesul. 
Jngl-  Cav.  Hist.  Lit.  Biog.  Brltan. — E. 
.  BAL13WIN  I.  cmpeior  of  Constantinople, 
horn  in  1172,  succeeded  his  father  Baldwin,  as 
count  of  Flanders  and  Hainault.  In  the  fourth 
trusade,  that  was  preached  in  1 198,  he  took 
the  cross  along  with  his  brother-in-law  the 
count  of  CliaiTipagne,  an<l  many  othL-r  nobles  ; 
and  distinguished  himself  so  much  by  his  cou-, 
rage  and  conduct  in  the  several  actions  which 
ensued,  that  after  the  conquest  of  Cortstanti- 
nople  by  the  Latins  in  1204,  he  was  unani- 
mously chosen  emperor  of  the  East.  The  city 
of  Constantinople  was  allotted  to  him,  with  the 
territory  of  Thrace,  and  a  limited  sovereignty 
over  the  other  provinces  which  were  distributed 
among  the  several  captors.  The  Greeks  soon 
revolted  against  this  foreign  empire,  and  having 
e.xpcUed  the  French  and  Venetians  from  Adria- 
nople,  and  massacred  numbers  of  them,  made 
an  alliance  with  John,  or  Calo-John,  king  of 
the  Bulgarians.  Baldwin,  resolved  to  recover 
Adrianople,  led  thither  his  forces,  diminished  by 
the  absence  of  his  brother  Henry,  in  Asia. 
The  Bulgarian  king  advanced  with  a  powerful 
army,  and  drawing  Baldwin,  bv  a  pretended 
flight,  into  an  ambuscade,  cut  ofF  the  greater 
part  of  his  troops,  and  made  the  emperor  him- 
self prisoner.  Baldwin  was  carried  to  Ernoc 
or  Tcrnova,  the  capital  of  Bulgaria,  and  never 
more  seen  by  his  subjects.  His  fate  was  va- 
riously related.  Calo-John  afErmed  that  he 
died  in  prisori.  Some  assert,  that  after  a  capti- 
vity of  sixteen  months,  he  was  cruelly  put  to 
death,  by  cutting  ofF  his  hands  and  feet,  and 
exposing  his  bleeding  trunk  to  the  birds  of  prey. 
The  Flemings  for  a  long  time  believed  that  he 
was  still  alive  ;  and  they  recognized  him  in  the 
person  of  a  hermit,  who,  twenty  years  after- 
wards, in  a  wood  in  the  Netherlands,  declared 
himself  to  be  the  true  Baldwin,  but  whom  the 
French  court  detected,  and  punished  as  an  im- 
postor. Baldwin  was  succeeded  in  the  empire 
by  his  brother  Henry,  and  in  his  county  of 
Flanders  by  his  daughter  Joan.  He  was  much 
esteemed  for  his  private  virtues,  as  well  as  for 
the  qualities  of  a  warrior  and  a  prince.  Unl- 
vers.  Hist.     JWorcri.     Gibbon. — A. 

BALDWIN  II.  emperor  of  Constantinople, 
son  of  the  emperor  Peter  de  Courtenai,  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  Robert  in  1228,  being  then 
in  his  eleventh  year.  As  he  was  too  young  to 
govern,  John  de  Brienne,  the  heroic  king  of 
Jerusalem,  was  made  his  guardian  or  colleague, 
and  by  his  bravery  saved  Constantinople  from 
an  attack  by  the  emperor  of  Nice,  and  the  king 
of  Bulgaria.     Baldvvm  married  his   daughter, 


and  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  the  western  courts, 
in  order  to  solicit  aid  for  the  declining  Latin 
empire.  He  visited  Italy,  France,  England, 
and  other  countries,  at  different  periods,  and 
passed  more  time  in  these  mendicant  expeditions 
than  on  his  throne.  Returning  in  1239  with 
an  army  raised  by  the  contributions  of  his 
friends,  and  by  the  alienation  of  his  hereditary 
estates,  he  obtained  some  success  against  Va- 
taces,  and  allied  liimsclf  with  the  sultan  of  Ico- 
nium.  But  his  poverty  and  weakness  were  be- 
yond remedy  ;  and  his  sale  of  relics  to  St.  Lewis 
of  France  onlv  afforded  a  temporary  and  inade- 
quate sujiply  to  his  wants.  His  kingdom  w^is 
reduced  to  the  limits  of  Constantinople  ;  and 
this  city  was  taken  from  him  in  1261  by  Mi- 
chael Pala;ologus.  Baldwin  made  his  escape  by 
sea  in  disguise,  and,  retiring  to  Italy,  vainly  at- 
tempted to  engage  the  Catholic  powers  in  an 
attempt  for  his  restoration.  He  died  in  1273, 
at  the  age  of  fifty- hve,  and  his  imperial  rights, 
such  as  thev  were,  were  transmitted  to  his  son 
Philip,  and  from  him  to  Charles  of  Valois,  bro- 
ther of  Philip  the  Fair,  king  of  France.  The 
contemptible  part  acted  by  Baldwin  IL  seems 
rather  to  have  been  the  unavoidable  result  of 
circumstances,  than  of  his  personal  character. 
Univers.  Hist.      Gibbon. — A. 

BALDWIN,  an  English  divine,  in  the 
reigns  of  Henry  II.  and  Richard  I.  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  was  born  of  obscure  parents 
at  Exeter,  where  he  received  a  classical  edu- 
cation. In  early  life  he  taught  at  school,  and  af- 
terwards took  orders,  and  was  preferred  to  the 
archdeaconry  of  Exeter.  Making  choice,  how- 
ever, of  another  track  to  advancement,  he  took 
the  monastic  habii:  in  the  Cistertian  order,  and 
passed  through  the  abbacy  of  his  monastery  to 
the  episcopal  see  of  Worcester,  and  thence,  in 
1 184,  to  the  metropolitan  chair  of  Canterbury. 
In  this  last  step  of  his  preferment  he  met  with 
sorrie  obstruction  from  the  monks  of  Canterbury, 
who  contended  with  the  bishops  for  the  right  of 
voting  first  ;  but  at  length,  by  the  king's  inter- 
ference, they  were  prevailed  upon  to  acquiesce. 
In  order  to  counteract  the  interest  and  restrain 
the  power  of  the  monks,  a  plan  was  formed  for 
establishing  a  church  and  monastery  at  Hack- 
ington  near  Canterburv,  for  the  reception  of 
secular  priests ;  and  Baldwin,  who  was  the. 
principal  agent  in  this  business,  had  made  a 
considerable  progress  in  it  betore  the  real  de- 
sign of  the  establishment  was  discovered.  But, 
as  soon  as  the  monks  perceived  that  the  se-^ 
cular  clergy  were  attempting  to  curtail  their 
power,  they  presented  their  complaint  to  the 
pope,  and  had  sufficient  interest  witli  him  to 


JjaLa^tt}    iaii  frunttz  iLecorui     eritir. 


0,0.  ?. 


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obtain  an  order  for  discontinuing  ilic  intended 
erection.  Thus  tlie  king,  the  arthhisliop,  and 
his  suffragans,  were  for  the  present  baffled  by 
the  monks.  Under  the  next  pope,  however, 
they  expected  more  indulgence ;  and  Baldwin 
purchased  a  manor  at  Lambeth,  where,  on  the 
spot  upon  which  the  pakice  of  the  archbishop 
at  present  stands,  he  employed  the  materials  |)re- 
parcd  for  the  college  at  Hackington,  in  building 
upon  the  former  plan  :  he  did  not,  however, 
live  to  complete  the  design.  In  1 189  Baldwin 
performed  tlie  ceremony  of  coronation  on  Ri- 
chard I.  at  Westminster.  U|ion  the  translation 
of  tlie  bishop  of  Lincoln  to  the  see  of  York,  he 
took  occasion  to  establish  the  pre-eminence  of 
the  archbislioj)  ot  Canterbury,  by  forbidding 
any  English  bishop  to  receive  consecration  from 
any  other  hands  than  tliose  of  this  metropolitan. 
Partaking  of  the  general  enthusiasm  of  the  age 
for  the  recovery  of  the  holy  land  from  the  infi- 
dels, archbishop  Baldwin  becaine  a  voluntary 
adventurer  in  this  grand  enterprize.  The 
Christians  in  Palestine  had  just  before  this  time 
been  grievously  harassed  by  the  overpowering 
force  of  the  Mahometan  prince  Saladin  ;  and 
an  embassy  had  been  sent  from  Baldwin,  king 
of  Jerusalem,  to  Henry  II.  king  of  England, 
entreating  his  assistance.  The  embassy,  sup- 
ported by  the  authority  of  the  pope,  Lucius  III. 
commanded  attention ;  and  great  numbers  of 
nobles,  gentry,  and  ckrgy,  under  the  royal  per- 
mission, engaged  in  the  undertaking.  Among 
these  v\  as  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury;  and, 
when  Richard  I.  toinpkted  the  design,  which 
his  father  did  not  live  to  acc(jinplis]i,  by  con- 
ducting an  army  in  person  to  Palestine,  this 
prelate  appeared  in  his  train.  Alter  inaking  an 
episcopal  tour  through  Wales  to  collect  fol- 
lowers, be  embarked  at  Dover  with  Hubert, 
bishop  of  Salisbury,  for  Syria.  On  his  arrival, 
he  found  the  Christian  army  much  distressed 
by  sickness  and  famine,  and  endeavoured  to  en- 
courage them  to  persevere,  both  by  pious  ex- 
hortations and  by  liberal  contributions  from  his 
private  pinsc.  Soon  afterwards,  at  the  siege 
of  Acre,  or  Ptolemais,  or,  as  some  relate,  at 
Tvre,  a  violent  distemper  seized  him,  which 
terminated  in  his  death.  During  his  illness,  he 
appointed  the  bishop  of  Salisbury  his  exfcutor, 
■with  instructions  to  distribute,  at  his  discietion, 
all  his  effects  among  the  soldiers.  Baldwin  died 
in  the  year  i  iqi,  or,  according  to  some  writers, 
in  1193.  Mcasuiing  the  merit  of  the  adven- 
turers in  the  crusades,  rather  by  the  piety  than 
the  wisdom  of  the  enterprize,  we  must  applaud 
this  prelate's  zeal.  His  conduct  in  Palestine 
entities  him  to  die  praise  of  humanity  and  gene- 


rosity :  a  claim  which  is  conArmcd  by  an  anec- 
dote, which  relates  (Brompton  Chron.  aiuid 
Decern  Script.)  that  a  poor  old  woman,  of 
meagre  aspect,  wlio  had  heard  that  he  had  never 
eaten  fjesh  since  he  became  a  monk,  charged 
him  with  having  eaten  her  flesh  to  the  very  bone, 
by  permitting  his  ofnccrs  to  take  from  her  a  cow 
which  was  her  only  support,  when  he  good-hu- 
mouredly  excused  the  woman's  freedom,  ar.d 
generously  repaired  her  loss.  The  mildness  of 
his  temper  appears  to  have  led  him  into  remiss- 
ness  in  his  pastoral  offices.  Of  tliis  a  singular 
testimony  remains  in  a  letter  addressed  to  hiia 
from  pope  Urban  III.  under  this  superset ipiion: 
"  Urbanus,  episcopus,  scrvus  servorum  IJci 
monacho  fcrventissimo,  abbati  calido,  cpiscopg 
tepido,  archicpiscopo  rcmisso."  (Girald.  Camb. 
a])Lid  Wharton  Angl.  Sac.  vol.  ii.  p.  429.) 
"  Uiban,  bishop,  servant  of  the  servants  of 
God,  to  Baldwin,  a  most  zealous  morik,  a  fer- 
vent abbot,  a  lukev.arm  bishop,  and  a  negligent 
archbishop."  It  is  very  unfortunate,  when  in 
the  exr.ct  proportion  in  which  a  mair<  sphcto 
of  usefulness  enlarges,  his  zeal  and  anivity 
abate.  Archbishop  Baldwin  wrote  sc\eral 
tracts,  chiefly  theological,  which  were  collected 
and  published  by  father  Titficr,  and  may  be 
found  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  "  Biblioiheca 
Cistercierisis."  Bale  de  Script.  Brit.  Girvatt 
/let.  Pontif.  Cant,  ff'hartons  Anglia  Sacra. 
Parker  de  Antiq.  Brit.  Eccl.  Bale  de  Script. 
Brit.  Pits  dc  HI.  AnpJ.  Script.  Cave  Hill. 
Lit.    Dupin.      Biogr.  Brit.—  E. 

BALE,  John,  in  I^atiu  B.ilciis,  an  English 
divine  and  historian,  was  l)orn  at  C(jvc,  near 
Dunwich  in  Suffolk,  in  1495.  His  parents 
being  encumbered  with  a  large  t'amilvt  he  was 
entered,  at  the  age  of  rvvelve  years,  in  the  mo- 
nastery of  Carmelites  in  Norwich,  whence  he 
was  sent  to  Jesus  college  in  Cambridge.  The 
reformation  having  now  found  its  way  into 
England,  Bale,  though  educated  in  the  Romisli 
church,  became  a  Prototant.  His  convcrsinn 
he  ascribes  to  the  iilumination  which  he  received 
from  lord  Wentwortii ;  I>ut  at  t'lc  same  tim^ 
gives  some  room  to  conclude,  that  it  was,  iu 
part,  the  effect  of  his  dislike  of  celibacy.  Re- 
lating (Balcus  de  seijiso  a;>ud  Sciij>l.  Brit, 
cant.  viii.  c.  idt.)  the  i>nrtic(!l:ii<.  ^if  the  clianfjc, 
after  expressing  hi  '   lord    Wcnc- 

wortli,  he  adils,  "  I  .ini  aiiticliiisu 

charactercm  illico  abrasi ; — ct  nc  dtinccps  in 
aliquo  csseui  tain  cxccrabilis  hesrijc  crcatura, 
uxorem  accepi  Dorothcam  liikrlcm,  di\iux  huii: 
voti  auscultans.  Qui  non  coniinct,  nului." 
[•'  I  ma^lc  haste  to  efface  the  mark  of  wicked 
antichrist  i — and  that  1  uii^lit   iu>  longer  l>c 


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in   servitude  to  so  execrable  a  beast,    1  made 
the    faithful   Dorotliy   my   wife,    in    obedience 
to  the  divine  command :    he  tliat  has  not  the 
gift  of  continence,   Jet  him   marry."]     Upon 
which  IS'icolson  not  unfairly  remarks  (Ens^lish 
Hist.  Library,   p.  155.),  that  "  his  wife  IDo- 
rothy  seems  to  have  had  a  great  hand  in  that 
happy    work."     The    acrimony    with    which 
Bale  here  speaks   of  popery,   appears    to  have 
remained  with  him  throiioh  life,  and  to  have 
iniitcd  with  the  intolerant  spirit  of  the  times  to 
.subject   him    to   much    persecution.     In    early 
life  he  enjoyed  the  protection  of  lord  Cromwell; 
but  after  that  nobleman's  death,  the  violence  of 
the  popish  party  rendered  his  situation  so  un- 
comfortable  and  hazardous,  that  he  chose  to 
retire  into  the  Netherlands.      On  the  accession 
of  Edward  VI.  he  returned  to  England,   and 
his  learning  and  zeal  procured  him,  first,  a  pre- 
sentation to  the  living  of  Bishop's  Stoke  in  the 
county  of  Southampton  ;  and  soon  afterwards  a 
nomination  from  the  crown  to  the  bishopric  of 
Ossory,  in  Ireland,  to  which,  after  some  demur 
on  account  of  his   peremptory  refusal   of  the 
old  popish  form,  he  was,  in   1553,  consecrated 
by  the  archbish.op  of  Dublin.     In  this  station, 
however,  surrounded  with  people  zealously  at- 
tached to  a  mode  of  religion  which  he  execrat- 
ed, he  lived  in  a  state  of  perpetual  terror.     His 
clergy,  on  his  first  preaching  the  reformed  doc- 
trines, either  forsook   or  opposed  In'm  ;  and  so 
\iolent  was  the  popular  fury  against  him,  that 
his  life  was  frequently  in  danger.     In  one  tu- 
mult, five  of  his  doinestics  were  killed  before 
his  face,  and  he  himself  must  have  shared  the 
same  fate,  had  not  the   magistrate  brought    a 
considerable  force  to  his  defence.     These  trou- 
bles and  alarms,  of  which  he  himself  wrote  a 
particular  account,  ("  The  Vocacyon  of  John 
Bale  to  the  Bishopricke  of  Ossory  in  Irelande, 
his  Persecutions  in  the  same,  and  final  Deli- 
verance," printed  in  black  letter,  folio,    1553,) 
obliged  him  to  quit  his  diocese.     For  some  time 
bishop    Bale   lay   concealed    in    Dublin.     At- 
tempting to  make  his  escape  from  a   countiy 
where  he  had  been  so  inhospitably  received,  the 
trading  vessel  which  conveyed  him  was  taken 
by  a  Dutch  man  of  war,  the  captain  of  which 
stripped  him  of  all  his  money  and  effects.    The 
ship  being  driven  by  stress  of  weatlier  upon  the 
coast  of  Cornwall,  this  unfortunate  prelate  was 
seized  on  a  suspicion  of  treason,  upon  the  ac- 
cusation of  the  pilot,  who  hoped  to  share  the 
bishop's  money.     A  similar  charge  was  soon 
afterwards  brought  against  him  at  Dover,  whi- 
ther he  was  conveyed  in  the  same  shi]).  Carried 
a  prisoner  to  Hollandj  he  could  not  obtain  his 


liberty  without  paying  a  considerable  ransom. 
From  Holland  he  witlulrew  to  Basil  in  Swit- 
zerland, and  during  the  reign  of  queen  Mary 
remained  abroad.  The  accession  of  a  protcstan't 
princess  to  the  throne  of  England  encouraged 
him  to  return  to  his  native  country.  He  did 
not,  however,  venture  again  to  encounter  the 
vexations  and  hazards  of  his  Irish  see,  but  con- 
tented himself  with  retiring,  after  a  stormy  life, 
to  the  quiet  repose  of  a  prehendal  stall  at  Can- 
teibury,  to  which  lie  was  preferred  in  1560, 
but  which  he  did  not  long  live  to  enjoy  :  he  died 
at  Canterbury  in  November  1563,  in  the  six- 
ty-eighth year  of  iiis  age. 

Bale,  while  he  was  a  papist,  wrote  many  small 
pieces  ;  and  after  he  renounced  poperv,  the  pro- 
ductions of  his  pen,  both  in  Latin  :;nd  English, 
were  still  more  numerous.      Most  of  his  Eng- 
lish writings  in  prose  were  pointed  against  po- 
pery,  to  which  he  was   a  bitter  enemy.     He 
wrote  a  "  Chronicle  concerning  Sir  John  Old- 
castle,"  which  was  republished  in   ijzq.    He 
left  many  strange  pieces  in  English  metre,  a- 
among  which  are  several  plays  on  sacred  sub- 
jects, which  to  a  modern  audience  would  appear 
extravagantly  burlesque,  but  which,   in  the  age 
in   which   they   were    written,   were  doubtless 
gravely  and  piously  performed.     Among  these 
are  comedies  on  John  Baptist's  preaching,  co- 
medies on  the  childhood,  temptation,   passion, 
and  resurrection  of  Christ,  on  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, and  washing  the  disciples'  feet,  &c.     The 
first  of  these  pieces  may   be   seen  in    "  The 
Harleian   Miscellany."    Bale    himself  tells   us 
(Vocacyon,    &c-)    that  his   comedy    of  John 
Baptist's  preaching,   and  his  tragedy  of  God's 
Promises,    were  acted   by  young   men   at   the 
market-cross    of    Kilkenny    upon    a    Sunday. 
These  pieces  are  at  present  only  sought  for  as 
objects  of  curiosity.     The  only  work  of  Bishop 
Bale  which  has  given  him  distinction  among 
authors  is  his  "  Scriptorum  lUustrium  Majoris 
Britannia  Catalogus ;"    an  "  Account  of  the 
Lives  of  Eminent  Writers  of  Great  Britain," 
commencing,  as  it  is  expressed  in  the  author's 
title,  from  japhet  one  of  the  sons  of  Noah,  and 
brought  down  tlirough  a  series  of  3618  years, 
to  the  year  of  the  Christian  sera  1557,  at  which 
time  the  author  was   an  exile   for  religion   in 
Germany.    The  work  is  compiled  from  various 
authors,  but  chiefly  from  the  labours  of  the 
eminent  antiquarian  John  Leland.     The  vehe- 
mence of  Bale's  invectives  against  popery,  and 
the  freedom  with  which  he  exposes  the  vices  of 
popes,  priests,    and    monks,  have  given  great 
offence    to     Roman    Catholic    writers,     who   . 
unite  to  load  him  with  censure  and  reproach, 


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as  a  vender  of  lies  and  calumnies.  Several  good 
Critics  have  charged  hiin  with  disingciuiitv,  as 
well  as  with  credulity.  VVharton  says  (Pref. 
to  An^lia  Sacra),  that  he  paid  very  little  regard 
to  tiuth,  provided  he  could  increase  the  number 
of  enemies  to  the  Romisli  church  ;  and  Nicol- 
son  asserts,  (Engl.  Hist.  Library,  p.  156,)  that 
the  chief  of  his  own  superstructure  is  maliLious 
and  bitter  invectives  against  the  papists.  Per- 
haps tliis  judgment  is  too  severe.  If,  with 
Granger,  (Biogr.  Hist.  vol.  i.  p.  139,  8vo.) 
we  admit,  that  the  intemperate  zeal  of  this  pre- 
late often  canied  him  beyond  tlie  bounds  of  de- 
cency and  candour  in  his  accounts  of  the  pa- 
pists, we  must  add,  that  his  sufferings  inay 
furnish  some  apology  for  his  acrimony,  and 
that  many  things  wliich  he  relates,  thougli  be- 
fore designedly  concealed,  or  ingeniously  glossed 
over,  bv  Roman  Catholic  writer'^,  might,  ne- 
vertheless, be  true.  With  considerable  allow- 
ance for  the  strong  bias  of  party  7.cal,  Bale's 
biographical  work  inay  be  read  with  advantage. 
Bateus  de  Seipso,  apud  Script.  Brit.  Catalog. 
Vocacyon  of  John  Bale.  Fuller's  English  IVor- 
tJiies.     Nicolson.      Biogr.  Brit. — E. 

BALGUY,  John,  an  English  divine,  was 
born  at  Sheffield,  in  Yorkshire,  in  the  year 
1686.  He  received  the  first  rudiments  of  learn- 
ing from  his  father,  who  was  master  of  the  free 
grammar-school  in  that  place  ;  and  after  his 
death  was  instructed  By  his  successor  Mr.  Dau- 
buz,  author  of  an  esteemed  "  Cominentary  on 
the  Revelations."  In  1702  he  was  adtnitted  of 
St.  John's  College,  in  Cambridge.  It  was  a 
frequent  subject  of  subsequent  regret  to  tliis 
worthy  man,  that  he  wasted  nearly  two  of  the 
valuable  years  of  acadeinic  education  in  read- 
ing roinancis  ;  and  his  regret  on  this  account 
was  certainly  not  without  reason  ;  for  whatever 
effect  this  kind  of  reading  might  have  had  in  in- 
vigorating his  fancy,  it  would  contribute  little 
towards  informing  his  understanding,  or  im- 
proving his  taste.  From  this  fri\olous  occupa- 
tion he  was  at  last  diverted  by  leading  Livy, 
whose  history  he  perused  with  great  delight ; 
and  from  that  time  he  devoted  himself  with  jilea- 
sure  to  serious  studies.  After  he  left  the  uni- 
versity, he  was  for  some  time  cm|)loved  as  a 
preceptor,  first  in  the  school  at  Slietfield,  and 
afterwards  in  a  private  family,  leaking  clerical 
orders  in  171 1,  he  from  that  time  devoted  him- 
self industriously  to  the  duties  of  his  profession, 
in  the  living  of  Lamesly  and  Tanfield,  in  Dur- 
ham, and  for  several  years  composed  a  new  dis- 
course for  the  pulpit  every  week.  Possessing  a 
candid  and  liberal  spirit,  and  considerable  talents 
for  writing,  Balguy  early  appeared  as  an  advo- 


cate for  religious  freedom  in  the  dispute  concern- 
ing church  authority,  which  took  its  rise  from  a 
sermon  preached  before  the  king  by  Dr.  Hoadly, 
bishop  of  Bangor,  in  March,  17 17.  on  the  text, 
"  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world,"  and 
which  thro  igh  the  three  succeeding  years  en- 
gaged the  public  attention,  and  is  still  remem- 
bered under  the  nam?  of  t!ic  Bjngotian  con- 
troversy. In  1718,  Balguy  un.ltnook  the  vin- 
dication of  bishop  Hoadly,  and,  under  the  ficti- 
tious name  of  Svlvius,  wrote  "  Au  Examina- 
tion of  certain  Doctiincs  lately  taught  and  de- 
fended by  the  Rev.  Mr.  StebUng;"  and  in  the 
following  year,  under  the  same  signature,  pub- 
lished "  A  Letter  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  .S.'icrlock." 
Stcbbing  having  continued  the  comrovcrsv,  Bal- 
guy, in  1720,  published  a  third  tract,  entitled, 
"  Silvius's  Defence  of  a  Dialogu:  between  a 
Papist  and  a  Protestant."  These  publitaiions, 
in  concurrence  with  many  others  which  appear- 
ed about  this  time,  were  very  useful  in  disvcmi- 
nating  just  and  liberal  principles  on  (he  subject 
of  the  controversy. 

Another  important  question,  a  few  years  af- 
terwards, excited  a  controvcrsv.  in  which  tliis 
able  writer  bore  a  distinguished  part.  Lord 
Shaftesbury,  in  his  celebrated  work,  entitled 
*'  Characteristics,"  had  written  an  inquiry  con- 
cerning virtue,  in  which  he  considers  it  as  aa 
instinctive  sentiment.  This  notion  was  now  re- 
vived, and  maintained  more  i>hiiosophically  and 
systematically  by  Hutcluson,  in  his  *'  Inquiry 
into  the  Original  of  our  Ideas  of  Beauty  and  \'ir- 
tue."  This  notion  appeared  to  Mr.  Balguy  too 
evanescent  to  afford  a  solid  foundation  lor  mo- 
ral obligation.  He  therefore,  in  1726,  wrote, 
in  reply  10  Shaftesbury,  "  A  Letter  to  a  Deist, 
concerning  the  Beauty  and  Excellence  of  moral 
Virtue, and  tlieS;ippoit  and  Improvement  which 
it  receives  from  the  Christian  Revclarion  ;"  and, 
in  1728,  published  a  tract,  entitled,  "  The 
Foundation  of  moral  Goodness,  or  a  farther  In- 
quiry into  the  Original  of  our  Idea  of  \'irtue  ;" 
which  w^s  the  next  year  followed  by  a  5 -cond 
part,  illustrating  and  entorcing  the  piintjv-s 
and  reasonings  containcil  in  il:c  fornjcr,  and  ir- 
plving  to  certain  remarks  communieaicd  by  lord 
Daicy  to  the  author.  Tliis  subject  led  the  au- 
thor's thoughts,  by  an  easy  transition,  to  the 
question.  What  may  be  considered  as  the  first 
spring  of  action  in  the  Deity  ?  And,  in  1730, 
he  published  a  piece,  under  the  title  of  "DiMi- 
Rectitudc,  or,  a  brief  Innuiry  concerning  t  r 
moral  Perfections  of  the  Dcitv,  patici  lail  . 
respect  of  Creation  and  Providence."  Tlu- 
thoi's  design  was  to  show,  that  the  I'lvine  dis- 
pensation* might  be  better   explained  on  the 


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principle  of  lectitudc,  tlian  on  that  of  benevo- 
lence. An  opinion  not  very  different  from  this 
"was  :»dvani.eJ  in  a  publication,  whicli  appeared 
so'jf)  afterwards,  by  Mr.  Grove,  who  maintain- 
ed tliat  the  first  spring  of  tlic  Deity  is  wisdom  ; 
%\hile  another  writer,  Mr.  Baycs,  supported  the 
opinion,  that  it  is  benevolence.  Tliis  contro- 
versy was  supported  on  all  hands  with  great  in- 
genuity, but  was  perhaps,  after  all,  little  more 
than  a  verbal  dispute.  The  "  Essay  on  Divine 
RectiiudL-"  was  followed  by  "  A  second  t.etter 
to  a  Deist,"  occasioned  by  Tindal's  "  Chris- 
tianity as  old  as  the  Creation  ;"  and  by  another 
tract,  entitled,  "  Tlie  Law  of  Truth,  or  the 
Obligations  of  Reason  essential  to  all  Reli- 
gion." In  1 741,  Air.  Balguy  published  an 
"  Essay  on  Redemption,"  in  which  he  explain- 
ed the  doctrine  of  the  atonement,  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  afterwards  adopted  by  Dr.  John 
Taylor,  of  Norwich.  Concerning  this  trea- 
tise, bishop  Hoadly's  opinion,  communicated 
by  letter,  was,  that  he  had  been  more  success- 
ful in  ridding  Christianity  of  some  absurd  doc- 
trines, which  had  been  long  considered  as  al- 
most essential  to  it,  than  in  substituting  others 
in  their  stead. 

After  this  time,  the  only  addition  which  Mr. 
Balguy  made  to  his  publications,  was  a  volume 
of  sermons.  These,  together  with  a  posthu- 
mous volume,  have  been  justly  admired  as  good 
models  of  tlie  plain  and  simple  style  of  preach- 
ing. The  subjects  on  which  they  treat  are  chiefly 
practical.  It  has  been  regretted,  that  he  com- 
mitted, at  one  time,  two  hundred  and  fifty  ser- 
jnons  to  the  flames  ;  but,  without  insinuating 
any  thing  to  the  discredit  of  the  writer,  it  may 
hs  remarked,  that  an  author,  who  could  write 
like  Balguy,  was  well  able  to  judge  which  of 
his  productions  were  wordi  preserving.  To- 
wards tlie  close  of  life,  this  worthy  man  found 
it  necessary,  through  ill  health,  to  withdraw  al- 
most entirely  from  company,  except  ^vhat  he 
chose  at  Harrowgate,  which  he  frequented  every 
season,  and  where  he  died  in  1748,  in  the  sixty - 
third  year  of  his  age. 

Mr.  Balguv's  talents  and  character  might  have 
justly  entitled  him  to  a  higher  station  in  the 
■church,  than  a  humble  vicarage  of  270I.  a 
year ;  yet  this  living,  at  North-AUerton,  in 
Yorkshire,  except  a  prebend  at  Salisbury,  given 
him  by  bishop  Hoadly,  was  all  the  preferment 
he  ever  received.  It  is  to  be  presumed,  that  his 
modesty^  not  his  liberality,  prevented  his  ad- 
vancement. He  cultivated  and  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  worthy  men  of  different  denomi- 
nations. His  writings,  if  they  left  room  for 
farther  discussion,  promoted  rational  inquiry  ; 


and  his  name  will  be  transmitted  to  posterity 
with  those  of  Clarke  and  Hoadly.  "  Ho  v.  as 
the  friend  of  these  illustrious  men,  and  was  as- 
sociated with  them  in  maintaining  the  cause  of 
rational  religion,  and  Christian  liberty."  Biogr, 
Brit,  from  Mcmovlah  communicated  by  Dr.  Bal- 
^«y.— E. 

BALL,  John,  an  English  divine,  was  born 
at  Cassington,  near  Woodstock,  in  Oxford- 
shire, in  1585.  Though  educated  at  Oxford, 
he  attached  himself  to  the  cause  of  the  puritans. 
Having  obtained  ordination  from  an  Irish  bi- 
shop without  subscription,  he  settled  upon  a  cu- 
racy, at  Whitmorc,  In  Staffords'iire,  of  twenty 
pounds  a  year  ;  upon  \\  liich,  together  with  a 
trifling  income  from  a  snnall  school,  he  lived 
contentedly.  Notwithstanding  the  obscurity  of 
his  situation,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
writings.  His  principal  work  was,  "  A  short 
Treatise  concerning  all  the  princijjal  Grounds 
of  the  Christian  Religion."  I'his  popular  trea- 
tise passed  through  fourteen  editions  before  the 
year  1632,  and  was  translated  into  the  Turkish 
language.  Bali  likewise  wrote  "  A  Treatise 
on  Faith,"  4to.  1631  ;  "  A  friendly  Trial  of 
the  Grounds  of  Separation,"  410.  1640  ;  and 
several  devotional  pieces.  Though  disinclined 
to  ceremonies,  he  wrote  against  those  who 
thought  them  a  sufiicient  ground  of  separation. 
He  died  in  1640,  leaving  behind  him  the  cha- 
racter of  a  laborious  preacher,  and  an  inge- 
nious writer.  JVood^s  Athen.  Oxon.  Biogr. 
Brit.—E. 

BALLEXOERD,  N.  a  citizen  of  Geneva, 
who  was  born  in  1726,  and  died  in  his  own 
country  in  1774,  is  known  as  the  author  of  an 
useful  work,  entitled,  "  L'Education  i^hysiquc 
des  Enfans,"  printed  in  8vo.  in  1764.  Tliis 
dissertation,  -which  received  the  prize  from  a  so- 
ciety in  Holland,  abounds  with  physical  know- 
ledge and  judicious  observations.  The  author 
takes  the  child  from  its  birth,  and  conducts  it  to 
years  of  puberty.  There  is  another  disserta- 
tion, not  less  interesting,  by  the  same  audior, 
on  the  question,  "  VVliat  are  the  principal  C.yuses 
of  the  numerous  Deaths  of  Children."  Kouv. 
Diet.  Hist. — E. 

BALLIANI,  John  Baptist,  a  senator  of 
Genoa,  born  in  1586,  has  distinguished  him- 
self among  natural  philosophers  by  a  profound 
treatise,  written  in  Latin,  "  On  the  natuial 
Motion  of  heavy  Bodies."  This  work  first  ap- 
peared in  1638,  and  in  1646  was  republished, 
much  enlarged,  and  enriched  with  excellent  ob- 
servations. Had  BallianI  had  leisure  to  apply 
himself  to  the  sciences,  he  might  have  appeared 
with  distiiaction  among  the  first  philosophers  of 


% 


STPETKRCs     COLL,J',!rK 


:.  ..m 

K 

^ 

Bi'GttOEBAx.SHAM  Bishop  ofEi.Y 


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B  A  L 


Icaly ;  but  his  rank  and  profession  directed  his 
principal  attention  to  law  ai.d  polfcv,  and  left 
him  only  a  few  occasional  hours  for  l.is  favourite 
studies,  miithcmatics,  and  physics.  He  passed 
with  honour  througli  many  public  offices,  and 
died  in  1666.      Tnahosch'i. — E. 

BALLIN,Claude,  a  most  excellent  worker 
in  gold  and  silver,  was  born  in  16 1  5  at  Paris, 
where  liis  fatlier  exercised  the  profession  of  a 
goldsmith.     He  laid  a  foundation  for  taste  and 
skill  in  his  art  by  the  study  of  design,  copying 
many  of  the  pictures  of  Poussin  at  his  fatlicr's, 
and  practising  at  the  private  schools  of  drawing. 
Hs  had  attained  so  much  excellence  at  an  early 
age,  that  when  only  nineteen  he  made  four  sil- 
ver basons,  sculptured  with  the  Four  ages  of  the 
world,  which  cardinal  Richelieu  purchased,  and 
so  greatly  admired,  that  he  employed  the  voung 
artist  to  match  them  with  four  anticjue  vases. 
Rising  to  the  highest  reputation  in  his  art,  he 
was  employed  to  execute  a  grdat' number  6f 
pieces  of  ornamental  plate  for  Lewis  XIV,  to 
which  he  gave  such  a  value  by  his  chisel,  that 
the  workmanship  was  computed  at  ten  times 
tlie  worth  of  the   material.     The  greatest  part 
of  these  were  irielted  down  during  die  necessi- 
ties to  which  the  wars  and  expenses  of  that  mo- 
narch reduced  him  before  the  peace  of  Rys- 
wick ;  but  die  designs  of  the  principal  of  them 
were  first  engraved  by  Ballin's  ne()he\v,  Launoi. 
Several  of  his  capital  works,  however,  are  still 
(or  lately  were)   remaining  in  the  churches  of 
Paris,  St.  Denis,  and  Pontoisc.    After  the  death 
of  Varin,  the  direction  of  tlie  mint  for  casts  and 
medals  was   given  to   Ballin,  in  which  small 
works  he  exhibited  all  the  taste  displayed  in  his 
larger  ones.    This  admirable  artist  was  scarcely 
ever  out  of  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1678.    AIo- 
rcr'i.      Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — A. 

BALSAMON,  Theodore,  an  flninent 
master  of  tlic  canon  law,  and  ornament  of  the 
Greek  church,  flourished  towards  the  close  of 
the  twelfth  century.  He  was  appointed  guar- 
dian of  the  laws  and  records  (Nomophylax  et 
Charto  phylax)  ofthe  church  of  Constantinople. 
He  was  nominated  by  the  Greek  church  to  the 
patriarchate  of  Amioch,  but  this  sec  having 
been  seized  by  the  Latins,  could  never  come 
into  his  possession.  The  emperor  Isaac  An^ 
gelus  Comnenus  having  a  design  of  advancing 
to  the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople  Dosi- 
theus,  then  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  in  order  to 
obtain  a  decision  in  council  in  favour  of  such  a 
translation,  which  was  in  fact  contrary  to  the 
canon  lavv,  he  flattered  Balsamon  w  ith  the  hope 
of  being  advanced  to  this  elevated  station.  (Ni- 
cetas  Ohoniatcs  in  Is.  Ang.  lib.  ii.  c.  4.  p.  4.^:^  ) 


Seduced  by  thij  expectation,  Bal^amon  main- 
tained, in  the  assembly  of  the  prdates,  that 
such  a  translation,  far  from  being  cor.trary, 
was  perfectly  agreeable  to  tlic  canon  la-.v  ;  ai-.d 
the  prelates,  who  '.  '  '  '    ': 

defeience  to  his   j 

opinion.  But,  to  iii-,  intAi-rchMulc  u;;i  '.-  aiid 
moitifuatiou,  Itv  soon  found,  that  he  :  ;id  exer- 
cised his  ingenuity,  and  strettlied  hi«  con<ciencc, 
not  for  his  own  bcnctit,  but  for  that  of  a  rival. 
DosJtlKus,  upon  the  authority  of  this  decision, 
was  appointed  patriarch  ot  Constantinople. 
Balsarjion  wrote  several  learned  works  on  canon 
law;  particularly,  "Commentaries  f '  ' 
stolical  Canons,  tlie  general  and 
Councils,  and  the  canonical  LettCT%  nf  the 
Greek  Fathers,"  jninted  in  folio  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  at  Paris,  in  1 620,  and  in  two  vnlumt.-s,  fo- 
lio, in  "  Bevcridge's  Pandects  of  Can'>n»,"  print- 
ed at  Oxford  in  1 672.  He  also  w  rote  a  "  Col- 
lection of  ecclesi;istical  Constitutions,"  to  be 
found  in  Greek  and  Latin  in  "  Justelii  Bibiij- 
theca  Canonica,"  and  other  Immed  works. 
Fahricil  Rib!.  Grtrc.     Dupin.     Mcrtti.  —  E. 

BALSHAM,  Hugh  or,  an  English  di- 
vine, bishop  of  Ely,  and  founder  of  St.  Peter's 
College,  or  Peter-House,  in  Cambridge,  was, 
probably,  born  at  Balsham,  in  Cambridgeshire, 
towards  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
He  was,  in  1247,  nominated  by  the  monks  of 
the  Benedictii.c  monasteiy  of  Ely,  in  which 
he  held  the  office  of  sub-prior,  to  the  sec  of 
Ely.  The  king,  Henrv  111.  who  wi^hc*!  to 
appoint  one  of  his  own  Iricnth,  rcfi, 
firm  their  nomination.   (Mat.  Paiis  I  .^. 

cd.  1640,  p.  956.)  Balsham  appe:dtd  10  the 
pope,  who  claimed  a  right  of  disposing  of  va- 
cant bishoprics  in  England  hv  way  of  provision. 
The  king  contested  this  right,  and  the  affair  re- 
mained for  ten  years  undecided.  At  last,  however, 
the  pope  and  the  monks  prevailed.  31  "  " 
tcr  was  determineil  in  favour  of  Hii 
sham.  Alter  t!ie  prelate  was  s.-ttl-  d  in  lii>  ^cc, 
he  engaged  in  the  laudable  and  public  ^piritrd 
design  of  providing  education  for  poor  scholars. 
By  degrees  he  so  far  accomplished  his  plan,  as 
to  institute  a  college,  since  known  bv  the  nan>e 
of  Pe!cr-Hov.<;e.  Bishop  Balsham  i'  '  "  .- 
dington  in  1286,  and  was  huncd  in  t- 

dral  church  of  Ely.  Bv  his  last  will  !,c  '.C.  to 
his  scholars  many  budlci,  and  thre-  brnlTj 
marks  for  erecting  new  buildincs.  5 

to  an  instruffiint,  dattd   1291,  his  ::  is 

annualize lebr.i I rd  in  his  college.  It  wa<  Hugh 
dc  Balsham  whu,  in  127^,  settled  the  ditrinciion 
of  jurisdiction  Ktwcci  the  chancellor  of  the 
university  of  Carabiidjje  and  the  irchdracori  of 


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Ely,  Hist.  Cainab.  Ac.  a  Calo,  1 574.  Ful- 
ler's Hist,  of  Camb.  Godvjin  de  PresuL 
Biogr.  Brit. — E. 

BALTHAZAR,  Christopher,  a  learned 
French  Protestant,  was  born  about  the  year 
1588,  at  Ville-neuve-le-roi.  He  was  educated 
in  the  Romish  church,  but  the  study  of  eccle- 
siastical history  disposed  him  to  embrace  the  re- 
formed religion.  Tliougli  in  the  profitable  post 
of  advocate  to  the  presidial  of  Auxerre,  which 
could  be  held  only  by  a  Roman  catholic,  after 
much  deliberation,  and  some  stnjggles,»he  left 
Auxerre,  his  office,  relations,  and  friends,  and 
went  to  Charenton,  where  he  was  publicly  re- 
ceived among  the  protestants.  Neither  his  cir- 
cumstances, nor  a  regard  for  his  personal  safety, 
permitting  him  to  remain  at  Paris,  a  wealthy 
young  counsellor  of  Castres  took  him  under  his 
patronage,  and,  in  return  lor  the  pleasure  and 
benefit  of  his  instructions,  allowed  him  a  hand- 
some pension.  Balthazar,  however,  was  de- 
sirous of  employing  his  labours  in  support  of 
the  protestant  cause,  and  soon  left  the  house  of 
his  patron  to  devote  himself  to  writing.  His 
zeal  and  talents  attracted  the  notice  of  the  re- 
formed party,  and,  in  1659,  the  national  synod 
of  Loudon  granted  him  a  j)ension  of  seven  hun- 
dred and  fifty  livres,  to  be  paid  from  the  public 
collections  of  the  churches.  He  wrote  several 
dissertations  on  subjects  in  dispute  between  the 
catholics  and  protestants,  in  which  he  particu- 
larly opposed  cardinal  Baronius.  The  papers 
were  read  and  approved  by  an  excellent  judge, 
RI.  Daille,  moderator  of  the  synod  of  Loudon, 
and  it  was  determined  that  they  should  be  pub- 
lished. It  unfortunately  happened,  that  the  au- 
thor, into  whose  hands  they  were  returned,  died 
soon  after,  and,  though  diligent  search  were 
made  for  them,  they  could  not  be  found.  It  is 
not  improbable  that  they  were  suppressed  by  the 
author  himself,  merely  through  extreme  delicacy 
concerning  his  style ;  for  it  is  related  that,  in- 
composing  his  animadversions  on  the  Annals 
of  Baronius,  he  polished  his  style  with  such  la- 
borious exactness,  that  he  sometimes  was  not 
able  to  finish  a  single  page  of  his  work  in  a  day. 
Desirable  as  a  habit  of  correct  and  elegant  ex- 
pression certainly  is,  that  finical  nicety,  which 
is  a  perpetual  clog  upon  a  writer's  progress, 
must  be  censured  as  a  fault,  and,  when  in- 
dulged in  the  extreme  degree  reported  of  Baltha- 
zar, becomes  liighly  ridiculous.  A  favourable 
specimen  of  his  latinity  may  be  seen  in  his 
<'  Panegyric  on  M.  Fouquet,"  printed  in  410. 
in  1655.  Balthazar  also  wrote  in  French,  "  A 
Treatise  on  the  Usurpations  of  the  Kings  of 
Spain  upon  tlie  Crown  of  France,"    Svo.    Pa- 


ris,  1626;    and  another  tract  upon  the  same 
subject,  published   in    1657.     Bayle.     Morcri. 

BALTHAZARINI,  a  celebrated  Italian  mu- 
sician, and  the  first  great  violinist  upon  record, 
was  sent  from  Piedmont  at  the  head  of  a  band 
of  violin-players  in  1577,  ''y  Marshal  Brisac, 
to  the  court  of  France,  where  the  queen,  Ca- 
tharine de  Medicis,  made  him  her  first  valet  de 
chambre,  and  superintendant  of ^ her  music.  He 
contributed  so  much  to  the  entertainment  of  the 
court  and  royal  family  by  his  playing,  and  his 
ingenuity  in  inventing  magnificent  plans,  ma- 
chinery, decorations,  &c.  for  ballets,  divertise- 
ments,  and  other  dramatic  representations,  that 
he  received  the  title  of  Bcaujeyenx.  He  com- 
posed, in  1 58 1,  a  ballet  for  the  nuptials  of  the 
king's  favourite,  the  duke  de  Joyeux,  with  Ma- 
demoiselle de  "\'audemont,  sister  to  the  queen.  It 
was  called  "  Ceres  and  her  Nymphs,"  and  was 
printed  under  the  title  of  "  Balet  comique  de  la 
Royne,"  Sec.  Paris,  1582.  The  music  was 
by  Claude  le  Jeune,  and  other  composers,  but 
the  plan  and  devices  of  the  ballet  were  the  in- 
vention of  Balthazarini.  \\\  the  preface  he  says, 
that  he  "  has  blended  poetry,  mu^ic,  and  danc- 
ing, in  a  manner,  which,  if  ever  done  before, 
must  have  been  in  such  remote  antiquity,  that 
it  may  now  well  be  called  new."  The  first 
place  is  given  to  dancing ;  and  this,  in  the  opi- 
nion of  Dr.  Burney,  is  the  origin  of  the  Balet 
Hcroiqiie,  and  Historique,  in  France.  Burney's 
Hist,  of  Music,  vol.  iii.  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. 
—A. 

BALTUS,  John  Francis,  alearnedFrench 
Jesuit,  born  at  Mentz,  in  1667,  and  admitted 
into  the  society  of  Jesus,  at  Nancy,  in  1682, 
was  much  esteemed  by  his  fraternity.  He  waj 
an  excellent  scholar,  and  deeply  read  in  Chris- 
tian and  Jewish  antiquities.  After  occupying 
several  ofHces  of  the  society,  his  fondness  for 
books  induced  him  to  take  the  charge  of  the 
public  library  at  Rheims,  where  he  died  in  the 
year  1743.  His  most  celebrated  work  is,  "An 
Ansiver  to  Fontenelle's  History  of  Oracles," 
written  in  French,  and  published  in  Svo,  at 
Strasburg,  in  1707  ;  in  which  he  labours  hard 
to  refute  the  opinion  of  that  celebrated  wit,  an 
opinion  before  maintained  with  great  learning 
and  ingenuity  by  Van-Dale,  that  the  pagan 
oracles  were  impostures,  contrived  and  carried 
on  by  the  priests,  and  not,  as  had  commonly 
been  asserted  by  divines,  the  work  of  dsmons, 
who  were  silenced  by  the  power  of  Christ. 
Fontenelle  published  no  reply  to  this  "  An- 
swer," not  because  he  thought  the  arguments 
of  Baitus  decisive,  but  because  he  liad  an  aver- 


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sion  to  disputes  of  this  kind,  anil,  lo  use  liis 
own  words,  "  choje  rather  to  let  the  devil  pass 
for  a  prophet,  than  to  occupy  his  time  with 
fruitless  discussions."  Tlie  subject,  however, 
was  taken  up  by  the  learned  Lc  Clerc,  wlio,  in 
the  "  Bibliotliequc  Choiscc"  for  the  year  1707, 
inserted  icniarks  upon  the  work  of  father  Bal- 
tus,  which  called  forth  a  "  Continuation  of  the 
Answer"  to  Fontenelle,  pubiisl.ed  at  Strasburg 
in  1708.  '1  liese  two  volumes  were  soon  after- 
wards translated  into  English.  Baltus  also 
wrote,  in  French,  "  A  Defence  of  the  Chris- 
tian Fadiets  accused  of  Platonism,"  410.  1711; 
"  The  Judgment  of  the  Fathers  on  the  Mora- 
lity of  Pagan  Piiilosoi)hy,"  4to.  Strasburg, 
1 7 1 9  ;  "  The  Christian  Religion  proved  by  the 
Accomplishment  of  Propliecics,"  4to.  Paiis, 
1728  ;  unil  "  A  Defence  of  the  Prophecies  of 
the  Christian  Religion,"  thiec  volupies,  i2ino. 
Paris,  1737.  niiis  latter  pj; forniar.ce  was 
w  ritten  against  Grotius  and  father  Simon,  wlio 
had  explained  the  prophecies  with  a  latitude  of 
interpretation,  which  fatlier  Baltus  did  not  ap- 
prove. He  possessed  considerable  learning  and 
talents,  which  he  employed  in  support  of  the 
system  which  the  church  of  Rome  had  pro- 
nounced orthodox.  Morni.  Nouv.  D':ct, 
Hhf.—K. 

BALUE,  John,  cardinal,  a  man  who  at- 
tained some  celebrity  by  ill-acquired  power, 
was  born  about  1420,  of  very  obscuie  paren- 
tage, his  father  being  by  some  said  to  have  been 
a  miller  at  Verdun,  by  others,  a  tailor  at  Poi- 
tiers. He  studied  for  the  clerical  profession, 
and  first  attached  himself  to  jouvenal  des  Ur- 
sins,  bishop  of  Poitiers ;  then  to  John  de  Beau- 
veau,  bishop  of  Angers,  who  made  him  a  ca- 
non of  his  church.  He  was  afterwards  pre- 
sented by  Charles  de  Melun,  favourite  of  Lewis 
XI.  to  that  prince,  who  made  him  his  almoner. 
In  this  situation,  his  crafty,  subtle,  and  confi- 
dent disposition  soon  piislied  him  forwards. 
He  obtained  several  abbacies,  was  made  super- 
intendant  of  the  finances,  had  the  bishopric  of 
Evreu.\,  and  next  of  Angers,  from  which  he 
had  procured  the  deposition  of  his  old  patron, 
John  de  Beauvcau.  In  consequence  of  his  ser- 
vices to  the  Roman  see,  in  having  caused  the 
abolition  of  tlie  pragmatic  sanction,  supported 
by  the  parliaments  and  universities  of  fiance, 
Balue  obtained  a  cardinal's  hat  from  Paid  Jl. 
His  influence  over  the  mind  of  his  bad  master 
was  extreme.  He  interfered  in  all  public  af- 
fairs ;  and  once,  in  his  pontifical  habit,  caused 
the  troops  to  pass  in  review  before  him  ;  on 
which  the  count  of  Dammartin  requested  leave 
to  be  sent  to  his  bishopric,  in  order  to  make  a 

VOL.    I. 


muster  of  the  ecclesiastics.  After  a  long  h  ■ 
vour,  his  intriguing  spirit  led  hiu)  into  corre- 
spondencies with  the  dukes  of  Burgundy  and 
Berry,  to  the  prejudice  of  king  I^wis,  wlio 
had  shown  distrust  of  him  since  the  danger  li? 
incurred,  on  his  persuasion,  at  the  conference 
of  Peronne.  His  letters  were  intercepted,  and 
his  guilt  piovcd  by  his  own  confession.  'I'he 
king  imjjrisoned  him,  as  is  said,  in  an  iron  cage 
made  for  the  pin  pose,  for  the  spare  ol  eleven  years, 
not  being  pcimittcd  by  the  pope  to  bring  him  to 
a  public  trial  in  the  kingdom.  At  length,  the 
superctitious  ti  rrors  of  Lewis,  tiicn  near  his 
end,  and  the  persuasions  of  the  popc'»  legate, 
regained  him  his  liberty  in  I480.  He  went  to 
P.ome,  where  he  was  received  with  great  ho- 
nour, and  Sixtus  IV.  insulted  the  kingdom  by 
sending  him  back  as  his  legate  to  Charles  \'II1. 
Balue  had  the  confidence  to  attempt  to  exercise 
his  functions  before  his  letters  had  l)een  present- 
ed to  the  parliament,  but  the  king  wotild  nof 
sufler  it.  He  returned  to  Rome,  \vlure  he  was 
presented  to  the  bishopric  of  Albano,  and  af- 
terwards of  Prneneste,  and  was  apjioiiited  legate 
of  the  March  of  Ancona.  He  died  in  1491. 
Moreri. — A. 

BALUZE,  Stephen',  a  learned  French 
writer,  born  at  Tulles,  in  1630,  took  great 
pains  to  collect  from  various  quarters  manu- 
scripts of  authors,  compare  them  with  the  edi- 
tions already  published,  and  give  new  editions, 
with  notes,  full  of  research  and  erudition.  His 
attention  was,  however,  chiefly  confined  to 
works  in  ecclesiastic  historv,  as  lives  and  let- 
ters of  popes,  and  other  eminent  ecclesiastics ; 
histories  of  councils  ;  homilies,  and  the  like. 
In  1655  he  was  taken  under  the  patronage  of 
the  archbishop  of  Toulouse,  and  after  his  «k-ath 
was  librarian  to  the  illustiious  Colbert.  The 
king  created  in  his  favour  a  chair  of  canon  law 
in  the  loyal  colleg.:,  appointed  h; 
the  college,  and  granted  him  a  ; 
a  long  and  tranquil  enjovmeiit  01  li. .m  i.  n  ,,  n, 
he  was  persuaded  by  cardinal  Bnuillon  lu  wntc 
"  A  genealogical  History  of  the  House  of  Au- 
vergnc,"  which  contained  matters  so  olfcosive 
to  the  coun,  that  the  work  was  suppressed  by 
order  of  the  parliament  of  Paris,  and  the  au- 
thor was  deprived  of  his  places  and  pension, 
and  sent  into  exile.  He  was  suceessivelv  resi- 
dent at  Rouen,  Tours,  and  Oilc.ins.  and  was 
not  recalled  to  Paris  till  alter  the  peace  of 
Utrecht.  Balu/c  amused  himself  in  his  old  age 
by  writing  tlic  histor\-  of  his  native  place,  iinJet 
the  title  of  •'  Historia  Tulcllcnsis"  printed  in 
quarto  at  Paris,  in  lyj?.  He  dieil  in  J718  at 
llie  advanced  age  of  cighrv-cighi,  leaviuf,. 
4  A 


B  A  L 


(    546     ) 


BAM 


among  his  friends,  the  character  of  an  amiable 
man,  ever  ready  to  oblige  others,  and  particu- 
larly to  assist  young  students  by  a  free  commu- 
nication of  his  knowledge,  and  among  the  learn- 
ed an  high  reputation  for  an  extensive  acquaint- 
ance with  books  and  manuscripts,  yomna! des 
So.vans  de  Paris.  Dupin.  Mi^rcrl.  Notiv. 
Diet.  Hist.—E. 

BALZAC,  John  Louis  Guez,  lord  of 
Balzac,  the  son  of  a  gentleman  of  Languedoc, 
,\vas  born  at  Angouleme,  in  1595.  When 
young,  he  attached  himself  to  the  duke  of  Eper- 
non,  and  then  to  the  cardinal  de  la  Valette,  who 
employed  him  as  his  agent  at  Rome,  where  he 
remained  two  yeai"s.  At  his  return,  the  cardinal 
introduced  him  at  court,  where  his  wit  and  elo- 
quence caused  him  to  be  much  noticed.  The 
bishop  of  Lu^on,  afterwards  cardinal  Richelieu, 
esteemed  him,  and,  wlien  minister,  bestowed 
upon  him  a  pension,  with  the  brevets  of  coun- 
sellor of  state,  and  royal  historiographer.  He 
first  distinguishedhimself  by  his  Letters,  of  which 
the  earliest  collection  was  published  in  1624. 
They  obtaifjed  extraordinary  popularity,  and 
were  long  regarded  as  perfect  models  in  that 
kind  of  composition.  With  much  fine  senti- 
ment, and  beauty  of  language,  they  are,  how- 
ever, studied,  pompous,  and  inflated.  They 
are  reckoned  direct  contrasts  to  the  manner  of 
Voiiure  ;  but  if  inferior  to  that  writer  in  free- 
dom, Balzac  was  superior  in  real  weight  of 
matter.  Such  was  the  reputation  he  acquired 
as  a  man  of  letters,  that  it  became  at  length  a 
heavy  burthen  to  him.  Every  gentleman  in 
France  who  wished  to  be  thought  a  l>el  esprit, 
wrote  to  him  for  tlie  sole  purpose  of  having  a 
letter  from  Balzac  to  show ;  and  it  cannot  be 
wondered  at  that  he  complains  of  such  a  perpe- 
tual exertion  of  his  imagination  for  so  frivolous 
a  purpose,  as  the  most  irksome  of  all  tasks. 
He  likewise  paid  the  usual  penalty  of  literary 
eminence  in  being  the  subject  of  severe  criti- 
cism. His  style  of  eloquence  was  attacked  by 
a  young  Feuillant,  and  defended  by  himself  un- 
der the  name  of  the  abbe  Ozier.  This  called 
forth  a  still  more  acrimonious  attack,  in  two 
large  volumes,  from  Goulu,  the  general  of  the 
Feuillants,  who  not  content  with  vilifying  Bal- 
zac's merit  as  a  writer,  abused  the  morality  of 
his  works,  though  v^'ith  little  reason.  He  bore 
these  censures  for  some  time  with  apparent  in- 
difference ;  but  at  length  he  made  a  retreat  from 
the  scene  of  contention  to  his  estate  of  Balzac, 
pleasantly  situated  on  the  borders  of  the  Cha- 
rente,  near  Angouleme,  where  he  employed  his 
time  in  study  and  composition,  and  in  writing 
to  .his  correspondents,  among  whom  were  many 


of  the  most  learned  as  well  as  the  greatest  of 
his  countrymen.  He  himself  was  a  good  clas- 
sical scholar,  and  wrote  Latin  verses  with  faci- 
lity ar-d  elegance.  His  conversation  was  easy 
and  agreeable,  and  free  from  the  affected  air  that 
reigns  in  his  writings.  His  ])hilosophical  love 
of  freedom  and  retirement  did  not,  however, 
preserve  him  from  the  gloom  ot  disappointed 
expectation.  Towards  the  close  of  life  he  be- 
came much  addicted  to  the  devotion  of  his 
church.  He  built  two  chambers  in  the  capu- 
chin convent  of  Angouleme,  in  which  he  often 
resided.  He  alienated  in  his  life-time  eight 
thousand  crowns  for  pious  purposes  ;  and  at  his 
death,  in  1654,  he  left  a  considerable  sum  to 
the  hospital  of  Angouleme,  where  he  directed 
himself  to  be  buried,  eit  the  feet  of  the  poor  in- 
terred there.  He  founded  an  annual  prize  for 
eloquence  at  the  French  academy,  of  which  he 
was  a  member. 

"  The  French  language  (says  Voltaire)  is 
under  very  great  obligations  to  Balzac.  He  first 
gave  number  and  harmony  to  its  prose."  His 
thoughts  likewise  are  frequently  happy,  through 
the  result  of  study.  He  had  a  collection  oi  pen- 
sieri,  which  he  interwove  in  his  compositions 
as  occasion  offered  ;  but  they  are  often  hyper- 
bolical, and  characterised  by  point  and  anti- 
thesis. As  he  was  too  highly  admired  at  his 
first  appearance,  he  afterwards  was  too  much 
depreciated  and  neglected.  His  principal  works 
are  his  "  Letters,"  printed  at  different  times  ; 
"  Le  Prince  ;"  "  Le  Socrate  Chrestien ;" 
"  L'Aristippe;"  "Entretiens;"  '-Latin Verses," 
in  three  books,  of  which  his  "  Amyntas,"  and 
"  Christ  victorious,"  are  most  esteemed.  All 
these  have  been  collected  in  two  volumes,  folio. 
N-ouv.  Diet.  Hist.  Voltaire,  Siecle  de  Louis 
XIV.      Baylc  Diet.— A. 

BAMBRIDGE,  or  Bainbridge,  Chris- 
topher, an  Enghsh  divine  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  a  native  of  Hilton,  near  Appleby,  in 
Westmoreland,  and  a  student  in  Queen's  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  was  conducted,  by  a  rapid  pro- 
gress, through  several  stages  of  ecclesiastical 
preferment,  till,  in  1507,  he  was  advanced  to  the 
see  of  Durham,  and  the  next  year  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  York.  After  the  death  of  Richard 
III.  during  whose  reign  his  friendship  vvfith 
Morton,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  subjected 
him  to  some  sufferings,  he  returned,  under 
Henry  VII.  into  the  full  cunent  of  prosperity. 
Being  appointed  almoner  to  that  prince,  he  was 
employed  by  him  on  several  foreign  embassies. 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  he  was  sent  to 
pope  Juhus  II.  under  the  pretence  of  restoring 
peace  to  Europe,  by  putting  an  end  to  the  league 


jl  :^,:^  MMl^  -^ 


Ja/wrc 


Amchbishof  of  Camte^rbitmiTo 


/iif'.     />i/.l\./lir/iiii-i/.\'iii     I     ri.f //r     'S /i-rr  /  /.frm/rr/'ri /r/s  . 


BAN 


( 


then  formed  by  the  most  powerful  princes  of 
Europe  against  the  Venetiniis,  but  in  fact  lo 
stimulate  the  pope  to  enmity  against  the  king  of 
France.  Bambrldge,  while  he  accomplislied 
with  grcaf  address  his  master's  design,  was  not 
negligent  of  liis  own  interests.  He  so  com- 
pletely ingratiated  himself  with  the  pope,  as  to 
obtain  from  him  a  cardinal's  hat,  and  an  irre- 
gular precedency  in  the  conclave.  (Aubery, 
Histoire  Generate  dcs  Cardinaux,  et  Paris, 
1645,  P-  264.)  He  was  appointed  by  his  ho- 
liness legate  of  the  ecclesiastical  army  which 
was  at  that  time  besieging  Bastia.  Returning 
home,  he  discovered  his  gratitude  to  the  pontif, 
by  prevailing  upon  his  royal  master  to  engage 
in  an  unnecessary  war  in  his  defence.  (Polyd. 
Verg.  Ang.  Hist.  lib.  xxvii.)  Banibiidgc  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  man  altogether  devoted  to 
ambition,  and  to  have  owed  his  i)referment  more  ■ 
to  artifice  than  to  merit.  No  fruits  of  his  learn- 
ing remain ;  and  it  affords  no  high  idea  of  his 
talents,  that,  in  delivering  a  complimentary 
speeclito  the  pope  in  consistory,  he  was  thrown 
into  so  much  confusion  and  embarrassment,  as 
to  say  things  directly  contrary  to  his  intention. 
With  respect  to  his  temper,  little  can  be  con- 
cluded in  its  favour,  from  the  tragical  incident 
which  terminated  his  life.  Being  on  some  oc- 
casion in  a  violent  passion  with  Renaud  of  Mo- 
dena,  his  major-domo,  he  fell  upon  him,  and 
beat  him  excessively.  The  enraged' domestic 
revenged  himself  by  ministering  to  his  master  a 
dose  of  poison.  (Aubrey,  ubi  sup.  p.  166.) 
This  hai'pened  at  Rome  on  the  14th  of  July, 
1514.  I'he  master,  who  had  paid  dearly  for 
forgetting  the  apostolic  precept,  "  A  bishoj) 
must  be  no  striker,"  was  buried  in  the  English 
church  ;  and  the  servant  eluded  the  hand  of  pub- 
lic justice  by  hanging  himself.  /Food's  Athen. 
Oxon.  Pits  de  Illust.  Jug.  Script.  Fuller's 
Worthies.      Biogr.  Brit. — E. 

BANCK,  Laurence,  a  Swedish  lawyer, 
a  native  of  Norcopin,  was  for  fifteen  years 
professor  of  civil  law  in  the  university  of  Fra- 
neker  :  he  died  in  the  year  1662.  He  pt:blished 
in  1649  ^  work,  written  in  Latin,  "  On  the 
Tyrannv  of  the  Pope  over  Christian  Kings  and 
Princes  ;"  and  in  1656,  "  Rome  trimnphant, 
or  the  Ina'.iguration  of  Innocent  X"  But  his 
principal  publication  is  his  edition  oi  the  "  Book 
of  'I'axes  of  tlie  Romish  Chancery,"  a  woik 
which  fixes  the  prices  of  absolution  for  the  most 
heinous  and  infamous  crimes.  This  edition, 
printed  at  Franeker,  in  8vo.  in  the  year  165 1, 
is  said  bv  the  editor  to  have  been  carefully  col 
bted  with  the  most  ancient  copies,  botli  piintcd 
and  manuscript,  particularly  the  editions  ot  Co- 


547 

loi 


) 


BAN 


gne,  1523;  of  Wittemberg.  1538;  of  Ve- 
nice,  1584;  and  of  a  manu$cri|n,  con\muni- 
catcd  by  a  friar  from  Rome.  Other  editioni, 
of  Rome,  1514;  of  Cologne,  1515;  of  Paris, 
'520,  1545,  and  1625,  have  been  cited  (Hei- 
dog.  Myst.  Bab.  torn.  i.  p.  ^47.)  ;  and  Jurieu 
(Piejuges  legit,  contra  Ic  Papisme,  torn.  i.  p. 
295,  &c.)  jiublished  the  particulars  of  these 
taxes.  Banck's  edition  of  these  taxes,  and 
some  others,  have  been  placed  among  prohi- 
bited books  in  the  "  Index"  of  the  Inquisition, 
as  corrupted  by  heretics:  nevertheless  enough 
remains,  in  editions  not  controverted,  to  have 
given  occasion  to  many  worthy  catholics  to  la- 
ment, that  such  taxes  should  have  disgraced  the 
church.  fFilte.  Dear.  Biogr.  Bayle—?.. 
BANCROFT,  Richard,  an  English  pre- 
late, archbishop  of  Canterbur)-,  in  the  reign 
of  James  I.  descended  from  a  good  family  at 
Farnworth,  in  Lancashire,  was  born  in  Sep- 
tember, 1544.  After  an  university  education 
at  Cambridge,  first  in  Jesus  College,  and  af- 
terwards in  Christ  College,  ecclesiastical  baie- 
fices  and  honours  were  speedily  accumulated 
upon  him.  Besides  the  rectories  of  Tiversham, 
in  Cambridgeshire  ;  of  St.  Andrew's,  Holborn  ; 
and  of  Cottingham,  in  Northamptonshire  ;  he 
held  the  office  of  treasurer  of  St.  Patd's  cathe- 
dral :  and  was  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's  ;  of  St. 
Peter's,  Westminster;  of  Cantcibury  ;  and,  ac- 
cording to  some  (Baitely's  Ed.  of  Soinner'« 
Antiq.  of  Canterbury,  part  II.  p.  82.),  of  Dur- 
ham. His  zeal  for  the  church  of  England  wa< 
vehemently  displayed  in  a  bittt  r  invective  against 
her  enemies  the  Puritans,  delivered  in  a  sermon 
at  St.  Paul's  Cross,  on  the  9th  of  February, 
1 589.  He  accused  them,  in  harsh  and  intem- 
perate language,  of  ambition  and  covetousncs.<. 
The  principal  cause  of  non-conformity  and 
schism  was,  he  asserted,  the  prospect  of  plun- 
dering bishoprics,  seizing  the  cndowmeiiis  of 
cathedrals,  and  scrambling  for  the  remainder  of 
the  church  reienucs.  'I'he  laity  among  the 
nonconformists  he  accused  ot  an  intention  to 
dissolve  the  bonds  of  property,  and  introduce  a 
community  of  goods.  He  strongly  represented 
the  danger  of  permitting  private  men  to  c0nre.1t 
the  authoriiv,  and  violate  the  constiiuiioMs  of 
the  church  ;  insisted  up'>n  the  ahsunlitv  of  ex- 
temporary prayers;  anil  maintained  the  divine 
right  of  bishops  in  icims  whii  li,  in  the  judg- 
ment of  sir  Francis  Knollys,  one  ot  the  queen's 
counsellors,  were  injurious  to  the  supremacy  of 
the  crown.  (Stryiie's  Life  of  Archbishop  Whit- 
gift,  book  iii.  chap.  21.)  This  scnnon,  which 
Strvpe  supposes  ti»  have  htt^n  preached  at  the 
instigation  of  artijbishop  Whitgift,  fortliepur- 


BAN 


(    548     ) 


BAN 


pose  of  silencing  the  popular  clamours  against 
episcopacy,  was  only  one  among  innumerable 
proofs  of  Bancroft's  violent  hostility  against  the 
Puiirans.  He  uniformly  opposed,  with  the  ut- 
most vehemence,  sects  and  innovations  ot  every 
kind.  As  one  of  the  commissioners  for  cccle- 
sla;-tical  causes,  he  strcnuoi;siy  pursued  rigorous 
measures  for  the  suppression  of  heresy  and 
schism.  Writings  which  were  levelled  against 
episcopacy,  or  intended  to  recommend  any  other 
mode  of  church  discipline,  he  treated  as  sedi- 
tious, and  pursued  their  authors  as  enemies  to 
the  state.  In  short,  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, to  whom  he  was  chaplain,  found  him  one 
of  the  most  able  and  zealous  agents  whom  he 
could  employ  in  wielding  the  weapons  of  autho- 
rity against  troublesome,  and,  as  they  vrere 
commonly  teimed,  factious  sectaries.  (Strype, 
ubi  sup.  book  iv.  chap.  23.)  If  this  conduct 
excited  displeasure  in  those  who,  at  that  time, 
were  zealous  for  further  refonnation  in  the  af- 
fairs of  religion,  it  was  to  be  expected  that  it 
should,  in  the  same  degree,  obtain  the  applause 
of  those  who  were  well  contented  that  things 
should  remain  as  they  were.  We  cannot  won- 
der that  so  zealous  a  defender  of  the  church  of 
England  as  Bancroft  sliould  be  rewarded  for  his 
services  with  high  ecclesiastical  preferment.  In 
1597  he  was  advanced  to  the  see  of  London; 
and  from  that  time,  through  the  increasing  in- 
firmities of  the  archbishop,  the  management  of 
the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the  kingdom  devolved 
chiefly  upon  him. 

In  a  celebrated  conference  between  tire  bi- 
shops and  the  presbyterian  ministers,  held  at 
Hampton  Court  in  1603  (Cclher's  Eccles. 
Hist,  of  Great  Britain,  vol.  ii.  p.  664  ;  Bar- 
low's Sum  and  Substance  of  the  Conlcrence 
held  at  Hainpton  Court,  printed  in  1604),  bi- 
shop Banci  oft  gave  full  proof  that  his  advance- 
ment had  not  cooled  the  ardor  of  his  zeal  for 
the  established  episcopacy.  The  king  request- 
ing satisfaction  on  the  three  points  of  conhrma- 
tion,  absolution,  and  private  baptism,  Bancroft, 
in  tlie  first  day  of  the  conference,  undertook  the 
explanation  and  vindication  of  these  branches  of 
episcopal  discipline,  as  exercised  in  the  church 
of  England.  On  the  second  day,  when  the 
nonconformist  ministers  expected  to  enter  upon 
a  fair  discussion  of  the  great  points  in  dispute 
concerning  doctrine,  worsliip,  and  discipline, 
bishop  Bancroft's  intolerant  principles  and  over- 
bearing spirit  prompted  him  to  propose  a  mea- 
sure, which  would  have  at  once  terminated  the 
conference  by  tb.e  violent  interference  of  autho- 
rity. He  humbly  moved  the  king,  that  an  an- 
cient canon,  that  "  schismatics  are  not  to  be 


heard  against  bishops,"  might  be  remembered, 
and  that,  according  to  a  decree  of  an  ancient 
council,  which  piohibited  any  man  to  plead  a. 
gainst  his  own  subscription,  those  of  the  oppo- 
nents, who  had  subscribed  the  communion- 
book,  should  be  set  aside.  The  king  saw  the 
absurdity  and  injustice  of  these  proposals,  and 
prudently  rejected  them.  The  bishop  being 
called  upon  to  reply  to  the  exceptions  made  by 
Dr.  Reynolds,  one  of  the  delegates  from  the- 
nonconformists,  a  conference  ensued  on  pre- 
destination and  confirmation.  In  the  course  of 
lliis  disputation.  Dr.  Reynolds  moved  tor  seve- 
ral alterations  in  doctrine  and  discipline :  upon 
which  the  bishop,  earnestly  solicitous  to  prevent 
the  success  of  these  petitions,  instantly  fell  upon 
his  knees  before  the  king,  praying  to  be  heard 
in  two  or  three  requests.  The  first  was,  that 
care  might  be  taken  to  provide  a  praying  clergv  ; 
the  services  of  the  desk  being  by  many  as  much 
neglected,  as  it  they  thought  the  duty  of  a  pa- 
rish priest  wliolly  confined  to  the  pulpit.  He 
nest  requested,  that  till  men  of  learning  and 
sufficiency  could  be  procured  for  every  congre- 
gation, homilies  should  be  read,  and  their  num- 
ber increased.  His  last  motion  was,  that  pul- 
pits might  not  be  turned  into  batteries,  from 
which  every  malcontent  might  be  allowed  to 
play  his  spleen  against  his  superiors.  What- 
ever foundation  there  might  be  for  these  re- 
quests, it  is  evident,  that  they  were  pointed, 
with  little  good  humour  or  good-will,  against 
the  nonconformists.  In  the  course  of  this  con- 
ference, the  subject  of  clerical  non-residence 
being  started,  the  lord  chancellor  took  occasion 
to  argue  against  pluralities,  and,  expressing  a 
wish  that  some  clergymen  might  have  single 
coats  before  others  had  doublets,  added,  that  he 
himself  had  managed  in  this  manner  in  bestow- 
ing the  benefices  in  the  king's  gift :  upon  which 
the  bishop  of  London  rephed,  "  I  coinmend 
your  honourable  care  that  way  ;  but  a  doublet 
is  necessary  in  cold  weather."  I'he  good  bi- 
shoji  spoke  feelingly;  for  he  had  himself  expe- 
rienced die  comfort  of  warm  cloatliing. 

Ui>on  the  death  of  archbishop  Whitgift,  bi- 
shop Bancroft  was,  in  1604,  elected  and  con- 
secrated to  succeed  him  in  that  high  dignity. 
That  he  still  adhered  to  the  same  intolerant 
principles,  and  pursued  the  same  violent  mea- 
sures against  the  nonconfonnists,  appears  from 
the  eulogy  of  lord  Clarendon,  who  writes,  "  that 
tills  metropolitan  understood  the  church  excel- 
lently, and  had  almost  rescued  it  out  oi  the  hands 
of  theCalvinian  party,  and  very  much  subdued 
the  unruly  spirit  of  die  noncontormists  by,  and 
after,  the  conference  at  Hainpton  Court  i''  and 


SAN  (    549    )  BAN 

Ih."!!:  Jl:!l.^l ''/'^„  .l''^'';    ''.*'  ^■°V''^  ."l"'.*-^')'     '^':^"f  severity,  and  tliat  whatever  services  he 


tlic  aiclibishop's  jealousy  for  the  rights  of  the 
church,  a  memorable  example  occurs,  in  his 
contest  with  the  judges,  against  whom  he  ex- 
hibited to  the  lords  of  the  council  certain  ar- 
ticles, complaining  of  their  encroachments  on 
the  ecclesiastical  courts  in  granting  prohibitions. 
(Collier,  ubi  supra,  p.  688.)  'I'he  complaint 
was  over-ruled  by  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the 


sects  the  exercise  of  tliat  freedom  of  judgment 
and  action,  which  ihcy  had  themselves  asserted 
and  maintained  on  their  separation  from  the 
church  of  Rome.  With  narrow  principles, 
and  a  rugged  temper,  Bancroft,  however,  ap- 
jiears  to  have  possessed  a  strong  undcrstan.ling 
and  active  sjjiiit,  which  fitted  liim  for  business, 
and  enabled 


•    ,  V  ,   r^- ,     ■      ,        „     ,-,.  im  to  occupy  stations  of  high  im- 

judges,  which  Coke  justly  calls  the  highest  au-  portance  with  a  considerable  degree  of  reputa- 
ihonty  of  the  law.  In  the  interior  discipline  tion.  A  letter  written  by  this  prelate  to  king 
of  the  church  the  arclibishop  was  rigorously  James  I.  containing  a  vindication  of  pluralities^ 
exact.  He  pressed  a  strict  conformity  to  tlic  is  preserved  in  the  advocate's  library  at  Edin- 
rubric  and  canons,  witliout  making  the  smallest     burgh,  and  may  be  read  in  the  first  volume  of 

sir  David  J3ahymple's  Memorials.     Le  Ktvc'i 
Lives  of  EirJtish  Bishopi.     Blogr.  Brit. — E. 

BANDELLO,  Matthew,  bishopofAgen, 
a  celebrated  writer  of  novels,  was  bom  toward* 
the  close  of  tlie  fifteenth  centurv  at  Castclnuovo, 
of  Scrivia,  in  the  Milanese.  I^n  imitation  of  hi» 
ing  to  rolls  delivered  in  by  Bancroft  not  long  uncle  Vincenzo,  general  of  the  order  of  Doini- 
beforcliis  death,  forty-nine  clergymen  werede-  nicans,  he  entered  into  that  society,  and  resided 
prived  ot  their  benefices  :  other  accounts  report  for  some  time  in  a  convent  at  Milan.  He  soon 
a  much  larger  number.  In  hopes  of  increasing  quitted  it,  however,  and  took  up  his  residence  at 
the  revenues  of  the  church,  the  archbishop,  in     the  palace  of  Pirro  Gonzaga,  lord  of  Gazzuolo, 


allowance  for  difTcrence  of  opinion.  Those 
who  had  formerly  subscribed  the  articles  \sith 
admitted  latitude  were,  under  his  jurisdiction, 
required  to  signify  their  conformity  in  close  and 
unevasive  terms.  For  refusing  submission  to 
these  requisitions,  or  on  other  accounts,  accord- 


i6io,  presented  to  parliament  a  plan  for  the 
better  providing  a  maintenance  for-the  clergv, 
the  leading  objects  of  which  were,  to  impiove 
the  tvthcs,  to  redeem  lay  impropriations,  and 
to  restore  the  practice  of  mortuaries  by  repeal- 
ing the  statute  of  mortmain.  This  pioject, 
which  was  wisely  rejected  by  tlie  parliament, 
appears  to  have  been  archbishop  Bancroft's  last 
public  act.  The  painful  disease  of  the  stone 
terminated  his  life  :  he  died  at  his  palace  at 
Lambeth  in  November,  1610,  aged  sixty-seven. 


whose  daugliter,  the  celebrated  Lucretia  Gon- 
zaga, he  instructed  in  polite  literature.  During 
the  war  carried  on  in  the  Milanese  by  the  Freneh 
and  S])aniards  between  1520  and  1525,  he  suf- 
fered in  common  with  many  others,  lost  all  bis 
books,  and  was  brought  into  great  danger  v.( 
his  life,  which  he  only  preserved  by  taking 
flight  in  a  disguised  dress.  After  wandering 
some  time  he  attached  himseli  to  C.tsar  Fre- 
gosOj  whom  he  accompanied  into  France.  In 
that  country  he  lived  many  vears  ;  and  in  1 55 J 


He  left  liis  library  to  liis  successors  in  the  see  of    he  was  nominated  by  Henry  II.  to  the  bishopric 


Canteibury.  We  find  no  account  of  any  pub- 
lications from  his  pen,  except  his  famous  ser- 
inon  against  the  Puritans,  already  mentioned, 
and  two  tracts,  which  he  wrote  before  liis  ad- 
vancement to  the  episcopal  dignity,  in  defence 
of  the  church  against  the  nonconformists,  en- 
titled, "  Dangerous  Positions,"  and  "  Survey 
of  the  pretended  holy  Discii)line."  (The  ser- 
mon preached  at  St.  Paul's  Cross  is  jirefixcd  to 
this  tract).  'Fhesc  pieces  were  much  admired 
by  those  who  were  inclined  to  violent  measures, 
and,  doubtless,  contributed  to  the  author's  ad- 
vancement. It  cannot  reasonably  be  question- 
ed, that  the  prominent  features  in  the  character 
of"  this  prelate  were  intemperate  zeal,  and  into- 


of  Agcn.  He  attended,  however,  little  to  epis- 
copal duties,  and  left  the  care  of  his  sec  to  tiie 
bishop  of  Grasse.  The  exact  time  of  his  death 
is  unknown,  but  he  was  still  living  in  1561. 
The  collection  of  novels  or  tales,  which  has 
chiefly  made  his  name  remembered,  was  tirst 
printed  in  Lucca  in  15^4,  in  three  volumes. 
4to.  under  the  title  of  "  Novelle  del  BanJclk>," 
to  which  another  volume  was  alterwanls  added, 
printed  at  Lyons  in  1573.  Se\cral  other  ciU- 
tions  have  been  made,  but  mostly  impertect  and 
truncated.  That  of  London  in  1740.  four  vo- 
lumes, 410.  is,  however,  conformable  to  the 
first.  The  author  in  his  uariations  imitates  the 
manner  of  Boccacio,  and  is  rcckuDcJ  to  wnt« 


BAN 


(    550    ) 


BAN 


in  a  lively  and  agreeable  style  ;  but  he  has  also 
copied  his  model  in  those  freedoms  of  language 
and  description  which  are  highly  unbecoming 
a  bishop,  and  iwve  given  matter  ot  scandal  to 
his  church.  He  was  also  author  of  a  Latin 
version  of  Boccacio's  story  of  "  Tito  et  Gi- 
sippo,"  of  eleven  cantos,  in  ottava  rima,  in 
honour  of  Lucretia  Gonzaga,  and  ot  some  other 
works.  Tiraboschl.  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — A. 
BANDINELLI,  Bacio,  was  born  at  Flo- 
rence in  1487.  His  father,  who  was  a  gold- 
smith, taught  liim  drawing,  and  working  in 
metal  ;  but  his  decided  taste  tor  sculpture  caused 
l.im  to  be  placed  with  Rustici,  a  statuary  of 
eminence.  He  early  became  a  rival,  and  a  ma- 
lignant one,  of  Michael  Angelo,  with  whom 
he  attempted  to  vie  in  painting  as  well  as  in 
sculpture,  but  without  success.  He  was  un- 
able to  obtain  the  art  of  colouring,  and  soon 
laid  aside  the  pencil  for  the  chisel.  His  works 
in  marble  gained  him  a  high  reputation,  and  no 
one  was  more  sensible  of  his  excellence  than 
himself.  It  was  his  pride  to  be  compared  with 
other  artists  ;  nor  did  he  scruple  any  means  of 
getting  business  out  of  their  hands.  He  was 
patronised  and  employed  by  Leo  X.  Clement 
VII.  and  Francis  I.  For  the  latter  he  was  en- 
gaged to  copy  some  antiques  ;  and  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  affirm  that  he  would  make  a  Laocoon 
not  only  equal  to  the  famous  original,  but  su- 
perior. He  succeeded  in  this  work  so  admi- 
rably, that  pope  Clement  sent  his  copy  to  the 
fallery  at  Florence,  and  rather  chose  to  give 
"rancis  some  real  antiques  than  to  part  with  it. 
Bandinelli  obtained  from  the  pope  a  block  of 
niarble,  which  had  been  meant  for  Michael  An- 
gelo, and  made  from  it  a  Hercules  overthrow- 
ing Cacus,  which  was  placed  at  Florence  by  the 
side  of  Michael  Angelo's  David,  and  appeared 
worthy  to  pair  with  it.  He  was  continually 
led  by  ambition  or  avarice  to  undertake  vast 
woiks,  which  the  inconstancy  of  his  disposition 
made  him  quit  unfinished  for  soinething  else. 
He  was  therefore  perpetually  involved  in  dis- 
putes with  his  employers,  and  in  the  end  lost  all 
his  patrons.  The  grand  duke  Cosmo  de'  Me- 
dici was  the  last  tor  whom  he  pcrtormed  some 
great  works,  but  not  without  various  failures 
and  disappointments.  He  died  at  Florence  in 
1659,  aged  seventy-two.  Several  of  his  pupils 
arrived  at  eminence.  A  natural  son,  named 
Clement,  to  whom  he  had  taught  his  art  with 
success,  died  young. 

Bandinelli's  intriguing,  quarrelsome,  and  un- 
pleasant character,  embroiled  him  with  most  of 
his  contemporary  artists,  and  injured  his  fame 
during  his  lite-time.     He  stands  high,  however, 


among  the  Italian  sculptors,  and  his  reinains  are 
much  admired.  The  principal  are  the  bas-re- 
liefs of  the  tombs  of  Leo  X.  and  Clement  VIL 
at  Rome  ;  a  St.  Peter,  a  Bacchus,  tlie  Laocoon, 
and  the  figures  of  some  princes  of  the  Medici 
family  at  Florence.  In  general  his  drawiiig  is 
correct,  and  shows  much  knowledge  of  ana- 
tomy, but  his  muscles  are  too  strongly  marked, 
and  he  is  deficient  in  grace.  His  rivalry  of  Mi- 
chael Angelo  made  him  an  imitator,  and  in 
some  measure  a  caricaturist  of  that  great  sculp- 
tor.     D' j^rgenvillc,   Fics  dcs  Sculptcurs. — A. 

BANDURl,  Anselme,  an  antiquary  of 
the  eighteenth  centurv,  was  a  native  of  the  re- 
public of  Ragusa,  in  Dalmatia,  and  a  Bene- 
dictine monk.  Passing  into  Italy,  he  studied  at 
F'lorence,  where  he  made  a  rapid  progress  in 
the  learned  languages,  and  soon  became  a  pre- 
ceptor. Bernard  de  Montfaucon  coming  to 
Florence  in  the  year  1700,  employed  him  to 
examine  the  manuscripts  which  he  wished  to 
consult  for  a  new  edition  of  Chrysostom's  works. 
Under  the  patronage  of  the  grand  duke  of  Tus- 
cany, Banduri,  to  extend  his  acquaintance  with 
ecclesiastical  antiquities,  spent  some  years  in  the 
abbey  of  St.  Germain,  in  Paris.  Here  he  ac- 
quired an  accurate  knowledge  of  tlic  antiquities 
of  Constantino]ile,  which  enabled  him  to  com- 
pose a  valuable  work,  published  at  Paris  in 
171 1,  in  two  volumes,  folio,  entitled  "  Impe- 
rium  Orientale,  sive,  Antiquitates  Constantino- 
politanas."  The  work  is  embellished  with  to- 
pographical plans,  maps,  and  other  engravings. 
Banduri  also  published  a  collection  of  Roman 
medals,  which  appeared  at  Paris  in  171 8,  in 
folio,  under  the  title  of  "  Numismata  Impcra- 
torum  Romanorum  a  Trajano  Dccio  ad  Paleo- 
logos  Augustos."  This  work,  enriched  with  a 
catalogue  of  books,  and  a  collection  of  disser- 
tations on  medals,  was  reprinted  in  4to.  at 
Hamburg,  in  17 19,  by  John  Albert  Fabricius. 
Banduri  was  in  1724  appointed  librarian  to  the 
duke  of  Orleans:  he  died  at  Paris  in  1743. 
The  accuracy  of  this  author's  Antiquities  of 
Constantinople  has  been  disputed  by  Casimir 
Oudin  (Masson,  Hist.  Crit.  de  la  Rep.  des 
Lettres,  torn,  vii.) ;  nevertheless,  his  learned  in- 
dustry may  entitle  him  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  common  herd  of  compilers.  Aforeri.  Noitv. 
Diet.  Hist.—E. 

BANGILTS,  Peter,  a  Swedish  divine,  was 
born  at  Helsingberg  in  1633.  He  studied  at 
Upsal,  and  travelled  with  a  pupil  through  Swe- 
den, Denmark,  and  the  Netherlands.  On  his 
return  home,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  in  the  university  of  Abo,  in  Finland, 
and  filled  the  chair  with  credit  thirty-two  years. 


BAN 


(    SSI     ) 


BAN 


In  1682,  Charles  IX.  of  Sweden  appointed 
him  bi!?1iop  of  Wyburg:  he  tlicd  in  1696.  He 
was  a  public  benefuctoi'  to  his  country  by  the 
pains  which  he  took  to  establish  schools,  and 
promote  knowledge.  He  wrote  in  Latin  an 
ecclesiastical  Swedish  History  ;  a  Treatise  on 
sacred  Chronology  ;  a  Commentary  on  the  He- 
brews ;  and  other  works.  Le  Long.  Bibl.  Tac. 
Aforeri. — E. 

BANGIUS,  Thomas,  a  learned  Danish 
divine,  of  the  university  of  Copenhagen,  was 
born  in  the  year  1600.  He  successively  dis- 
charged with  great  credit  the  duties  of  the  pro- 
fessorships of  Hebrew,  philosophy,  and  divi- 
nity, and  was  the  author  of  several  learned 
works  :  he  died  in  1661.  Among  his  writings 
in  Latin  are  various  dissertations  to  elucidate 
portions  of  the  Scriptures  ;  "  Piiilological  Ob- 
servations," printed  in  8vo.  at  Copeniiagen,  in 
1640;  "  An  Exercitation  on  the  Origin  of  Di- 
versity of  Languages,  and  on  the  Excellence  of 
the  Hebrew,"  8vo.  1634;  and  "A  Hebrew 
Lexicon,"  4to.  1641.  Albcrti  Thuia,  Hist. 
Lit.  Danomm.      Bayle. — E. 

BANIER,  Antony,  a  French  abbe,  a 
writer  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Clermont,  in  Auvergne,  where  he  pur- 
sued his  first  studies.  Repairing  to  Paris  for 
the  purpose  of  completing  his  education,  his 
talents  soon  attracted  attention,  and  supplied 
him  with  resources,  which  he  coidd  not  draw 
from  hi*  family.  Having  been  employed  in 
classical  instruction,  his  thoughts  were  turned 
towards  the  subject  of  ancient  mythology,  and 
he  drew  up,  in  two  volumes,  i2mo.  "  An  His- 
torical Explication  of  the  Fables  of  Antiquity." 
This  publication  soon  made  him  known  as  a 
writer  of  taste  and  erudition,  and,  in  17 14, 
procured  him  admission  into  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres.  In  1715  the 
work  appeared  in  the  form  of  dialogue,  with 
large  additions.  The  object  of  this  work  is  to 
trace  up  mythology,  or  the  fables  of  the  an- 
cients, to  historical  facts,  as  their  true  source. 
Banier  pursued  the  same  object  in  various  dis- 
sertations, communicated  to  the  Academv  of 
Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres,  and  published, 
either  in  part,  or  entire,  to  the  numbci  ot  thirtv, 
in  the  Memoirs  of  that  Academy.  Still  adjur- 
ing to  his  favourite  pursuit,  he  presented  the 
public  with  the  fniits  of  his  indiistrv  during  the 
last  ten  years  of  his  life,  first  in  his  "  Trans- 
lation of  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid,"  with 
historical  remarks  and  explications,  with  the 
plates  of  Picart,  published  in  tolio,  at  Amster- 
dam, in  1732,  and  reprinted  in  two  voUnncs, 
4to.   at  Paris,  in   1738  ;   and  afterwards  in  a 


fuller  devclopement  of  his  ideas  on  the  fables  of 
the  ancients,, in  a  work,  entitled  "  Mvthologv, 
or  the  Fables  explained  by  Histi.rv,"  piinicd 
both  in  4to.  and  lamo.  at  Paris,  in  1740.  The 
work  abounds  with  learned  lesearch,  and  inge- 
inous  conjecture ;  but  it  mav  be  quesiione<i  whe- 
ther M.  Banier's  theory,  or  any  other  single 
method,  will  successfully'diseniangle  the  twisted 
web  of  ancient  mythology.  Banier  died  in  No- 
vember, 1741,  aged  sixty-nine  years.  He  pub- 
lished an  improved  edition  of  Marville's  "  Me- 
langes d'Histoire  et  dc  Literature,"  and  had  a 
share  in  the  new  edition  of  Picart's  "  Gcneial 
History  of  religious  Ceremonies,"  published  in 
1741.     Morcri.      Kou'j.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

BAXKES,  John,  Kmght,  an  English  law- 
yer, was  born  of  a  good  family,  at  Keswick 
in  Cumberland,  in  1589,  and  educated  in 
Qiieen's  college,  Oxford.  He  studied  and  prac- 
tised the  law  in  Gray's  Inn,  and  so  m  acquired 
a  degree  of  reputation  which  recommended 
him  to  the  notice  of  his  sovereign  Charles  I. 
who,  in  1629,  appointed  him  his  attorney. 
The  next  year  he  was  chosen  Lent- reader  at 
Gray's  Inn,  and  in  1632  treasurer  of  that  so- 
ciety. In  1634,  after  rccciviiig  the  honour  of 
knighthood,  he  was  advanced  to  the  office  of 
attorney-general,  and  in  1640  was  made  chief 
justice  ot  the  conunon  pleas.  In  both  these 
offices  he  acted  with  a  degree  of  wisdom,  inte- 
grity, and  firmness,  which  obtained  him  high 
esteem.  It  was  a  singular  proof  of  his  merit, 
that,  though,  in  the  contest  between  the  king 
and  parliament,  he  openly  declared  himself  011 
the  side  of  the  former,  in  the  proposals  which 
the  parliament  made  to  the  king  in  January 
1643,  ^'"^^  desired  that  the  lord  chief  justice 
might  be  continued  in  his  office.  Soon  after- 
wards, however,  he  lost  all  his  credit  witlj 
them,  by  declaring  the  actions  of  Essex,  Man- 
chester, and  Waller  treasonable,  and,  together 
with  the  other  judges  who  maintained  the  same 
opinion,  was,  by  a  vote  of  the  house,  pro- 
nounced a  traitor  to  his  country.  A  memorable 
instance  of  courage  di>playcd  daring  this  un- 
happy contest  by  lady  Bankc.s,  must  not  be 
overlooked.  Some  of  the  pariininentarv  forces, 
under  sir  W .  Earl  and  'i'homas  Trenchaid, 
esq.  besieging  Corrtc  Castle  in  tlic  isle  of  Pur- 
beck  in  Dorsetshire,  the  scat  of  sir  John 
Bankes,  where  his  lady  and  family  were  then 
resident,  the  lady,  though  surrounded  only  by 
her  ( hildren  and  servants,  aiid  a  lew  tenants, 
not  amounting  to  more  than  tortv,  refused  to 
surrender  the  fortress  ;  and  held  out  till  she  wis 
relieved  by  a  bcxly  of  horse  under  the  carl  of 
Carnarvon.     Sir  John  continued  with  tiie  king 


BAN 


(     55^     ) 


BAR 


at  OxforJ,  assisting  l-.i;Ti  'oy  liis  councils,  till  his 
death,  which  iiappcned  in  December  1644.  By 
his  last  will  tiie  lord  chiefjustice  left,  among  other 
cliaritahic  legacies,  thirty  pounds  a  yfar  to  the 
town  of  Kesuick,  for  the  support  of  a  manu- 
facture of  coarse  cottons,  which  had  been  not 
long  before  set  up  in  that  town,  and  which 
^^  ithout  this  aid  would  probably  have  been  lost. 
Sir  Jolm  Bankes  appears  to  have  been  a  inan  of 
sound  integrity,  cool  judgment,  and  amiable 
temper.  Lloyd's  A'Icmoiys.  Fuller'' s  JVorthics. 
IVooiCs  Fasti  Oxon.  Clarendon.  Biozr.  Brit. 
-E. 

BANNIER,   John,   a  celebrated   Swedish 
general,  was  born  in  160 1,  and  bore  arms  under 
Guscavus  Adolphus,  with  whom  he  was  a  great 
favourite,  and  whom  he  is  said  greatly  to  have 
resembled  in  person.     Gustavus  gave  him  the 
command  of  his  infantry  ;   but  he  had  the  mis- 
fortune   to   be   twice   beaten    by    Pappenheim. 
Such,  however,  was  his  reputation,  that  on  the 
death  of  the  king  of  Sweden,  he  succeeded  to  the 
post  of  general  in  chief,  in  which  he  obtained  a 
glory  little  inferior  to  that  of  his  master.     He 
gave  the  Saxons  two  defeats,  and  afterwaids, 
passing  into   Misnia,   took   many  places,    and 
gained  a  very  complete  victory  over  the  Impe- 
rialists  at   Wistock.     He  then  reduced  many 
towns  in   Pomerania,    and,  passing   the  Elbe, 
made  a  great  progress  in  Saxony  and  Bohemia. 
Here  he  twice  beat  the   Saxon  general  Mara- 
cini;  and  filled  with  alarm  all  that  part  of  Ger- 
man v.      The  emperor  attempted  to  engage  him 
in  a  negotiation  by  means  of  his   wife,   who 
every  where  accompanied  him,   and  to  whom 
he  was  greatly  attached  ;  and  his  splendid  offers 
are    said   to   have  made  some   impression   on 
Eannier,  when  the  French  minister,  receiving 
intimation  of  the  design,  prevented  it.    Bannier, 
then,  in  conjunction  with  the   French   troops, 
marched  into  Hesse  Cassel,  followed  by  Picco- 
lomini,  who  by  his  skill  prevented  the  confede- 
lates  from  profiting  by  their  superiority.   About 
this  time,  too,  the  wife  of  Bannier  died,  which 
almost  threw  Iiim  into  despair;  but  as  he  was 
conducting  her  remains  to  Erfurth,  he  happened 
to  see  a  young  princess  of  Baden,  with  whom  he 
fell  violently  in  love.     This  new  passion   so 
occupied  his  mind,  .hat  he  was  no  longer  the 
same  man.     He  neglected  his  affairs,  attended 
to  nothing  but  courtship  and  festivals,  and  on 
the  day  when  he  received  the  father's  consent, 
he  made  such  a.  feu  dejoye,  that  the  noise  of 
■the  cannon  threw  the  people  of  Cassel  into  the 
greatest  consternation.     He   afterwards,   how- 
ever, made  a  spirited  attempt  upon  Ratisbon, 
where  the  emperor  was  holding  a  diet,  and  was 


very  near  surprising  his  person.  But  a  large 
army  being  at  length  collected  lor  the  relief  of 
the  place,  Bannier  was  obliged  to  retreat  into 
Bohemia.  In  this  retrograde  march  he  was 
closely  pushed  by  the  Imperialists,  and  reduced 
to  the  greatest  danger,  from  which  he  extricat- 
ed himself  by  extraordinary  skill  and  good  con- 
duct. But  the  fatigue  of  tliis  exertion  threw 
him  into  an  illness,  of  which  he  died  at  Ilal- 
berstadt  on  May  20,  1641,  greatly  regretted  by 
the  whole  army. 

Bannier  had  all  the  qualities  of  a  great  gene- 
ral. He  was  hardy,  patient,  active,  and  ready 
to  partake  in  all  dangers  and  fatigues  with  his 
soldiers,  by  whom  he  was  almost  adored.  No 
general  was  more  sparing  of  the  blood  of  iiis 
troops.  He  was  fond  of  repeating  "  that  he 
had  never  hazarded  any  thing,  or  even  under- 
taken an  enterprise,  without  an  evident  neces- 
sity." He  did  not  willingly  engage  in  sieges, 
and  relinquished  them  without  scruple  when 
they  seemed  likely  to  prove  difficult.  Had  lie 
not  been  thus  economical  of  his  forces,  he  knew 
that  Sweden  must  soon  have  been  exhausted. 
He  was  no  encourager  of  volunteers  of  quality 
in  his  army,  sensible  of  the  injury  discipline 
sustained  by  their  example.  He  had  shaken 
off  all  dependence  on  his  court  for  military  di- 
rections, and  to  his  freedom  in  this  respect  he 
candidly  attributed  his  superiority  over  the  Im- 
perial generals.  It  was  a  principle  with  him, 
that  subaltern  officers  should  regularly  succeed 
to  those  above  them,  unless  there  were  some 
particular  reason  to  the  contrary.  Though  he 
loved  his  soldiers,  he  would  not  suffer  them  to 
enrich  themselves  by  pillage,  thinking  it  a  cer- 
tain way  to  spoil  them  for  service  ;  and  this  is 
said  to  have  been  the  reason  why  he  turned 
away  from  Prague,  when  he  might  easily  have 
taken  it.  His  passions  were  naturally  violent, 
but  his  general  conduct  was  moderate  and  hu- 
mane. Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  Mod.  Univers. 
Hist.      Moreri. — A. 

BAR  ACH,  the  fourth  judge  of  the  Hebrews, 
after  delivering  the  Israelites  from  their  bondage 
to  Jabin,  king  of  Canaan,  and  defeating  Sisera, 
ruled  over  them  thirty-three  years:  he  lived 
about  1240  years  before  Christ.  Judges,  iv. 
"Joseph.  Antiq.  lib.  v.  c.  6. — E. 

BARAD^EUS,  called  also  Zanzalus,  Ja- 
cobus, an  obscure  and  ignorant  monk  of  the 
sixth  century,  disiinguislied  himself  in  the 
eastern  church  by  reviving  and  increasing  the 
sect  of  the  Monophysites,  after  it  had  become 
nearly  extinct.  In  opposition  to  the  doctrine 
of  Nestorius,  that  there  were  in  Christ  two 
persons,   Eutyches  had,  in  the  preceding  cen- 


Jiitrtveu  puir 


BAR 


(    553    ) 


BAR 


tury,  founded  a  sect,  which  taught  tliat  in 
Christ  there  is  but  one  nature,  that  of  the  in- 
carnate word.  These  sectaries,  called  from 
their  founder  Eutychians,  were  also  from  tlieir 
doctrine  called  Alonophysites.  The  sect,  sub- 
divided into  other  branches,  grounded  upon  nice 
distinctions  in  these  unprofitable  disputes,  had 
been  condemned  by  the  council  of  Clialcedon, 
and  was  apparently  falling  into  oblivion,  its 
bishops  being  reduced  by  imprisonment  and 
death  to  a  very  small  number,  w  hen  a  success- 
ful effort  was  made  for  its  revival.  Bardsus 
vas  ordained,  by  the  remaining  leaders  of  this 
sect,  bishop  of  Edessa,  and  apjiointed  to  the 
direction  of  tlieir  affairs.  What  this  monk 
vanted  in  learning,  he  made  up  in  zeal.  With 
an  enlargement  of  mind  above  the  obscurity  of 
his  station,  and  with  a  fortitude  which  no 
dangers  could  daunt,  nor  any  labours  exhaust, 
he  undertook  the  task  of  restoring  the  credit, 
and  increasing  tlie  numbers  of  his  sect;  and 
his  success  in  the  enterprise  was  astonisl.ing. 
Cloathed  in  a  coarse  garment,  he  travelled  on 
foot  through  the  east,  re-uniting  the  scattered 
remnants  of  the  Eutychians,  and  establishing 
eveiy  where  presbyters  and  bishops.  By  the 
power  of  his  rude  but  commanding  eloquence, 
and  by  his  unwearied  activity  and  diligence,  he 
produced  such  a  change  in  the  affairs  of  the 
sect,  that  their  numerous  churches  could  not 
all  be  comprehended  under  the  sole  jurisdiction 
of  the  patriarch  of  Antioch,  and  he  found  it 
necessary  to  appoint  him  an  assistant-  whose 
residence  was  fixed  at  Tagi  itis  on  the  borders 
of  Armenia.  In  fine,  when  tlie  bisho|)  of 
Edessa  died,  in  the  year  588,  he  had  tlie  satis- 
faction of  leaving  his  sect  in  a  most  flourisliing 
state  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  Egypt, 
Nubia,  Abyssinia,  and  other  countries ;  and 
his  name  became  so  famous,  that,  from  him,  as 
their  second  founder,  they  were  called  Jacobites ; 
an  appellation,  by  w-hich  their  descendants  are 
still  known  in  Abyssinia,  Etjvpt,  and  Armenia. 
yisseman.  B'lbl.  Orient,  torn.  ii.  c.  8.  Aloiheitns 
Ecclcs.  Hist.  cant.  vi.  Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  art. 
Zakzai.e. — E. 

BARANZANO,  Redemptus,  a  Barna- 
bite  friar,  born  in  1 590  at  Saravellc,  a  town  of 
Verceil  in  Piedmont,  distinguished  himselt, 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  among  tliosc 
who  ventured  to  forsake  the  Aiistoiclian  me- 
thod of  philosophising.  A  letter  wiitten  to 
him  upon  this  suhject,  in  Jime  1622,  by  lord 
Bacon,  from  which  may  be  learned  the  toinii- 
dence  of  Baranzano's  ideas  with  those  of  that 
illustrious  j-hilosopher,  is  preserved  in  the  third 
volume  of  "  Niccron's  Memoiis."    After  hav- 

VOL.  J. 


ing  taught  mathematics  and  philosophy  at  An- 
neci,  he  went  to  Paris  where  he  formed  an  in- 
timate friendship  with  La  Mothe-le-Vaver,  who 
speaks  of  liim  as  one  of  the  first  wits  of  hii  age. 
(Discours  de  rJmmortalite  der.\me;  CEuvr. 
i2mo.  torn.  iv.  p,  172.)  He  died  at  Mor.rargis 
in  1622.  His  works  are,  "  Uranscopia,"  or 
the  Universal  Doctrine  of  the  Heavens,  printed 
in  folio  in  1617;  "Campus  Phlloiophicus," 
the  fir.vt  part  of  his  Summarv  of  Philoscpliv,  a=; 
taught  at  Anncci,  priiued  in  8vo.  at  Lyons, 
1617  ;  and  "  Do  Novis  Opinionibus  Physlcis," 
8vo.  1619.      Bay.'e.     Afottri. — E. 

BARATHIER,  Barthflemy,  an  halian 
lawyer  of  the  fifteendi  century,  a  native  of 
Placentia,  taught  the  Roman  feudal  law  at 
Pavia  and  Fcrrara.  He  reduced  this  law.to  a 
new  arrangement,  which  became  a  text  book 
in  the  schools.  The  woik  was  priuted  at  J'aris 
in  161 1,  under  the  tide,  "  De  Feudis  Lilxir 
Singularis,"  and  1695,  by  Schiller,  under  its 
true  title,  "  Libellus  Feudorum  Reformatus." 
yanso'i  ill  Pralud.  Feudorum,  ,  Moreii. — E. 

BARATIER,  John  Philip,  a  learned  Ger- 
man of  rare  talents  and  erudition,  was  born  in 
1721  at  Schwobach,  near  Nuremberg.  In  his 
childhood  he  was  a  prodigy  of  learning.  At 
five  years  old  he  is  said  to  have  understood 
Greek,  Latin,  German,  and  French  :  his 
knowledge,  of  the  two  former  languages  at 
least,  cannot  be  conceived  to  have  been  very 
perfect.  His  father,  who  was  minister  of  the 
French  church  at  Schwobach,  and  had  been  his 
instructor,  next  taught  him  Hebrew,  and  he 
was  able,  after  a  year,  to  read  the  historical 
books  of  the  bible.  At  nine  years  of  age-,  he 
was  able  not  only  to  translate  the  Hebrew  text 
into  Latin  or  French,  but  to  rciranvlatc  these 
versions  into  Hebrew.  At  the  same  age,  he 
could  repeat  by  heart  the  Hebrew  psalter  with- 
out having  committed  it  to  memory  by  any  other 
means  than  frequently  reading  it  with  liis  la- 
ther. Before  he  had  completed  his  tenth  year, 
he  drew  up  a  Hebrew  lexicon  of  uncommon 
and  difficult  words,  annexing  curious  critical 
remarks.  In  1731.  Baratier  was  matiiculitrd 
in  the  university  of  Altdorf.  1  he  same  year 
he  wrote  in  French  '•  A  Letter  to  M.  Le 
Maitre,  Minister  of  the  French  Church  at 
Schwobach,  on  a  new  F.dition  of  the  Bible, 
Hebrew,  Cl.aldaic,  and  Rabbinical :"  the  letter, 
datid  August  2C,  1731,  is  prcvrrvo)  in  the 
twenty-sixth  voltrmc  ot  the  "I  i\-r- 

maniqrc."  'I'l-.e  margrave  ot  .  ^4. 

appointed  him  a  pension  of  filiv  tiorin.^  a->ear, 
and  allowed  him  ;'k-  free  use  of  hoicks  trom  the 
library  at  Anspjch.     Tlio  (ruiis  ot  Lit.  ;iiJu;itiy 
4  B 


BAR 


(    554    ) 


BAR 


soon  appeared  in  a  translation  from  the  He- 
brew, with  Iiistorical  and  critical  notes  and  dis- 
sertations, of  "  The  Rabbi  Benjamin's  Travels 
in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  containing  an 
Account  of  the  State  of  the  Jews  in  the  twelfth 
Century."  This  work  was  published,  in  two 
volumes  8vo.  at  Amsterdam,  in  1734,  the  aur 
thor's  thirteenth  year.  Tlic  whole  is  said  to 
have  been  finished  in  four  months. 

This  wonderful  youth,  in  t!ie  midst  of  his 
philological  pursuits,  had  found  leisure  tor  the 
study  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  :  and 
such  were  his  attainments  in  these  sciences, 
that  he  devised  a  method  of  discovering  tlie 
longitude  at  sea,  which  he  laid  before  the  royal 
academy  of  sciences  at  Berlin,  in  a  long  letter,, 
dated  January  21,  1735,  the  day  in  wliich  he 
completed  his  fouiteenth  year.  Baraticr,  find- 
ing that  his  letter  was  well  received,  resolved  to 
support  his  project  in  person,  and,  in  March, 
set  out  for  Berlin.  On  his  way  thither  he 
passed  with  his  father  through  Hall,  where  the 
chancellor  of  the  university,  Ludewig,  offered 
to  confer  upon  him  the  honorary  degree  of 
master  of  arts.  Flattered  by  this  proposal, 
Baratier,  on  the  spot,  and  in  the  presence  of 
many  professors,  drew  up  fourteen  theses,  in 
philology,  ecclesiastical  history,  and  philoso- 
phy, which  he  caused  to  be  printed  that  night, 
and  the  next  day  supported  them  for  three  hours 
with  great  applause ;  upon  which  he  was  re- 
ceived master  of  arts  in  philosophy.  He  ar- 
rived a  few  days  afterwards  in  Berlin.  On  the 
24th  of  March,  the  mathematical  class  being 
assembled,  widi  all  the  heads  of  the  university, 
and  many  members  of  other  classes,  Baratier 
was  called  in.  M.  de  Vignoles,  the  rector. 
Suggested  to  him  some  difficulties  attending  his 
project,  to  which  he  replied  with  great  readi- 
ness in  French.  After  this,  he  proposed,  in 
Latin,  the  plan  of  an  astronomical  instrument, 
which  he  proposed  to  execute.  M.  Jablpnski, 
the  president,  reported  that  he  had  CNamined 
Baratier,  in  the  king's  presence,  and  had  found 
him  well  acquainted  with  rabbinical  learning, 
the  oriental  languages,  and  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory. Baratier  was  then,  with  the  usual  forms, 
admitted  a  mer.iber  of  the  society. 

Returning  to  Hall  with  his  father,  on  whom 
the  king  of  Pn.issia  at  this  time  bestowed  the 
charge  of  the  French  church  in  that  city,  Ba- 
ratier turned  his  attention  to  theology,  and 
wrote  an  answer  to  Crellius,  who,  under  the 
signature  of  Artcmonius,  had  given  a  Socinian 
interpretation  to  the  introduction  to  the  gospel 
of  John.  The  work,  wiiich  was  written  in 
Latin,  and  entitled  "  Auti-Artemonius,"    was 


published  In  8vo.  at  Nuremberg,  in  1735.  IV 
was  accompanied  with  a  "  Dissertation  on  the 
three  Dialogues,  commonly  attributed  to  Theo- 
doret,"  intended  to  invalidate  their  authenticity. 
This  piece  Baratier  afterwards,  in  1737,  de- 
fend :d  against  the  strictures  of  the  journalists 
of  Trevoux,  in  another  dissertation  on  the  sub- 
ject, printi;c  in  the  forty -eighth  volume  of  the 
"  Bibliotheque  Germanique."  In  the  fortieth 
volume  of  the  same  Journal  will  be  found  an- 
other dissertation  of  Baratier,  in  the  form  of  a 
letter,  "  On  two  Works  attributed  to  St.  Atha- 
nasius."  The  king  of  Prussia,  to  try  the  ex- 
tent of  this  youth's  knowledge,  asked  him  whe- 
ther he  understood  tlie  public  law  :  Baratier  was 
obliged  to  confess  that  he  did  not.  "  Then,'' 
said  the  king,  "  go  and  study  it  before  you  call 
yourself  a  l.arned  man."  Tlie  young  man's 
literary  ambition  was  insatiable  :  reiiouncing 
for  a  time  all  other  studies,  he  applied  himself 
to  this  with  such  diligence,  that  after  fifteea 
moviths  he  was  able  to  support  S  thesis  in  the 
public  law  with  great  credit.  Hard  study,  and 
the  uninterrupted  exertion  of  faculties,  vigorous 
and  active  in  a  degree  almost  preternatural, 
speedily  destroyed  a  constitution  naturally  feeble 
and  delicate.  After  languishing  in  a  decline  for 
several  months,  this  wonderful  young  man  died 
in  1 740,  aged  only  nineteen  years,  eight  months, 
and  seven  days.  Notvi'ithstanding  his  wonder- 
ful attainments,  it  is  said  that  before  he  was  ten 
years  old,  it  was  his  custom  to  lie  in  bed  twelve 
hours,  and  ten  hours  from  that  time  to  his 
death.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  possibility 
of  crowding  so  much  learning  into  so  small  a 
space  :  yet  the  truth  of  the  leading  facts  con- 
cerning this  extraordinary  youth  does  not  rest 
upon  individual  testimony,  but  upon  public  re- 
cords. Such  singular  instances  of  intellectual 
precocity  are  rather  to  be  gazed  at  with  asto- 
nishment as  "  lusus  nature,"  than  contein plated 
with  delight  as  models  of  perfection.  To  be 
encouraged  by  such  rare  examples,  to  hasten 
prematurely  the  growth  of  promising  genius, 
would  be  injudicious.  Tlie  poplar,  which  soon 
becomes  a  lofty  tree,  will  soon  decay ;  the  strong 
and  sturdy  oak,  whose  majestic  trunk  stands 
unimpaired  through  centuries,  requires  a  cen- 
tury to  bring  it  to  maturity.  Formcy's  Life  of 
Baratier.  B'lbl.  Germ.  torn.  xvii.  xix.  AIo~ 
reri.      Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — E. 

BARBADINO,  a  learned  Portuguese  of  the 
present  century,  who,  desirous  of  promotmg 
the  progress  of  science,  so  much  neglected  in 
his  native  country,  published  "  Verdadero  Me- 
thodo  de  Estudiar  para  ser  ntil  a  la  Republica  y 
a  la  Iglesia;"  Valencia  (Paris),  1746.     The 


I 


BAR 


(    SSS    ) 


BAR 


picture  which  he  drew  in  the  above  work  of  the 
wretchfd  state  of  Htcratuic  in  Portugal,  excited 
against  him  many  enemies  and  antagt)nisrs,  a- 
mong  wliom  was  the  Jesuit  Joseph  Fran,  de 
lla,  who  attacked  him  wiih  great  violence  in 
his  "  History  of  Brother  Geruiidio."  He  was, 
however,  defended  by  don  Joseph  iXIaymo,  in 
"  Difese  del  Barbadino,"  1758,  4.  who  pub- 
lished also  a  Sjianish  tran'^lation  of  all  the  writ- 
ings which  had  appeared,  till  the  year  1750,  for 
and  against  Barbadino.  Adelunv  $  Cont.  of  16- 
clier^s  Gclchrt.  Lex. — J. 

BARBARO,  Francis,  a  noble  and  learned 
Venetian,  born  in  the  year  1398,  was  equally  di- 
stinguished by  his  lo\c  of  literature,  and  his  talents 
for  ]ni!)lic  aft'airs.  He  was  a  pupil  of  tlie  learn- 
ed Grecian  (^hrvsoloras,  under  whom  he  ac- 
quired a  profound  knowledge  both  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages.  Of  his  Greek  learning, 
his  translations  of  Plutarch's  Lives,  of  Aristi- 
<les,  and  Cato,  afford  a  good  specimen.  He 
wrote,  in  Latin,  an  elegant  moral  work,  en- 
titled ''  De  Re  Uxoria,"  which  was  first  pub- 
lislicd  with  the  author's  name,  in  410.  at  Paris, 
in  15 1 5.  This  work,  which  gives  much  good 
advice  on  the  choice  of  a  w  ife,  and  treats  judici- 
ously on  the  duties  of  wives  and  mothers,  has 
passed  through  many  editions.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  some  orations  and  Utters  which 
discover  good  taste  and  an  amiable  temper. 
The  public  offices  which  he  occujiied  were 
numerous,  and  in  all  he  displayed  eminent  vir- 
tues. Fie  was,  successively,  governor  of  seve- 
ral cities  in  the  Venetian  territory.  In  Brescia, 
his  courage  and  discretion  enabled  him  to  ex- 
tinguisli  the  flames  of  civil  discord,  and  to  de- 
fend the  city  against  the  Milanese  forces,  under 
the  great  coirmander  Piccinino.  During  this 
siege,  he  had  to  contend  with  enemies  both 
within  and  without  the  walls.  He  prevailed 
upon  the  two  violent  factions  into  which  the 
city  was  divided  to  unite,  and  act  in  concert  for 
the  public  good  :  and,  after  a  siege  of  three 
years,  during  which  the  people  had  suffered 
much  by  famine  and  disease,  he  obliged  the 
enemy  to  retire.  (\'ianoli's  History  of  Venice, 
torn.  i.  book  J 8,  20.)  Francis  Barbaro  died, 
regretted  by  liis  countrymen,  in  1454,  aged 
fifty-six  years.  His  Letters  were  collected  and 
printed  at  Brescia,  in  1743.  Bayle.  Aloreri. 
Tlrahoiihi. — E . 

BARCAkO,  Ermolao,  the  elder,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  an  early  and  diligent 
student  of  the  Greek  language,  and  at  twelve 
years  old  translated  many  of  Esop's  falles 
into  Latin.  Pope  Eiigenius,  his  fcliow-citircn, 
appointed  him  apostolic  proto-notarj-,  and,  at 


thirty  years  of  age,  advanced  him  to  the  epis- 
copal see  of  Trevigi,  fr(;m  which,  Cen  viar-. 
afterwards,  he  was  translated  to  that  of  Vyonn. 
He  died  at  Verona  in  1470,  sixty  years  of  age. 
He  left  translations  of  Greek  authors.  Tira- 
boich'i, — E. 

BARBARO,  Ermolao,  the  younger, 
grnmlson  of  Francis  Barbaro,  was  bora  in 
1454.  In  his  childhood  he  was  instructed  by 
his  uncle  the  bishop  of  Verona,  and  was  afie:'- 
wards  sent  to  Rome,  and  put  under  the  tui- 
tion of  Pomjwnio  Lcio.  At  fourteen  lie  had 
given  such  proofs  of  genius,  that  he  received 
Iroin  the  hand  of  the  emperor  Frederic  tlic 
poetic  Cloven.  At  sixteen  he  undcitook  the 
translation  of  Themistius,  which  he  puhlishid 
seven  yeais  afterwards.  In  tfie  school  of  Padua 
he  graduated  in  jurisprudence  and  pliilosophy. 
Returning  to  Venice,  he  enteral  upon  public 
life,  and  so  diligently  occupied  himself  in  the 
service  of  the  state,  as  almost  entirely  to  neo-'ctt 
his  favourite  studies.  He  resumed,  them,  iTow- 
ever,  after  an  interval  of  twelve  years,  with 
fresh  ardour.  The  study  of  the  'Greek  lan- 
guage was  his  particular  delight ;  and  to  diffuse 
this  branch  of  learning,  he  read  lectures  without 
gratuity,  in  his  own  house,  upon  Demosthenes, 
'I'heocritus,  and  Aristotle.  On  tlx.ve  occasions, 
iiis  doors  were  open  to  all  who  clicse  to  attend, 
and  his  lectures  were  so  much  frequented,  tliat 
few  Greek  masters  could  boast  of  m(jre  scholars. 
His  acquaintance  w  as  universally  sought  by  men 
of  letters,  and  the  grandson  had  scarcely  less 
authority  in  the  republic  of  letters,  than  the 
grandfather  in  the  .^tatc.  At  t!iirr\-two  years 
of  age,  l;e  was  .sent  eml)assador  to  the  emperor 
Frederic,  who,  in  addition  to  the  honour  he  had 
conferred  upon  him  eighteen  years  before,  now 
granted  him  that  of  knighthood.  Deputed  af- 
terwards on  an  emba  sy  from  the  slate  to  pope 
Innocent  VIII.  that  pontif  created  him  patiiarch 
of  Aquileia.  The  laws  of  \'enice  forbid  its 
ministers  to  receive  any  dignity,  temporal  or 
sjiiritual,  from  any  foreign  prince,  witliout  the 
consent  oi  the  republic.  Ermolao  overlooked 
or  forgot  this  prohibition,  and  accepted  the  pa- 
triarchate without  Soliciting  permission  from 
the  state.  The  Venetians  resented  this  neglect, 
and  pronounced  upon  him  a  sentence  of  j>cr- 
pctual  exile.  (Bembi  Hist.  Vcnet.  lit),  i.  p.  i8.) 
la  order  to  prevent  the  execution  of  this  sen- 
tence,  he  was  desirous  to  relinquish  ibr  pafi^r- 
chate,  but  the  pope  lefuscdto  a<  > 
elation.      From  this  time,   Erm  ; 

Rome.  The  plague  came  into  the  city:  the 
patriarch  withdrew  into  tlic  country :  but  ih.-it 
fatal  destroyer  pursued  him,  and  hurried  \\\m 


BAR 


(     556    ) 


BAR 


into    the    tomb  :    this   liappened    in    the   year 

I49.3- 

Having  lived  forty  years,  Hermolaus  (as  he  is 

usually  namal)  left  at  his  death  a  considerable 
number  of  works.  Besides  the  translation  of  Tlie- 
mistius,  already  mentioned, he  published  versions 
of  Dioscoridcs,  and  of  the  rhetoric  of  Aristotle  ; 
an  abridgment  of  the  moral  and  piiysical  doctrine 
of  that  philosopher;  two  large  works  uponPiiny; 
one  entitled  "Constifiitiones  Plinianje;"  the  other 
"  Constitutiones  Secundae ;"  "  Corrections  of 
Pomponius  Mela  ;"  and  an  "  E^xplanation  of 
the  moie  difficult  Words  in  Pliny."  He  boasted 
that  he  had  corrected  five  thousand  errors  which 
had  crept  into  the  text  of  Pliny,  and  three  hun- 
dred in  that  of  Mela.  He  made  equally  free, 
■with  other  authors,  and  he  has  been  accused  of 
dealing  too  freely  in  conjectures.  If  there  be 
some  ground  for  the  charge,  great  praise  is, 
notwithiStanding,  due  to  the  industry  and  inge- 
nuity wliich  he  employed  in  these  labours. 
Hermolaus  was  treated  with  great  respect  by 
the  illustrious  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  who,  upon 
his  visit  to  Florence,  on  an  embassy  from  the 
republic  of  Venice,  not  only  entertained  him 
with  great  magnificence,  but  offered  him  the 
use  of  his  villa  and  library  for  the  prosecution  of 
his  studies.  Hermolaus  is  certainly  entitled  to 
rank  in  the  first  class  of  learned  men,  at  a  pe- 
riod when  classical  learning  was  the  first,  and 
almost  the  sole  object  of  attention.  Nor  is  it 
any  depreciation  of  his  merit  as  a  scholar,  what- 
ever it  may  be  of  his  character  as  a  philosopher, 
if  the  whimsical  story  be  true,  that,  being  ex- 
ceedingly perplexed  concerning  the  meaning  of 
Aristodc's  Eyr;\aysia,—a.  term  which  has  per- 
haps never  been  understood — he  endeavoured, 
or  pretended,  to  consult  the  devil  upon  the  sub- 
ject. Gancr,  Bibl.  Bayle.  TWabosch'i. — E. 
BARBAROSSA,  Aruch,  the  son  of  a  re- 
negado  of  Lemnos,  or  of  Sicily,  whom  some 
make  a  pirate,  otliers  a  potter,  was  brought  up 
to  thetrade  of  piracy,  which  he  exercised  with 
such  success  on  the  coast  of  Barbary  against  the 
Christians,  that  in  a  few  years  he  was  at  the 
head  of  tvvelve  large  galleys,  manned  by  a  for- 
midable force  of  Turks.  He  engaged  in  va- 
lious  enterprises  on  this  coast  against  the  Chris- 
tians and  mountaineers,  and  rendered  his  name 
so  famous,  that  Selim  Entemi,  prince  of  the 
country  about  Algiers,  called  in  his  assist- 
ance again  ;t  the  Spaniards.  Being  admitted  into 
Algiers  \^ith  his  men,  he  caused  Selim  to  bo 
strangled  in  a  bath,  and  himself  to  be  solemnly 
proclaimed  king.  Here  he  reigned  with  the 
greatest  tyranny  ;  and  a  conspiracy  being  form- 
ed against  him  by   the  Arabs  to  revenge  the 


death  of  their  prince  and  their  own  wrongs,  oi\ 
its  detection  he  so  severely  chastised  his  new- 
subjects,  that  thev  never  again  dared  to  make  an 
attempt  against  him.  The  country  tribes,  dread- 
ing his  power,  afterwards  made  an  union  with 
the  king  of  Tunis,  who  marched  with  a  nume- 
rous army  into  the  teiritory  of  Algiers.  Bar- 
barossa  met  him  viith  a  small  body  of  Turks 
and  Moors,  totally  defeated  him,  and  pursuing 
him  to  the  very  gates  of  Tunis,  obliged  him  to 
take  refuge  in  the  mountains.  The  conqueror 
then  laid  siege  to  Tunis,  took  it,  and  caused 
himself  to  be  acknowledged  sovereign.  He  next 
marched  towards  Tremecen,  defeated  its  prince, 
and  was  admitted  by  the  people  into  the  capital, 
after  they  had  themselves  beheaded  their  fugitive 
.  king.  But  his  tyranny  soon  made  them  repent, 
and  they  attempted  to  expel  hiin,  but  without 
success.  The  next  heir  to  the  kingdom  of  Tre- 
mecen then  applied  for  aid  to  the  marquis  of 
Gomares,  governor  of  Oran  for  Charles  V. 
The  marquis,  by  order  of  his  master,  marched 
with  a  powerful  army  towards  Tremecen.  Bar- 
barossa  came  out  \yith  his  Turkish  infantry  and 
Moorish  horse,  with  an  intention  to  break 
through  the  enemy,  and  in  the  mean  time  the 
inhabitants  shut  their  gates  to  prevent  his  re- 
turn. Barbarossa  in  this  distress  retired  to  the 
citadel,  where  he  defended  himself  for  some 
time.  At  length,  his  provisions  failing,  he  is- 
sued forth  by  a  subterraneous  passage,  and  at- 
tempted to  make  his  escape.  He  was  discover- 
ed, and  in  order  to  check  the  pursuit,  he  scat- 
tered his  treasures  upon  the  road.  But  this  stra- 
tagem proved  ineffectual  to  stop  the  Spaniards, 
who  overtook  iiim  on  the  banks  of  the  Huexda, 
eight  leagues  from  Tremecen.  Here  Barba- 
rossa, fighting  like  a  lion  in  the  toils,  together 
with  all  his  Turks,  was  cut  to  pieces,  in  the 
forty-fourth  year  of  his  age,  1518.  Unlvers. 
Hist.— A. 

BARBAROSSA,  Hayradin,  the  younger 
brother  of  the  preceding,  who  had  accompanied 
him  to  Barbary,  and  was  left  to  secure  Algiers, 
on  the  death  of  Arucli  was  proclaimed  king  of 
that  place.  After  h.aving  held  the  government 
two  years,  he  found  such  an  odium  excited  a- 
gainst  him  and  his  officers,  from  their  tyranny 
and  oppression,  that  he  made  application  to  Se- 
lim, emperor  of  the  Turks,  with  an  offer  of  re- 
cognising his  superiority,  and  becoming  tribu- 
tary to  him,  provided  a  force  were  sent  him 
sufficient  to  maintain  his  authority.  Selim  rea- 
dily agreed  with  this  proposal,  invested  Hayra- 
din  with  the  dignity  of  viceroy  or  basha  over 
the  kingdom  of  Algiers,  and  sent  him  a  rein- 
forcemciit  of  tvyo  thousand  janissaries.  A  num- 


BAR 


( 


S3 


7 


B  A  R 


bcr  of  otlier  Turks  likewise  resorted  to  Algiers 
for  tlie  exercise  of  piracy  ;  so  that  he  soon 
found  himself  in  a  condition  to  secure  his  do- 
minion against  his  domestic  and  neighbouring 
enemies,  and  to  undertake  expeditious  against 
the  Christian  powers.  His  first  exploit  was  to 
drive  the  Spaniards  from  a  fort  they  possessed  in 
an  island  opposite  Algiers.  This,  after  a  fu- 
rious cannonade  of  a  fortnight,  he  effected. 
He  then  built  a  mole  for  the  improvement  of  the 
harbour,  and  strengthened  it  with  fortifications, 
so  as  to  render  Algiers  a  very  strong  and  com- 
modious port  ;  and  he  may  be  considered  as  the 
founder  ot  the  dangerous  power  that  scat  of  pi- 
racy has  ever  since  possessed.  Such  was'  his 
reputation  for  naval  and  military  talents,  that 
the  Turkish  emperor  Soliman  II.  appointed  him 
in  1533  captain  basha,  or  chief  commander  of 
his  fleet.  In  this  situation  he  distinguished  him- 
self beyond  most  of  the  admirals  of  his  time. 
He  ravaged  the  coast  of  Italy,  surprised  Fumli, 
and  was  near  taking  the  celebrated  beauty  Julia 
Gonzaga.  Next,  sailing  to  the  coast  of  Africa, 
he  made  himself  master  of  Biserta  and  Tunis  ; 
but  his  whole  fleet  at  this  place  was  destroyed, 
and  the  city  stormed,  by  Charles  V.  in  1536. 
Escaping  to  Algiers,  he  repaired  to  Constanti- 
nople, where  he  was  received  again  to  favour, 
and  sent  with  a  fleet  to  ravage  Calabria.  He 
then  persuaded  Soliman  to  make  war  upon  the 
Venetians  ;  and  he  committed  great  devastations 
in  the  isle  of  Corfu,  which,  however,  in  the 
end  resisted  the  Turkish  arms.  Afterwards  he 
made  an  expedition  to  the  coast  of  Arabia  Felix, 
where,  in  conjunction  with  the  general  Soliman 
basha,  he  reduced  all  Yeman  under  the  Turkish 
dominion.  \\'ar  again  breaking  out  between 
the  Turks  and  ^'"enetians,  Barbarossa  took  many 
islands  in  the  Archipelago.  On  tlic  surrender 
of  one  of  these  by  some  traitors,  who  had  mas- 
sacred their  brave  commander,  he  showed  his 
abhorrence  of  their  villany  by  ptmishing  them 
with  death.  He  crossed  over  to  Candiain  1538, 
and  attacked  Canea,  but  without  success. 
Thence  he  retired  to  tlie  Ambracian  gulf,  whore 
he  was  overtaken  by  the  Christian  fleet  under 
the  famous  Andrew  Doria.  By  his  skillul 
manceuvres  he  not  only  avoided  the  danger,  but 
in  a  partial  engngement  gained  some  advantages, 
and  caused  Doria  to  make  a  hasty  retreat  to 
Corfu.  In  1539  he  recovered  Castel  Nuovo, 
which  had  been  taken  by  the  confederates.  Soon 
after,  the  Venetians,  wearied  w  itli  tiie  ex|)enses 
of  the  war,  purchased  peace  of  Soliman. 

In  1543,  Francis  I.  having  made  a  league 
with  Soliman,  Barbarossa  lett  Constantinople 
with  a  powejful  fleet,  with  the  French  embas- 


sador on  board  ;  and  proceeding  to  the  Faro  of 
Messina,  took  Reggio,  and  sacked  tlie  coast 
of  Italy.  He  then,  in  conjunction  with  the 
French,  besieged  and  took  Nice;  but  the  cita- 
del was  succoured  by  tlie  marquis  del  Vasto. 
Doria  approaching  with  his  fleet,  Barbarossa 
avoided  l.im  ;  and  indeed  these  n^vo  great  conf- 
manders  do  not  seem  at  any  time  to  have  bcca 
very  desirous  of  fairly  trying  each  other** 
strength.  Baibarcssa  remained  in  those  sen 
during  the  winter,  refitted  at  Toulon,  and  next 
sjiring,  after  ravaging  the  coasts  and  islands  of 
Italy,  returned  with  many  prisoners  to  C..11- 
staiitiiiople.  At  the  isle  of  Elba  he  demanded 
the  restoration  of  the  sou  of  his  old  friend  Si- 
nan  the  ]c\v,  detained  there  as  a  prisoner,  and 
obtained  it  by  foicc  ;  but  the  unexpected  sii;ht 
of  the  youth  had  such  an  eflcct  upon  the  fatiier, 
that  he  died  in  his  embraces. 

r-'roin  this  time  Barbarossa  seems  to  have  re- 
mained at  home,  superintending  the  naval  at- 
fairs  of  the  grand  signior,  and  to  have  rnm- 
mitted  more  active  services  to  Dragut,  and  the 
younger  commanders.  He  indulged  himself  ia 
the  voluptuous  life  to  which  he  had  been  accus- 
toined,  amid  a  number  of  fair  captives,  and 
died  at  the  age  of  eighty,  in  1547,  leaving  his 
son  Hassan  in  possession  of  the  vicerovaity  of 
Algiers,  and  heir  to  all  his  pro[>cnv.  VVitlithe 
ferocity  of  a  Turk  and  a  corsair,  Barbarossa 
possessed  some  generous  sciiti.ments,  and  ob- 
tained a  character  for  honour  and  fidelity  to  liij 
engagements.  Paiuta,  Hat.  J'auz.  Univers. 
Hist.—h. 

BARBERINO,  Francis  da,  one  of  the 
early  Italian  poets,  was  born  in  1264  ^^  Bar- 
berino,  a  castle  of  Valdessa,  ai'.d  was  brought 
up  to  the  profession  of  civil  and  canon  law, 
wliich  he  studied  at  Padua  and  Bologna.  He 
appears  to  have  acted  as  a  noiary  in  the  latter 
city  in  1294,  whence  he  removed  to  norcnce. 
Here  hesjrved  two  bisliops  in  his  legal  capacity, 
and  made  various  journeys  to  the  papal  court  at 
Avignon.  Clement  V.  honoured  him  with  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  laws  ;  and  he  was  present 
at  the  general  council  of  Vieniic  in  131 1.  His 
professional  jnirsuits,  however,  did  not  deprive 
-iiiin  of  leisure  to  cultivate  poetry,  of  which  he 
gave  proof  by  a  work,  entitled  "  Document! 
d'Amorc."  fhis  i'.  not,  as  might  be  supj>oscel, 
an  amorous  performance,  but  a  treatise  ot  mo- 
ral philosophy,  divided  into  twelve  parts,  catli 
of  which  treats  of  some  viriu'.'  or  its  icwards. 
Its  style  does  not  e\i  el  in  ease  or  clo'-  .mcc,  anJ 
savours  too  much  of  the  provcn^al  iV'^try  ;   yet 


tlie  author  is  reckoned  x 


tod 


and   founders   of   t!ic   laii^tM/c.     It   was  first 


BAR 


(    55^    ) 


BAR 


printed  at  Rome  in  1640,  adorned  with  fine 
figures.  Earii^rino  wrote  another  work  in 
verse,  on  t;ic  manners  of  women,  of  wliich  a 
MS.  is  preserved  in  tlie  Vatican.  He  died  of 
the  plague  at  Florence,  in  1348,  aged  eighty- 
four.      Tnaboschi. — A. 

BARBEYRAC,  Charles,  a  very  eminent 
physician  in  France  during  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, was  the  son  of  a  gentleman  of  Ccrcste, 
in  Provence.  He  studied  physic  at_Aix  and 
Montpellier,  and  in  the  last  university  was  ad- 
mitted to  his  doctor's  degree  in  1649.  H<^  ^^^' 
tied  at  Montpellier  ;  and  on  a  va-cancy  in  the 
medical  professorship  in  1658,  though  incapa- 
ble of  jiolding  the  office  as  being  a  protestant, 
he  became  a  candidate,  in  order  to  display  his 
knowledge,  and  acquired  great  credit  in  the  dis- 
putations. His  practice  and  reputation  soon 
arose  to  an  extraordinary  height,  and  he  was 
consulted  in  difficult  cases  from  various  parts  of 
the  kingdom,  and  from  foreign  countries.  Ma- 
demoiselle d'Orleans  would  gladly  have  engaged 
him  as  her  physician,  but  he  preferred  his  li- 
berty to  the  shackles  of  a  court.  He  was  ac- 
companied in  his  medical  visits  at  Montpellier 
by  a  number  of  the  students  in  the  university 
there,  to  whom  he  gave  the  most  valuable  cli- 
nical instructions.  His  practice  was  novel  from 
its  simplicity  and  energy,  his  success  was  asto- 
nishing, and  he  introduced  many  important  re- 
forms in  medicine  in  that  country.  He  was  in 
a  high  degree  charitable  and  disinterested,  and 
visited  equally  the  poor  and  the  rich.  The  ce- 
lebrated Locke,  who  was  particularly  acquaint- 
ed with  him  at  Montpellier,  said  that  he  never 
knew  two  men  more  similar  in  their  manners 
ami  opinions  than  Barbeyrac,  and  his  friend 
Sydenham.  After  an  uninterrupted  course  of 
practice  for  fifty  years,  he  died  of  a  fever  in 
i6gg,  in  his  seventieth  year,  leaving  a  son  of 
liis  own  profession,  and  two  daughters.  So  great 
and  fatiguing  was  his  employment,  that  he  had 
no  time  to  enrich  the  art  with  his  mature  obser- 
vations ;  and  the  only  works  he  published  were, 
"  Traites  nouveau  de  Medicine,  contenant  les 
Maladies  de  la  Poitrine  des  Femmes,  etquelques 
autres  Maladies  selon  les  nouvelles  Opinions," 
l2mo.  1654;  and  "  Questiones  m.edicae  duo- 
decim,"  410.  i6^%.  A  work,  entitled  "  Me- 
dicamentorum  Constitutio,"  &:c.  published  in 
1751,  is  attributed  to  him  upon  uncertain  au- 
thority, according  to  the  editor,  M.  Farjon. 
Mora-!.      Hallcr.'^  Bibl  Med.  Pract. — A. 

BARBEYRAC,  John,  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  horn  in  1674  at  Beziers,  whence, 
wit'!  nis  fatiier,  i.e  wit;idrpvv  to  Lausanr.e  in 
1^86.     He  was  originally  designed  for  the  pro- 


fession of  theology  ;  but  his  inclination  led  hi;a 
to  the  study  of  jurisprudence,  particularly  that 
branch  of  it  which  relates  to  the  law  of  nature 
and  nations,  in  wliich  he  became  very  eminent. 
He  first  taught  the  belles  lettres  in  the  FrerNrli 
college  at  Berlin  ;  whence  he  was  invited,  in 
17 10,  to  occupy  the  new  professorship  of  law 
and  history,  founded  at  Lausanne  by  the  magi- 
strates of  Berne.  At  tliis  university  he  remain- 
ed seven  years,  during  which  he  was  twice  rec- 
tor. In  1717  his  reputation  caused  him  to  be 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  public  and  private  law 
at  Groningen,  which  he  long  filled  with  gene- 
ral applause.  He  displayed  his  industry  and 
erudition  by  various  works  of  great  labour  and 
value.  He  gave  a  translation  in  F'rcnch  of  Puf- 
fendorf's  "  Law  of  Nature  and  Nations,"  and 
his  treatise  "  On  the  J^u.ies  of  a  Man  and  a 
Citizen  ;"  and  on  "  Grotius  on  the  Rights  of 
War  and  Peace."  These  he  enriched  with 
learned  prefaces  and  notes,  which  greatly  added 
to  the  value  of  the  originals.  He  likewise  trans- 
lated two  discourses  of  Noodt,  "  Onthe  Power 
of  the  Sovereign;"  and  "  On  Liberty  of  Con- 
science ;"  a  treatise  of  Bynkershoek's  "Onthe 
civil  and  crhninal  Powers  of  Embassadors  ;" 
some  of  Tillotson's  "  Sermons;"  and  Cum- 
berland's Latin  Treatise  "  On  Natural  Laws." 
This  last  was  one  of  his  latest  publications,  arid 
his  notes  on  it  are  peculiarly  valuable.  Bar- 
beyrac was  also  the  author  of  several  original 
works.  Of  these,  none  was  so  much  talked  of 
as  his  "  Treatise  on  the  Morality  of  the  Fa- 
thers," 4to.  1728;  a  work  meant  as  a  re])ly  to 
Dom.  Ceillier,  the  Benedictine's,  "  Apology  for 
the  Fathers,"  written  ten  years  before,  in  con- 
sequence of  Barbeyrac's  free  strictures  on  them 
in  his  preface  to  the  translation  of  PufFendorf. 
The  great  liberty  of  his  criticism  on  the  elo- 
quence, logic,  and  moral  maxims  of  these  ve- 
nerable writers,  gave  much  offence  to  those 
who  were  accustomed  to  bow  to  the  autliority 
of  great  names  and  high  pretensions,  and  sub- 
jected the  author  to  the  suspicion  of  infidelity — 
a  suspicion  which  he  appears  no  more  to  have 
merited,  than  so  many  other  undoubtedly  pious 
and  sincere  champions  of  reason  and  free  in- 
quiry. Other  original  works  of  Barbeyrac  are, 
"  A  Treatise  on  Gaming,"  two  volumes,  8vo. 
1709  ;  "  A  Defence  of  the  Rights  of  the  Dutch 
East- India  Company  against  the  Pretensions  of 
the  People  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands,"  1725  ; 
and  "  The  History  of  ancient  Treaties  dis- 
persed in  Greek  and  Latin  Authors  to  the  Time 
of  Charlemagne,"  folio,  two  parts,  1739.  He 
also  inserted  hterary  and  critical  remarks  on  va- 
rious topics,  indifferent  journals ;  and  published 


BAR 


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some  academical  discourses.  This  very  learned  leans,  ranks  amon^  the  dramatic  writers  of 
and  mdustrious  writer,  who  also  bore  the  cha-  France.  She  wrote  some  tragedies,  and  a  co- 
racter  of  a  man  of  worth,  died  about  1747.  medy  in  verse,  which  were  reprcsenied  at  Paris, 
Moreri.      Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.—h.  and  printed.     Thev  are  regular,  and  tlic  sub- 

BARBILR  D'AUCOUR,  John,  a  coun-  jccts  well  chosen  ;  but  the  characters  (especially 
seller,  and  man  of  letters,  was  born,  in  1641,  of  the  men)  arc  without  forte,  ai-l  the  stvle  is 
of  mean  parentage,  at  Lan^^rcs,  and  received  dilFu.se  uud  prosaic.  Mademoiselle  BurliiL-r  was 
his  acadcniicul  c-ducation  at  Dijon.  Coming  to  intimate  with  the  abbe  Pellegrini,  who  bestow- 
Paris,  he  entered  at  the  bar,  and  was  admitted  ed  coriection,  if  notlmig  more,  on  her  works, 
a  counsdlor  of  the  p:irliament  of  Paris.  He  She  died  in  an  advance.!  age  at  Paris,  about  the 
distinguished  himsilf  by  the  cxttlk-nce  of  his  year  I745.  Alorcri.  Kouv.  Diet.  //;'j/.— A. 
factums,  or  written  pleas;  bur  having  stopt  BARBOSA,  Arias,  or  Ayres,  a  native 
short,  through  want  of  memory,  or  presence  of  A  veiro,  in  Portugal,  distinguished  himself  as 
ot  mind,  at  his  first  public  pleading,  he  re-  one  of  the  restorers  of  classical  literature  iii  his 
nounced  the  practice. of  his  profession.  The 
minister  Colbert,  apprised  of  his  merit,  made 
him  in  1677  preceptor  to  his  eldest  son;  and  in 
1683  liv  was  elccied  into  the  French  academy. 
Colbert  gave  him  some  lucrative  employments  ; 
but  the  deatii  of  that  minister  left  liim  destitute 
of  a  patron,  and  very  little  advanced  in  his  for- 
tune.     He  therefore  returned   to  the  bar,  and 


native  country  and  Spain.  After  an  university 
education  at  Salamanca,  where  he  found  little 
cause  to  be  satisfied  witii  the  state  of  literature, 
he  went  to  Italy,  and  studied  at  Florence  under 
Angclo  Poliziano.  Here  he  made  great  pro- 
gress in  Greek,  which  then  began  to  be  culti- 
vated with  ardour;  and  returning  to. Spain  in 
1494,  he  tauglrl  at  Salamanca  for  twcntv  vears, 
acquired  a  high  reputation  from  his  gratuitous  along  with  Antony  de  Lcbiixa,  who,  with  An- 
defence  of  Ic  Biun,  tlie  domestic  of  a  lady  of  drew  dc  Resenda,  was  also  one  of  the  priniipal 
Palis,  falsely  accused  of  murdering  his  misticss.  ])romoters  of  sound  learning  in  Spain.  Barbos.! 
He  did  not,  liowever,  live  to  enjoy  tlie  fruits  of  chiefly  attended  to  the  improvement  of  the  po- 
his  fame,  beir.g  carried  off  by  an  inflammation  etical  taste,  and  he  published  a  small  voluir.c  of 
of  his  lungs  in  1694.  Such  were  his  circum-  Latin  poems,  which  were  commended  for  the 
stances,  that  when  a  de]:^utation  of  his  brethren  harmonious  structure  of  the  verse.  Hewasaf- 
of  the  academy,  paying  him  a  visit  in  his  last  terwards  invited  to  the  court  of  Portugal,  to  un- 
illness,  expressed  their  concern  at  finding  him  dertake  the  oflice  of  preceptor  to  the  t\\<»  princes 
so  ill  lodged,  "  It  is  my  consolation  (said  Bar-  Alphonso  and  Henry.  He  exercised  this  em- 
bier),  and  a  very  great  one,  that  I  leave  no  heir  plovment  seven  years,  and  then  retired  to  a  do- 
to  my  vMetchedness."  Barbier  was  early  em-  mestic  life,  in  which  he  died  at  an  advanced  age 
broiled  with  the  Jesuits,  the  occasion  of  uhich  in  1540.  Barbosa  published  several  works  l>c- 
is  said  to  have  been  the  nickname  which  they  sides  the  poems  above-mentioned ;  as  "  Corn- 
fixed  upon  him  of  counsellor  Sacnis,  in  con-  mentaries  on  the  Poem  of  Arator ;"  "  Quodli- 
sequence  of  his  having  inadvertently  used  that  hetica-  Qi^iestiones  ;"  "  De  Prosodia,"  &:c.  now 
word  instead  of  sacer,  in  a  reply  he  made  to  forgotten,  but  valuable  at  their  tiiiic,  as  lacili- 
one  of  them.  Resentment  led  him  to  single  out  tating  the  progress  of  literature.  BmlUt.  Afi- 
the  sccicrv  and  its  writeis  as  the  objects  of  his     rcri. — A. 

attacks  ;  nr.d  he  gained  great  credit  as  an  inge-  BARBOSA.  Petf.R,  a  celebrated  lawyer, 
nious  critic  by  his  "  Sentimens  de  Cleanthc  sur  was  born  r.t  Viana,  in  Portugal,  and  lose  1'." 
les  Eiuretiens  d'Aiiste  et  d'Eugene,  par  le  Pcrc  his  iv.erit  to  he  fiist  professor  in  the  university  of 
Bouhours,  Jesuite,"  i2mo.  two  vols.  1671,  Coimbra.  Don  Sebastian  made  him  a  counscl- 
72.  This  has  often  been  quoted  as  a  model  of  lor  in  tl.o  sovereign  court  of  Lisbon ;  and  Phi- 
refined  criticism,  equally  just  and  witty  ;  and  lip  II.  of  Spain,  when  he  became  nwster  of 
Bouhours  could  not  support  himself  against  it.  Portugal,  create-d  him  one  of  the  four  counsel - 
A  number  of  other  pieces  written  by  Barbier  lors  of  the  council  of  state,  and  afterware's 
against  the  Jesuits  coi  sist  of  littk-  i.ie.re  than  chancellor  of  t!ie  kingdom.  These  ^rctx  cm- 
coarse  lailleiy,  and  did  him  1.0  honi'ur.  He 
wrote  two  satires  in  verse  agaiiist  Racine,  but 
he  did  not  succeed  in  this  mode  of  eompi  sition. 
Besides  his  factums  for  Ic  Brun,  whitii  arc 
greatly  esteemed,  he  pidilished  some  others. 
Aloro'i.     Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. — A. 

liAKJJlER,  Marianne,  a  native  of  Or- 


plovs  did  not  prevent  him  from  ct'ntn 
professional  studies  ;  and  in  1595  he  , 
an  ample  commentary  on  the  ariicie  m  the 
"  Digests"  on  the  recovery  of  tlowry  after  th; 
dissolution  of  marri.i^e.  He  died  not  long  afr 
ter,  and  left  some  MS.  woiks  to  tV.e  care  of  a. 
nephew,  who,  iu    1613,    published   bil    coits- 


BAR 


(     560    ) 


BAR 


mcntaries  on  the  "Digests,"  art.  "  On  Judge- 
ments," which  were  so  well  received,  as  to  be 
reprinted  at  Frankfort  in  17  15.  Other  posthu- 
mous treatises  of  his  were  published  at  Lyons 
in  1662.     Moreri. — A. 

BARBOSA,  Emanuel,  an  eminent  Por- 
tuguese lawyer,  born  at  Guimaranes,  was  king's 
counsellor  for  the  province  of  Alentejo.  In 
1618  he  published  a  treatise  relative  to  contracts, 
last  wills,  and  crimes,  according  to  the  Portu- 
guese and  Spanish  law.  In  163S  he  published 
a  work,  "  De  Potestate  Episcopi ;"  and  in  that 
year  he  died,  aged  near  ninety.     AJorcr't. — A. 

BARBOSA,  AuGusTiN,  son  of  the  former, 
studied  civil  and  canon  law  under  his  father, 
and  afterwards  at  Rome,  where  he  passed  the 
days  in  libraries,  and  the  nights  in  composing. 
A  story  is  told  of  him,  that  having  one  day  sent 
his  servant  to  buy  some  salt-fish,  it  was  brought 
back  in  a  sheet  of  manuscript  relative  to  the 
canon  law ; — that  Barbosa  instantly  went  and 


rescued  from  a  similar  use  the  rest  of  the  vo- 
lume, which  was  nearly  complete,  and  formed 
the  work  "  De  Officio  Episcopi,"  wl:ich  he 
corrected  and  published  in  his  own  name.  A 
similar  prejudice  against  him  caused  the  earlier 
of  several  other  treatises  of  canon  law  which 
he  published,  to  be  attributed  to  his  father,  on 
the  ground  of  their  being  much  more  solid  than 
his  later  ones.  He  seems,  however,  to  have 
undoubtedly  been  a  very  studious  man,  and  on 
his  return  to  Spain  in  1632  he  passed  nearly  the 
same  life  at  Madrid  that  he  had  done  at  Rome. 
He  occupied  himself  in  the  determination  of  ec- 
clesiastical Causes,  his  skill  in  which  occasioned 
his  promotion  in  1648  ty  the  bishopric  of  Ugen- 
to,  in  the  territory  of  Otranto.  He  was  con- 
secrated at  Rome  the  next  year,  and  then  re- 
moved to  Ugento  with  the  intention  of  devot- 
ing liimself  to  the  duties  of  his  office  ;  but  he 
died   here  within  a  few  months.     Moreri. — A. 


END  OF  THE  FIRST  VOLUME. 


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